Charles (John Huffam) Dickens

Transcription

1 Overview - Charles Dickens Charles (John Huffam) Dickens Major Authors and Illustrators for Children and Young Adults, 2002 Updated: April 27, 2004 Born: February 07, 1812 in Portsmouth, United Kingdom Died: June 09, 1870 in Gad's Hill, United Kingdom Other Names: Dickens, Charles John Huffam; Boz Nationality: British Occupation: Novelist Novelist, journalist, court reporter, editor, and amateur actor. Editor of London Daily News, 1846; founder and editor of Household Words, , and of All the Year Round, ; presented public readings of his works, beginning Born February 7, 1812, in Portsmouth, England; died of a paralytic stroke, at Gad's Hill, Kent, England, June 18, 1870; buried in Poet's Corner of Westminster Abbey; son of John (a clerk in the Navy Pay Office) and Elizabeth (Barrow) Dickens; married Catherine Hogarth, April, 1836; children: ten. Education: Taught at home by mother; attended a Dame School at Chatham for a short time, and Wellington Academy in London; further educated by reading widely in the British Museum. Charles Dickens, the most widely read Victorian novelist, is now appreciated more for his "dark" novels than for his humorous works. Albert Borowitz, writing in the Dictionary of Literary Biography, said that, since 1950, more has been written each year about Dickens than about any other English author except William Shakespeare. Dickens was born in 1812 on the outskirts of Port-sea (now part of Portsmouth), England, in a lower middle-class family, where his father was employed in the Navy Pay Office. (Later, Dickens would satirize his father's improvidence in the character of Micawber in David Copperfield. ) While he was still quite young, the family was transferred to Chatham, where Charles spent what were probably the happiest years of his life. Here he discovered books, and was taken to the theater at an early age. He was a lonely boy who found his company in books and his amusement in impersonating his favorite characters. Dickens had a brief schooling in Chatham before the navy moved the family to London. When Dickens was twelve years old, his family fell on hard times and he was put to work in a blacking warehouse, pasting labels on bottles of shoe-blacking. Here, he mingled with boys and men of the working class, experiencing and observing the devastating results of poverty. Due to this experience, as an adult he became the most outspoken and influential proponent of the lower classes in his era. Although this employment lasted only a short while, it was a hard time for the young boy. Adding to the trauma of this experience, his father was incarcerated in the Marshalsea debtors' prison and, when the rest of his family moved in with his father, Dickens was forced to live alone in a rented room nearby, continuing to work to help support the family. Here he was often lonesome and hungry, but he did meet many boys who later served as models for his fictional characters. The episode lasted only a few weeks, but it made a deep impression. In a biographical sketch of Dickens in the

2 Encyclopedia of World Biography, the contributer wrote: "This experience of lonely hardship was the most significant formative event of his life; it colored his view of the world in profound and varied ways and is directly or indirectly described in a number of his novels, including The Pickwick Papers, Oliver Twist, and Little Dorrit, as well as David Copperfield.... In a fragmentary autobiography Dickens wrote, 'It is wonderful to me how I could have been so easily cast away at such an age.... My father and mother were quite satisfied.... My whole nature was so penetrated with grief and humiliation of such considerations, that even now, famous and caressed and happy, I often forget in my dreams that I have a dear wife and children; even that I am a man; and wander desolately back to that time of my life.'" However, the experience gave him a determination to succeed. J. B. Priestly wrote in his biography Charles Dickens that "it was the feeling of being thrust, uncared for, in a dark blind alley that wounded him so deeply," and "much of the darkness in Dickens comes from this time." Dickens spent the next three years at Wellington House Academy, where he rose to the head of his class. His experiences in school later gave him the basis for many of the chapters of David Copperfield. While in school he learned shorthand and started writing items called "penny-a-line stuff," which he sent to the British Press. He spent his free time reading books in the British Museum, becoming familiar with the works of the popular novelists who had preceded him. Dickens next became an office boy for a firm of solicitors, absorbing much atmosphere and background. There he developed his shorthand skills so well that he became a freelance reporter, excelling at reporting court proceedings and parliamentary debates. Dickens had always loved the theater, and while still working as a reporter prepared himself for a stage audition, but he became ill the day it was scheduled and never reapplied. However, he wrote many plays and dramatic pieces, and in later years he used his talent in his amateur theatrical performances and public readings from his books. When he was twenty-one, Dickens submitted his first sketch for publication. "A Dinner at Poplar Walk" appeared in Monthly Magazine in January, The author was overcome with emotion, but he received no payment for his work until he established his literary credentials. In 1836 his periodical contributions were collected and printed as Sketches by Boz. The collection was well received and started him on his lifetime career. In 1834 Dickens had become friendly with a fellow journalist, George Hogarth. On the strength of his literary success, Dickens married Hogarth's daughter, Kate, in Their marriage produced ten children, but eventually ended in a separation in When he was twenty-four, Dickens was asked to write a series of sketches to accompany illustrations of humorous sporting scenes by artist Robert Seymour. He responded with monthly installments of The Posthumous Papers of the Pickwick Club, (or Pickwick Papers), which soon became more popular than the pictures. This series was probably the favorite of the Victorian audience, and was beloved in America and Russia. Actually, according to the Encyclopedia of World Biography, "The entire form of serial publication became a standard method of writing and producing fiction in the Victorian period and affected the literary methods of Dickens and other novelists. So great was Dickens' success with the procedure--summed up in the formula, 'Make them laugh; make them cry; make them wait'--that Pickwick became one of the most popular works of the time, continuing to be so

3 after it was published in book form in 1837." In 1836 Dickens wrote the libretto for a comic opera, The Village Coquettes, which was performed and well received. The next year he published the first of twenty-four monthly installments of Oliver Twist. Fascinated with crime even as a youngster, Dickens would have his nurse read him bedtime stories of murderers and criminals, and he based many fictional characters on real-life law-breakers. As he matured he developed a strong sense of social responsibility relating to crime and punishment. He wrote Oliver to serve his reformist purposes, attacking the "poor laws" and city slums that bred criminals and crime. Some readers objected; instead of the light-hearted fun of Pickwick there was shock at the brutality and crime. As noted in Encyclopedia of World Biography, "Oliver expresses Dickens's interest in the life of the slums to the fullest, as it traces the fortunes of an innocent orphan through the London streets. It seems remarkable today that this novel's fairly frank treatment of criminals like Bill Sikes, prostitutes like Nancy, and 'fences' like Fagin could have been acceptable to the Victorian reading public. But so powerful was Dickens's portrayal of the 'little boy lost' amid the lowlife of the East End that the limits of his audience's tolerance were gradually stretched." While some readers objected to Dickens' new-found social voice, preferring instead the easy fun of Pickwick, Oliver and the installment system of publishing it were very successful. From that time all of Dickens' novels were first published in monthly installments. Readers could hardly wait for the next issue to appear--and the author had to stick to the job to have it ready in time. Dickens was now embarking on a career that would be one of the most consistently successful writing careers of the nineteenth century. These works were followed by Nicholas Nickleby and The Old Curiosity Shop, in which the story of Little Nell had readers standing in the streets to grab the next issue as soon as it appeared. Priestly told how in America "crowds waiting for the ship from England at the pier in New York cried to the sailors, 'Is Little Nell dead?,' and then America wept." In 1842 Charles and Kate sailed to America, leaving their ten children with friends. They made an extensive tour, south to Virginia and then west to St. Louis by riverboat. Priestly notes that Dickens "had the greatest welcome that probably any visitor to American has ever had." During this time the author wrote nothing but letters home; on this trip he came to see and be seen, not to lecture. He was strongly opposed to slavery, openly supporting abolition and other reforms. Upon returning to England he wrote American Notes, a pointed and critical expose of the cultural backwardness and aggressive materialism he saw entrenched in U.S. culture. American Notes is his report on his travels. Later he wrote Martin Chuzzlewit to reflect his experiences in and disillusionment with the United States. This book failed to meet public approval, so Dickens took another subject, and wrote a story about selfishness. A Christmas Carol was the first of his Christmas books, and probably his best known; it has been presented in many different ways: on the stage, as a film, and in annual showings on television. In 1849 Dickens took his family to Italy, where they traveled extensively, but he found work there difficult because of the noise of all the bells. However, he used this as a basis for a new Christmas book, The Chimes, and then returned home to give a reading of it in London. However, he neglected his writing at this time to become involved in amateur theatricals, acting and stage managing the whole production. He then began a newspaper called The Daily News, of which he became editor. He quickly tired of this responsibility, and, turning the paper over to a friend, took his family to Switzerland. There he began Dombey and Son, but soon put it aside to write his next annual Christmas book.

4 In 1850 Dickens started working as editor and publisher of a weekly paper called Household Words. This eventually became All the Year Round. He also began publishing some of his own books. Then, in 1851, Dickens' father and one of his daughters died within two weeks of each other--events that deeply affected him. Bleak House, Hard Times, Little Dorrit, and Our Mutual Friend were created during this phase of Dickens' career, partly in response to his losses. The writer for the Encyclopedia of World Biography noted that "these 'dark' novels... rank among the greatest triumphs of the art of fiction. The first of these, Bleak House ( ), has perhaps the most complicated plot of any English novel, but the narrative twists serve to create a sense of the interrelationship of all segments of English society. Indeed, it has been maintained that this network of interrelations is the true subject of the novel, designed to express Thomas Carlyle's view that 'organic filaments' connect every member of society with every other member of whatever class. The novel provides, then, a chastening lesson to social snobbery and personal selfishness." In a Library Journal review of the audio-cassette version of the novel, Jo Carr wrote: "This may be one of the most Dickensian novels Dickens ever wrote." Dickens ultimately bought Gad's Hill in Chatham, a house he had admired as a child. In 1857 he experienced the beginning of a personal crisis when, after many years in an incompatible marriage, he fell in love with actress Ellen Ternan. He eventually separated from his wife, who took their oldest daughter with her. Dickens and the other eight children remained at Gad's Hill, while he provided another home for the Ternan family. His relationship with Ternan, kept secret throughout his lifetime, was not revealed until publication of Dickens and Daughter in In 1859 Dickens published A Tale of Two Cities and seventeen articles, which appeared as a book in 1860 titled The Uncommercial Traveller. Dickens next tried giving professional public readings from his own books; he eventually appeared all over England and even in America, where he was immensely popular. These readings amounted to one-man theatrical productions and demanded a great deal of energy, and he continued to do them in spite of failing health and depression. Priestly said he "aged fast during these years" and "was warned he must stop the readings and work quietly in his study." He continued to drive himself until the spring of 1870, when he finally retired from public readings to work on his final book, The Mystery of Edwin Drood, which Borowitz described as "his only pure mystery novel." Unfortunately, Dickens' untimely death from a stroke when only six installments had been written left the work a mystery for future readers to puzzle over. Dickens had wished for a quiet funeral and burial in a little local graveyard, but public opinion demanded he be buried in Westminster Abbey, where thousands passed his grave and for months heaped fresh flowers on his tombstone. In a biographical essay in Authors and Artists for Young Adults, the writer noted Dickens' death elicited Henry Longfellow to comment that he had "never known an author's death to cause such general mourning," and England's Thomas Carlyle to write: "It is an event world-wide, a unique of talents suddenly extinct." The day after his death, the newspaper Dickens once edited, the London Daily News, reported that Dickens had been "emphatically the novelist of his age. In his pictures of contemporary life posterity will read, more clearly than in contemporary records, the character of nineteenth century life." Writings

5 The Life and Adventures of Nicholas Nickleby, Chapman & Hall (London, England), , Buccaneer (Cutchogue, NY), Sketches of Young Gentlemen, Dedicated to the Young Ladies, Chapman & Hall (London, England), 1838, Classic Books (Murrieta, CA), Sketches of Young Couples, with an Urgent Remonstrance to the Gentle of England (Being Bachelors or Widowers), on the Present Alarming Crisis, Chapman & Hall (London, England), 1840, Classic Books (Murrieta, CA), The Old Curiosity Shop, Chapman & Hall (London, England), 1841, published as Master Humphrey's Clock, Lea & Blanchard (Philadelphia, PA), 1841, reprinted, Buccaneer (Cutchogue, NY), Barnaby Rudge: A Tale of the Riots of 'Eighty, Chapman & Hall (London, England), 1841, Classic Books (Murrieta, CA), American Notes for General Circulation, Chapman & Hall (London, England), 1842, Harper (New York, NY), 1842, reprinted, Penguin (New York, NY), The Life and Adventures of Martin Chuzzlewit, Chapman & Hall (London, England), , Harper (New York, NY), 1844, reprinted, Classic Books (Murrieta, CA), A Christmas Carol, in Prose: Being a Ghost Story of Christmas, Chapman & Hall (London, England), 1843, Carey & Hart (Philadelphia, PA), 1844, original manuscript printed, Dover (New York, NY), 1971, reprinted, Classic Books (Murrieta, CA), The Chimes: A Goblin Story of Some Bells That Rang an Old Year out and a New Year In, Chapman & Hall (London, England), 1845, reprinted with A Christmas Carol, Harper & Rowe (New York, NY), 1965, reprinted under original title, Classic Books (Murrieta, CA), Pictures from Italy, Bradbury & Evans (London, England), 1846, Ecco Press (New York, NY), 1988, published as Travelling Letters: Written on the Road, Wiley & Putnam (New York, NY), 1846, reprinted under original title, Classic Books (Murrieta, CA), The Cricket on the Hearth: A Fairy Tale of Home, Bradbury & Evans (London, England), 1846, Harper (New York, NY), 1846, reprinted, Classic Books (Murrieta, CA), The Battle of Life: A Love Story, Wiley & Putnam (New York, NY), 1847, reprinted, Classic Books (Murrieta, CA), Dealings with the Firm of Dombey and Son, Wholesale, Retail, and for Exportation, Bradbury & Evans (London, England), , Wiley & Putnam (New York, NY), , reprinted, Oxford University Press (New York, NY), The Haunted Man and the Ghost's Bargain: A Fancy for Christmas-time, Bradbury & Evans (London, England), 1848, Althemus (Philadelphia, PA), 1848, reprinted, Dutton (New York, NY), 1907, reprinted, Classic Books (Murrieta, CA), The Personal History of David Copperfield, Bradbury & Evans (London, England), , Lea & Blanchard (Philadelphia, PA), 1851, reprinted, Time Warner Libraries (New York, NY), A Child's History of England, Bradbury & Evans (London, England), , Lea & Blanchard (Philadelphia, PA), 1851, reprinted, Classic Books (Murrieta, CA), Bleak House, Bradbury & Evans (London, England), , Harper (New York, NY), 1853, reprinted, Buccaneer (Cutchogue, NY), Hard Times: For These Times, Bradbury & Evans (London, England), 1854, Barrons (Hauppauge, NY), 1985, third edition of the Norton Critical Edition, edited by Fred Kaplan and Sylvere Monod, W.W. Norton (New York, NY), Little Dorrit, Bradbury & Evans (London, England), , Peterson (Philadelphia, PA), 1857, reprinted, Buccaneer (Cutchogue, NY), A Tale of Two Cities, Chapman & Hall (London, England), 1859, Peterson (Philadelphia, PA), 1859, reprinted, Random House (New York, NY), Great Expectations, Chapman & Hall (London, England), 1861, Peterson (Philadelphia, PA), 1861, reprinted, Barnes & Noble Books (New York, NY), The Uncommercial Traveller, Chapman & Hall (London, England), 1861, Sheldon, 1865,

6 reprinted, Classic Books (Murrieta, CA), Our Mutual Friend, Chapman & Hall (London, England), , Harper (New York, NY), 1865, reprinted, Buccaneer (Cutchogue, NY), Hunted Down: A Story with Some Account of Thomas Griffiths Wainewright, The Poisoner, Hotten, 1870, Peterson (Philadelphia, PA), 1870, reprinted, Classic Books (Murrieta, CA), The Mystery of Edwin Drood, Chapman & Hall (London, England), 1870, Fields, Osgood (Boston, MA), 1870, with conclusion by Leon Garfield, Pantheon (New York, NY), 1980, reprinted, NTC Publishing (Lincolnwood, IL), A Child's Dream of a Star, Fields, Osgood (Boston, MA), 1871, reprinted, Classic Books (Murrieta, CA), Is She His Wife? or Something Singular: A Comic Burletta in One Act, Osgood (Boston, MA), 1877, reprinted, Classic Books (Murrieta, CA), The Life of Our Lord, Simon & Schuster (New York, NY), 1934, reprinted, Classic Books (Murrieta, CA), The Speeches of Charles Dickens, Clarendon Press (Oxford, England), 1960, Classic Books (Murrieta, CA), Uncollected Writings from Household Words, , Allen Lane (London, England), 1969, reprinted, Classic Books (Murrieta, CA), The Magic Fish-Bone, illustrated by Faith Jaques, Harvey House (Irvington-on-Hudson, NY), 1969, reprinted, Harcourt Brace (San Diego, CA), Charles Dickens as Editor, Being Letters Written by Him to William Henry Wills His Sub- Editor, selected and edited by R. C. Lehmann, Haskell House (New York, NY), 1972, reprinted, University Press of the Pacific (Seattle, WA), Charles Dickens' Book of Memoranda: A Photographic and Typographic Facsimile of the Notebook Begun in January 1855, Astor, Lenox & Tilden Foundations (New York, NY), 1981, reprinted, Classic Books (Murrieta, CA), The Child's Story, Simon & Schuster Children's (New York, NY), The Signalman, adapted by I. M. Richardson, illustrated by Hal Ashmead, Troll Associates (Mahwah, NJ), 1982, special edition, Travelman Publishing (London, England), After Dark, Classic Books (Murrieta, CA), WITH WILKIE COLLINS Holly Tree Inn, Household Words, 1855, reprinted, Classic Books (Murrieta, CA), Wreck of the Golden Mary, Bradbury & Evans (London, England), 1856, Classic Books (Murrieta, CA), Two Apprentices, with a History of Their Lazy Tour, Peterson (Philadelphia, PA), 1857, reprinted, Classic Books (Murrieta, CA), (With Charles Fechter) No Thoroughfare, A Drama in Five Acts, De Witt (New York, NY), Under the Management of Mr. Charles Dickens, Cornell University Press (Ithaca, NY), 1966, reprinted, Classic Books (Murrieta, CA), COLLECTIONS Cheap Edition of the Works of Mr. Charles Dickens, Chapman & Hall (London, England), The Charles Dickens Edition, Chapman & Hall (London, England), The Works of Charles Dickens, Macmillan (New York, NY), The Works of Charles Dickens, Scribners (New York, NY), The Nonesuch Edition, Nonesuch Press (London, England), The New Oxford Illustrated Dickens, Oxford University Press (Oxford, England),

7 The Clarendon Dickens, 5 volumes, Clarendon Press (Oxford, England), The Village Collector's Reader: Selections of the Works of Charles Dickens, UNDER PSEUDONYM BOZ The Village Coquettes: A Comic Opera in Two Acts, Bentley (London, England), 1836, Classic Books (Murrieta, CA), Watkins Tottle, and Other Sketches, Illustrative of Every-Day Life and Every-Day People, Carey, Lea & Blanchard (Philadelphia, PA), 1836, reprinted, Classic Books (Murrieta, CA), The Posthumous Papers of the Pickwick Club, Edited by "Boz," Chapman & Hall (London, England), , Classic Books (Murrieta, CA), Sketches by Boz, Illustrative of Every-Day Life and Every-Day People, Macrone (London, England), 1837, Classic Books (Murrieta, CA), Tuggs's at Ramsgate, and Other Sketches, Illustrative of Every-Day Life and Every-Day People, Carey, Lea & Blanchard (Philadelphia, PA) 1937, reprinted, Classic Books (Murrieta, CA), The Strange Gentleman: A Comic Burletta in Two Acts, Chapman & Hall (London, England), 1837, Classic Books (Murrieta, CA), Memoirs of Joseph Grimaldi, Edited by "Boz," Bentley (London, England), 1838, Classic Books (Murrieta, CA), Oliver Twist, or the Parish Boy's Progress, by "Boz," Bentley (London, England), 1838, Classic Books (Murrieta, CA), Dickens' most popular works continually appear in a myriad of editions and reprints from various publishers, edited, illustrated, and annotated by, with introductions and forewords by, many different scholars. Several have been translated into other languages. Adaptations Motion pictures based on A Christmas Carol include a silent film produced by Essanay, 1908; and sound films produced by Universal Studios, 1915; United Artists, 1951, featuring Alastair Sim; a musical version starring Albert Finney and Alec Guinness, 1970; United Productions of America, 1972, with the animated character Mr. Magoo; Walt Disney Studios' adaptation, Mickey's Christmas Carol, 1983; Paramount Pictures' adaptation, Scrooged, adapted by Mitch Glazer and Michael O'Donoghue, starring Bill Murray; and Jim Henson Productions' Muppet Christmas Carol, A Christmas Carol has also been adapted for television, including the National Broadcasting Corporation (NBC) animated special, The Stingiest Man in Town, 1979, featuring the voice of Walter Matthau; and A Christmas Carol, 1984, featuring George C. Scott. David Copperfield, A Tale of Two Cities, and Bleak House have been adapted for television by Masterpiece Theatre. Nicholas Nikleby was adapted by Joellen Bland as a Broadway play, 1990, and was adapted for television by Mobil Showcase. Great Expectations was adapted for television by the Disney Channel. David Copperfield was adapted to film by Thanhauser, 1911; MGM, 1934, featuring Freddie Bartholomew, W. C. Fields, and Lionel Barrymore; and in 1972, featuring Susan Hampshire. It was also adapted as a television miniseries in 1958 by TV Paulista, Brazil. A Tale of Two Cities has been adapted for film and television, including W. P. Lipscomb's adaptation for MGM, 1935, with Ronald Coleman; and in 1957, with Dirk Bogarde. Oliver Twist has been adapted for film, including Eugene Mullin's adaptation for Vitigraph, 1909; Elizabeth Meehan's adaptation for Monogram, 1933, featuring Dickie Moore; an adaptation by David Lean and Stanley Hayes for Cineguild, 1948, with Alec Guinness; and Monte Merrick's television adaptation for Disney, Oliver Twist was also adapted as the stage musical, Oliver, New London Theater, 1960, and was filmed by Columbia, 1968, featuring Ron Moody and Jack Wild. Great Expectations was adapted for film by Paul West, 1917, for Paramount; and by David Lean and others, 1976, for Cineguild, featuring Jean Simmons and John Mills. Little Dorrit was adapted for film by English Sands, The Pickwick Papers was filmed in 1955, with Nigel Patrick and Hermione Gingold. A musical melodrama based on Barnaby Rudge was written by Ruth Wallace in 1980; The Trial of Ebenezer Scrooge and Unequal Partners: Charles Dickens, Willie Collins, and Victorian Authorship, books based on Dickens' works, were scheduled for release in 2002;

8 Rain of Years: Great Expectations and the World of Dickens was released in 2001; various collected works continue to be published, and many works have been adapted for audio cassette, digital recording, and book and audio educational combinations. Further Readings Books Ackroyd, Peter, Dickens, Sinclair-Stevenson, 1990, pp. xiii, 34. Adams, W. Davenport, Dictionary of English Literature, 2nd edition, Cassell Petter & Galpin (London, England), reprinted, Gale (Detroit, MI), Allibone, S. Austin, Allibone's Critical Dictionary of English Literature, J.B. Lippincott & Co. (Philadelphia, PA), , reprinted, Gale (Detroit, MI), Authors and Artists for Young Adults, Volume 23, Gale (Detroit, MI), Beacham's Guide to Literature for Young Adults, Volume 3, Beacham Publishing (Osprey, FL), Borowitz, Albert, article in Dictionary of Literary Biography, Volume 70, Gale (Detroit, MI), Carpenter, Humphrey, and Mari Prichard, The Oxford Companion to Children's Literature, Oxford University Press (Oxford, England), Characters in Young Adult Literature, Gale (Detroit, MI), Charles Dickens: A Biographical and Critical Study, Philosophical Library, Clute, John, and Peter Nicholls, editors, The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction, St. Martin's Press (New York, NY), Concise Dictionary of British Literary Biography, Volume 4: Victorian Writers, , Gale (Detroit, MI), Dickens, Charles, David Copperfield, Lea & Blanchard, A Dictionary of Biographies of Authors Represented in the Authors Digest Series, Authors Press (New York, NY), 1927, reprinted, Gale (Detroit, MI), Dictionary of Literary Biography, Gale (Detroit, MI), Volume 21: Victorian Novelists before 1885, 1983, Volume 55: Victorian Prose Writers before 1867, 1987, Volume 70: British Mystery Writers, , 1988, Volume 159: British Short-Fiction Writers, , 1996, Volume 166: British Travel Writers, , Gale (Detroit, MI), Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press (London, England), Drabble, Margaret, The Oxford Companion to English Literature, 5th edition, Oxford University Press (Oxford, England), Encyclopedia of Occultism & Parapsychology, 3rd edition, Gale (Detroit, MI), Encyclopedia of World Biography, 2nd edition, Gale (Detroit, MI), Fabricating History: English Writers on the French Revolution, Princeton University Press, 1988, pp Ford, George H., and Lauriat Lane, Jr., editors, The Dickens Critics, Cornell University Press, Ford, George H., editor, Victorian Fiction: A Second Guide to Research, Modern Language Association, 1978, pp Hart, James D., The Oxford Companion to American Literature, 6th edition, Oxford University Press

9 (New York, NY), Huber, Miriam Blanton, Story and Verse for Children, 3rd edition, Macmillan Co. (New York, NY), Johannsen, Albert, The House of Beadle and Adams and Its Dime and Nickel Novel. The Story of a Vanished Literature, Volumes I-II, University of Oklahoma Press (Norman, OK), Kirkpatrick, D. L., editor, Reference Guide to English Literature, 2nd edition, St. James Press (Chicago, IL), MacKenzie, Norman, and Jeanne MacKenzie, Dickens: A Life, Oxford University Press, Magnus, Laurie, A Dictionary of European Literature, 2nd revised edition, E.P. Dutton & Co. (New York, NY), 1927, reprinted, Gale (Detroit, MI), Monroe, Paul, editor, A Cyclopedia of Education, Macmillan Co. (New York, NY), 1911, reprinted, Gale (Detroit, MI), Nineteenth-Century Literature Criticism, Volume 50, Gale (Detroit, MI), Ousby, Ian, editor, The Cambridge Guide to Literature in English, Cambridge University Press (Cambridge, MA), Patrick, David, editor, Chambers's Cyclopaedia of English Literature, Volume III, revised by J. Liddell Geddie, J.B. Lippincott (Philadelphia, PA), 1938, reprinted, Gale (Detroit, MI), Priestley, J. B., Charles Dickens, Viking, Science Fiction & Fantasy Literature, , Gale (Detroit, MI), Seymour-Smith, Martin, editor, Novels and Novelists, St. Martin's Press (New York, NY), Sharp, R. Farquharson, A Dictionary of English Authors, Biographical and Bibliographical, Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co. (London, England), 1904, reprinted, Gale (Detroit, MI), Shaw, John Mackay, Childhood in Poetry, 3rd Supplement, Gale (Detroit, MI), Short Story Criticism, Volume 17, Gale (Detroit, MI), Slater, Michael, Dickens and Women, Dent, Stapleton, Michael, editor, The Cambridge Guide to English Literature, Cambridge University Press (Cambridge, MA), Sutherland, John, The Stanford Companion to Victorian Fiction, Stanford University Press (Stanford, CA), Twentieth-Century Crime and Mystery Writers, 3rd edition, St. James Press (Chicago, IL), Victorian Fantasy, Indiana University Press, 1979, pp Vincent, Benjamin, editor, A Dictionary of Biography, Past and Present, Haydn Series, Ward, Lock, & Co. (London, England), 1877, reprinted, Gale (Detroit, MI), Vinson, James, editor, Great Writers of the English Language: Novelists and Prose Writers, St. Martin's Press (New York, NY), Warner, Charles Dudley, editor, Biographical Dictionary and Synopsis of Books Ancient and Modern, Werner Co. (Akron, OH), 1902, reprinted, Gale (Detroit, MI), Watson, Noelle, editor, Reference Guide to Short Fiction, St. James Press (Detroit, MI), Welsh, Alexander, Dickens Redressed: The Art of Bleak House and Hard Times, Yale University Press, 2000.

10 World Literature Criticism to the Present, Gale (Detroit, MI), Writers for Children, Charles Scribner's Sons, Periodicals American Health, December, 1988, p. 14. American History Illustrated, December, American Scholar, winter, Booklist, December 15, 1995, p. 401; July, 1996, p. 1838; March 15, 1997, p. 1252; December 1, 2000, GraceAnn A. DeCandido, review of The Child's Story, p College English, Volume XVI, , G. Robert Stange, "Expectations Well Lost: Dickens's Fable for the Times," pp Columbia Journalism Review, September, 1999, James Boylan, "The Dent Uniform Edition of Dickens' Journalizm, Vol. 3: 'Gone Astray' and Other Papers from Household Words ," p. 61. Contemporary Review, June, 2001, review of Hard Times, p Dublin University Magazine, April, 1844, review of A Christmas Carol; December, 1861, review of Great Expectations, pp Economist (US), December 25, 1999, "New Society, New Voices," p. 16. Examiner, December 10, 1859, review of A Tale of Two Cities, pp Fraser's Magazine, December, 1850, review of David Copperfield, pp History Today, July, 1987; December, Horn Book, January-February, 1996, p. 73. Insight on the News, March 4, 1991; August 13, 2001, p. 4. Library Journal, June 15, 1995, p. 66; March 1, 1996, p. 126; February 15, 1997, p. 174; August, 1999, Jo Carr, review of Bleak House, p Midwest Quarterly, spring, 2000, Peter Scheckner, "Gender and Class in Dickens: Making Connections", p Modern Maturity, December-January, Morning Chronicle, February 11, 1836, review of Sketches by Boz. National Review, August 3, New Republic, September 14, New York Review of Books, October 2, 1988; January 19, New York Times Book Review, May 15, 1988; October 2, 1988; January 22, 1995, p. 22. New York Times Magazine, December 3, 2000, Jane Smiley, "A Life of Fiction; Charles Dickens' Secrets Inspired His Work. They May Also Have Led to His Early Death," p New Yorker, August 31, 1992; October 11, 1993; September 25, 1995, p. 40. Publishers Weekly, March 7, 1995, p. 36; September 18, 1995, p. 96; October 9, 2000, review of

11 The Child's Story, p. 86. Quarterly Review, June, 1839, review of Oliver Twist, pp School Library Journal, October, 1995, p. 37. Spectator, November 24, 1838, review of Oliver Twist, pp Studies in English Literature, , autumn, 2000, Gerhard Joseph, "Prejudice in Jane Austen, Emma Tennant, Charles Dickens--and Us," p Times, June 11, 1851, Samuel Phillips, "David Copperfield and Arthur Pendennis," p. 8. Utne Reader, January-February, Variety, December 5, 1994, p. 80. Washington Monthly, December, Yankee, January, Other Great Books Index, (February 2, 1999), "Charles Dickens." The Dickens Project, University of California, (January 14, 2002).* Source Citation "Charles (John Huffam) Dickens." Major Authors and Illustrators for Children and Young Adults, Gale, Biography in Context, link.galegroup.com/apps/doc/k /BIC1?u=west88739&xid=f47747c1. Accessed 28 Nov Gale Document Number: GALE K