'Philosophy and methodological tradition of Hermeneutics and phenomenology in researching

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1 3 rd Critical Tourism Studies Conference Proceedings 6 'Philosophy and methodological tradition of Hermeneutics and phenomenology in researching 'lived experience' Dr Gayathri (Gee) Wijesinghe (Lecturer in Tourism and Hospitality Management, School of Management, University ofsouth Australia) Gayathri.Wijesinghe@unisa.edu.au Abstract This paper explicates the philosophical and methodological tradition, underlying hermeneutics and phenomenology with the view to illustrate how they can be applied in a research design of a lived experience study. In particular, this study focuses on how the two approaches of interpretative hermeneutics and phenomenology could form the methodology to portray and interpret lived experiences of practitioners. The aim ofthis paper is to show thesuitabhity ofthese approaches and how they inform the inquiry process. It does this by plotting the various. theoretical and philosophical tenets that shape these two approaches, and suggesting how they can be combined as a methodology in tourism and hospitality contexts. An understanding of the philosophical tenets provided in this study can benefit the researcher by providing greater control, choice and creativity with the kinds of methods and techniques that could be adopted to conduct a lived experience study. Introduction Research in tourism and hospitality can benefit from the methodological application of interpretative-hermeneutics and phenomenology to gain deeper insights into 'lived experiences' of practitioners and consumers. The exploring of 'lived experiences' is still an under-researched area in tourism and hospitality studies. One of the difficulties of using these philosophical approaches in research is that scholars appear to do phenomenological and hermeneutic research but do not adequately explain how the philosophy was translated into a methodological application. Thus the methodological applications of these philosophies are often a very much a trial and error process for most novice researchers. To address this issue, this paper explicates the steps involved in applying a interpretativehermeneutic and phenomenological methodology to a research project to describe and understand human experience, the way both 'culture has taught us', as well as 'by disposing (as much as possible) how culture has taught us' in order to see how phenomena presents themselves to us in our own immediate experience. This brings together two different traditions of phenomenology. The latter is grounded in the classical paradigm of philosophers such as Heidegger, Husserl and Merleu-Ponty, and the former in the new phenomenological tradition seen in most applied studies. Crotty who is a proponent of the classical tradition explaias that unlike the new tradition the classical one is "not aboutthe gathering of other people's narrated experience butopenness to our own in its immediacy. It is a revisiting of our own experience in a contemplative mode for the purpose of discovering, not how culture has taught us to understand phenomeaa, but how these phenomena presents themselves to us" (9963: ). Classical phenomenology wants to suspend our preconceived cultural notions because it believes that lithe particular set of meanings which our culture imposes has come into being to serve particular interests and will harbour its own forms of

2 3" Critical Tourism Studies Conference Proceedings 62 oppression, manipulation and injustice" (Crotty 996a:267). However, as van Manen (990) who uses the new phenomenological tradition points out, it is impossible to completely dispose of culture to arrive at the 'facts' of our direct experience as consciousness in itself is an 'interpretative process' and its expression is grounded in language derived from culture. However, both approaches can be useful in research and this paper aims to explicate howto apply both approaches. The practical use of these two approaches as a methodological tool was shown in the first paper that I presented at this conference (see Wijesinghe 2009) by examples taken from my PhD study which portrayed and interpreted the lived experience of women receptionists in the hospitality industry. In portraying and interpreting the lived nature of the hospitality reception experience, it is shown here how the methodological application of the philosophical tenets of phenomenology for the portrayal and hermeneutics for the interpretation can be useful. Thus, the focus ofthis paper is to discuss how these two approaches are suitable for researching lived experience and how they can be applied to an experience based research project. However, before proceeding on to a discussion of the philosophy underlying these approaches it is necessary to explain why it is necessary to understand the philosophy underlying a methodological design. Benefits of understanding the philosophy underlying the methodology Understanding the interrelationship between ontology (what is the nature of reality?), epistemology (what can be known?), and methodology (how can a researcher discover what she or he believes can be known?) is important in any research project. In terms of the research methodology, Easterby Smith et al (99, as cited in Crossan 2003) identify three reasons why the exploration of philosophy is important:. It can help the researcher to refine and specify the research methods to be used in a study, that is, to clarify the overall research strategy to be used. This would include the type of evidence gathered and its origin, the way in which such evidence is interpreted, and how it helps to answer the research questions posed. 2. Knowledge ofresearch philosophy will enable and assist the researcher to evaluate different methodologies and methods and avoid inappropriate use and unnecessary work by identifying the limitations ofparticular approaches at an early stage. 3. It may help the researcher to be creative and innovative in either selection or adaptation of methods that were previously outside his orherexperience. In the following section the various developments towards philosophical hermeneutics, its basic tenets and the way in which hermeneutics has been interpreted by different scholars and how it can be employed in research are described. Next, the same process is followed for phenomenology, where its developments, starting from Edmund Husserl, are traced and key concepts discussed. Philosophical hermeneutics: an introduction Hermeneutics is the "theory and practice of interpretation" (van Manen 990:79). The word derives from the Greek mythological character Hermes, whose responsibility was to understand and interpret the divine sayings of the Oracle at Delphi. Its contemporary meaning, as used in scholarly work is something akin to lithe art of understanding and the theory of interpretation" (Weininger

3 3'd Critical Tourism Studies Conference Proceedings :). This definition combines two elements, around which there has been much philosophical debate over the centuries, in "working out the tension between the technical, theoretical task of interpretation and the art of understanding texts, historical periods, and other people" (Weininger 999:). The different ways in which hermeneutics has been understood is outlined next. Traditionally, hermeneutics focused on understanding historical texts based on pretensions of scientific epistemology, where the reader would attempt to build a system of understanding by reenacting the relationship between the author and original audience in an objective fashion (Honeycutt 995). Schleiermacher (977) opened up the debate leading to hermeneutics by referring to it as a theory or technology of interpretation, especially in relation to religious and classical texts. He argued that hermeneutics is necessary when there is iii possibility for misunderstanding as in the above genre (religious and classical texts). His intention was to "understand an author as well or even better than he or she understands himse lf or herself' (van Manen 990:79). The emphasis here is on the thought ofthe other person experiencing the world. Dilthey (985), another pioneer of this tradition, was on the other hand, not interested in the thought of the other person, but the world itself, the lived experience which is expressed by the author's text, as it is in this paper. Van Manen succinctly explains this "Dilthey's hermeneutic formula is lived experience [emphasis in original]: the starting point and focus of human science; expressior: the text or artefact as objectification of lived experience; and understanding: not a cognitive act but the moment when 'life understands itself' " (990:80). In the twentieth century, hermeneutics was re-defined in a radical way by the publication of Heidegger's (927) Being and time, which shifted the focus from epistemology to ontqiqgy (Honeycutt 995). Heidegger broke away from the epistemology, which insisted on separating understanding from interpretation to arrive at what was perceived to be objective secure knowledge. Heidegger argued that interpretation is influenced by the interpreter's preconceptions, which remain as an integral part to all understanding. Interpretation is a cyclical process, which is referred to as the hermeneutic circle (Hogan 2000). This cyclical process of interpretation is embedded within an overlooked possibility of the most primordial kind of knowing (Heidegger 927:95). Hogan points out that Heidegger believes that "in order however to realise this possibility, critical attention WQuid have to be paid not only to what the interpreter was attempting to understand, but also tq the interpreter's own 'fancies' and 'popular conceptions' - to the preconceptions that remain ever active in steering such attempts" (2000:). In this regard, it is difficult to escape the subjective element in an interpretation. Hence absolute knowleclge is impossible: "It is because absolute knowledge is impossible that the conflict of interpretations is insurmountable and inescapable" (RicQeur 98:93). Heidegger's work was extended later by Gadamer and his fellow researchers. Gadamer adds that in interpreting a text, we cannot separate ourselves or escape from the meaning of the text, as understanding is not "an isolated activity of human beings but a basic structure of our experience of life. We are always taking something as [emphasis in original] something. That is the primordial givenness ofour worldorientation, and we cannot reduce it to anything simpler or more immediate"

4 3'd Critical Tourism Studies Conference Proceedings 64 (970:87). "Understanding is always an interpretation, and an interpretation is always specific, an application" (van Manen 990:80). Application 0/philosophical hermeneutics to research The hermeneutic circle is used in present day interpretative social sciences in interviewing to obtain an in-depth and holistic understanding of a particular text, or phenomenon. "The hermeneutic interview has a conversational structure: it is oriented to sense making and interpreting experiential meanings. The interview has a collaborative conversational structure that lends itself especially well to the task of reflecting on phenomenological meanings" (van Manen 2002). Philosophical hermeneutics is employed with phenomenology in research, whereby one of the tasks is to interpret the meanings behind descriptive phenomenological texts that have been obtained from respondents/co-researchers. My PhD study separated hermeneutics from phenomenology because one of the other tasks of my research was to look for fresh meanings. That is, to look at how the phenomenon (reception practice) declares itself in the mind - by setting aside as far as practicable the predispositions about the phenomenon. In the hermeneutic process interpretations are made with pre-existing values and ways of seeing the world. In my PhD study, hermeneutics was used to understand and interpret the meanings associated with hospitality reception work. The task of hermeneutics was to interpret and articulate how practitioners made sense of their lived experiences. It worked in conjunction with phenomenology to do this. The expressive phenomenology (see Wijesinghe 2009) used in this study is located within a general hermeneutic approach. Ricoeur (98) argues that hermeneutics and phenomenology presuppose each other. The connection between hermeneutics and phenomenology can be traced back to Heidegger, who took the term phenomenology from Dilthey to distinguish his own philosophical investigation of 'everyday being' from Husserl's transcendental phenomenology, which tried to achieve objective knowledge by suspending concern for the subject's life-world. The next section discusses the philosophical outlook of phenomenology, which includes its foundations, ontology, and epistemology. Phenomenology: an introduction The term phenomenology is a compound of the Greek words phainomenon and logos. "It signifies the activity of giving an account, giving a logos, of various phenomena, of the various ways in which things can appear" (Sokolowski 2000:3). Phenomenology is a term that has been used in philosophy as early as 765 and in Kant's writings. Kant ( as cited in van Manen 2003) used this term to distinguish between the study of objects and events as they appear in our experience (phenomena) and objects and events as they are in themselves (noumena). For Hegel, phenomenology signified "Knowledge as it appears to consciousness, the science of describing what one perceives, senses, and knows in one's immediate awareness and experience" ( as cited in Moustakas 994:26). In other words, Hegel saw phenomenology as the science in which we come to know the mind as it is in itself through the study of the ways in which it appears to us (van Manen 2003). However, it was not until Edmund Husserl that phenomenology became a well-

5 3'd Critical Tourism Studies Conference Proceedings 65 developed descriptive method, as well as a human science movement based on modes of reflection (van Manen 2003). The foundation ofphenomenology Edmund Husserl ( ), a German mathematician and philosopher laid the foundation for phenomenology with the aim to "establish a secure basis for human knowledge" (Crotty 996b). For Husserl, phenomenology is an attempt to describe how the world is constituted and experienced through conscious acts (van Manen 2003). His phrase 'lu den Sachen~ refers both to the things themselves and to the concept of 'let's get down to what matters!' The idea was that phenomenology must describe what is given to us in immediate experience without letting the experience filter through preconceptions and theoretical notions. Since phenomenology was first developed, it has undergone many changes of expansion and refinement, and today there are many schools ofthought within it. Scholars applying methods of phenomenology to their research projects employ an eclectic mixture of the different traditions of phenomenology. There are several phenomenological movements and traditions today which include, but are not limited to, transcendental, existential, hermeneutical, linguistic, ethical, and experiential and practice phenomenology (van Manen 2003). This study uses an expressive stance to phenomenological inquiry, which is based on the tenets of hermeneutic and existential tenets of phenomenology. A discussion of these various branches of phenomenology is beyond the scope of this study, but the philosophical tenets of phenomenology as applicable to the expressive method are discussed selectively in this chapter. As the classical phenomenologist Spiegelberg notes "All phenomenology takes its start from the phenomena. A phenomenon is essentially what appears to someone, that is to a subject" (959:75); for example, the phenomenon in the present study is the experience of hospitality reception practice. Phenomenology differs from other qualitative human science approaches such as ethnography, symbolic interactionism, and ethno-methodology in that classical phenomenology seeks to distinguish between appearance and essence. Appearances are obtained by looking at something, but essences are obtained by looking deep inside something. In other words, phenomenology does not produce empirical or theoretical observations or accounts. Instead, it offers accounts of experiences embedded in temporal, spatial, sensual, and human relations as we live them. Although this study is not directly concerned with essence of a phenomenon/experience as such, it is interested in the common elements in the experience. The aim of this study is to arrive at an in-depth understanding of the embodied common elements in the experience of hotel receptionist work and to portray the experience through personal stories that express its everyday lived nature. Creating a phenomenologi~al bodyofknowledge It could be stated that the aim of employing the phenomenological attitude in research is to rise above and examine one's predisposition to operate from the natural attitude. So, speaking metaphorically, one could say that the natural attitude is like a trap that limits our understanding of our experience, and the phenomenological attitude offers a way out of this trap. The way out ofthe trap is to study the trap itself, so that the way in which it has been assembled becomes clear. What

6 3'd Critical Tourism Studies Conference Proceedings 66 we are seeking to do with a phenomenological description, in this kind of research, is to provide an account of the trap, so that one could see how, piece by piece, its structure has come together to appear like a trap. The phenomenological description has two underlying components in this kind of research. That is, it is not just the trap as it appears that is being described, but also the awareness of the person in the trap. These two components are referred to as objectivised subjectivity and subjectivised subjectivity respectively (see Willis 2002), and it is precisely these two components that differentiate the tenets of classical phenomenology from the new empathetic phenomenology. Descriptive account and phenomenology In phenomenology, the assumption is that the meaning of lived experience is usually hidden or veiled from our immediate view. So, phenomenological description offers an account of our consciousness, which helps unveil the lived reality of our experience. Description is the essential function of the classical phenomenological approach. Consciousness is a subtle process that lies above and beyond words. Any words that are used are pale shadows of the reality. So, trying to describe what we see in our immediate experience can be difficult. As Crotty observes:...the difficulty does not lie merely in seeing 'what lies before our eyes' (which Husserl saw as a 'hard demand'), or knowing 'precisely what we see' (Merleau-Ponty said there was nothing more difficult to know than that). We will also experience great difficulty in actually describing what we have succeeded in seeing and knowing. When we attempt to describe what we have never had to describe before, language fails us. We find our descriptions incoherent, fragmentary, and not a little 'mysterious'. We find ourselves lost for words, forced to invent words and bend existing words to bear the meanings we need them to carry for us. This has always been characteristic of phenomenological description. We may have to be quite inventive and creative in this respect (996b:280). This points out to the challenge in trying to use language to describe what we have seen in our immediate experience. What is experienced can never be adequately described in the way it is experienced without some form of hermeneutic or processing taking place. One may still find that one cannot retain a conceptual hold of this reality and articulate it. As soon as one starts thinking, interpreting or attributing any meaning, the reality that has been experienced gets reduced. What one may end up articulating is not the real thing, but a representation of it - a pale shadow of it (yet, it seems that this is better than not having attempted it at all). Van Manen citing the Dutch phenomenologist Buytendijk refers to this as the iconic quality of phenomenological description in human science research. He comments that "every phenomenological description is in a sense only an example, an icon that points at the 'thing' which we attempt to describe" (990:22). He then makes the observation that an effectively written phenomenological description acquires a certain transparency which enables one to see the meaning structures of the experience, "A description is a powerful one if it reawakens our basic experience of the phenomenon it describes, and in such a manner that we experience the more foundational grounds of the experience" (990:22). When writing a phenomenological description one attempts to describe different instances of the experience, to see whether the same foundational grounds of the experience come through.

7 3'd Critical Tourism Studies Conference Proceedings 67 Putting this philosophical trait into practice, Buytendijk's phenomenological nod refers to the ability of an effectively written phenomenological description to resonate with our sense of lived experience. Citing Buytendijk, van Manen explains the phenomenolegical nod as, "something that we could nod to, recognising it as an experience that we have had or could have had. In other words, a good phenomenological description is collected by lived experience and recollects lived experience - is validated by lived experience and it validates lived experience [emphasis in original]" (990:27). This is also referred to as validating circle of inquiry. Application ofphenomenology to research The phenomenology originating from the early philosophers is one concerned with ontology. From this ontology scholars have derived an epistemology, so that the tenets of plenomenology could be applied to researching lived experience. As a result, there are many different methodological applications of phenomenology. In articulating a methodological relationship, some have moved away from the tenets of classical phenomenology. Crotty (99Gb) in his investigation into the way in which phenomenological approaches are applied in nursing research pointed out two of its applications, which he named the 'new' and 'classical' phenomenology which were described above. These were later referred to as 'empathetic' and 'intuitive' phenomenology' by Willis (2002). The classical approach emphasises the objective aspect of experience while the new phenomenological approach emphasises the subjective aspect. Classical phenomenology is "A study of phenomena, Le. of the objects [emphasis in original] of human experience. It elucidates what people experience" (Crotty 9960:3); for example, it asks, what is the nature of the exp.erience of hospitality reception practice? What are the elements that make up the experience? Crotty observes that classical phenomenology, "wants to elucidate, first and foremost, the phenomena to which people are attaching meaning. It pursues not the sense people make of things, but what they are making sense of' (996>:3); for example, it focuses on wlat is hospitality reception practice as a phenomenon that receptionists experience before they make any sense of it. The new phenomenological research concerns the study of people's subjective meanings and the sense they make of things (Crotty 996b:3); for example, what does providing hospitality reception service mean to those workers? What sense do they make of the common elements in their experience of hospitality reception practice? In this research, the emphasis is both on the sense people make of things and what they are making sense of by using a mixture containing the tenets of both classical and new phenomenology. DestIning a study based on hermeneutic and phenomenology The designing of a study that takes into account the philosophical tenets of hermeneutics and phenomenology is not an easy task. To devise a research process true to these philosophical traditions, Max van Manen (990:30-34) provides six activities to follow. He makes it clear that these activities are only suggestions and not meant to be followed diligently or in the exact order in which they are listed.

8 3 rd Critical Tourism Studies Conference Proceedings 68 Selecting a specific phenomenon A phenomenological study is a very specific piece of work, as it is always undertaken in the context of a specific individual, social, and historical life circumstance, and researches a particular aspect of human existence (van Manen 990:3). For this reason, van Manen points out that "[a] phenomenological description is always one [emphasis in original] interpretation, and no single interpretation of human experience will ever exhaust the possibility of yet another complementary, or even potentiallyricher ordeeper [emphasis in original] description" (990:3). Investigating the experience as we live it rather than as we conceptualise it Van Manen points out that all "experiential accounts or lived-experience descriptions - whether caught in oral or written discourse - are never identical to lived experience itself. All recollections of experiences... are alreadytransformations [emphasis in original] of those experiences" (van Manen 990:54). The implication of this is that researchers need to find ways of collecting experiential accounts as close to the lived experience as possible, but keep in mind that these accounts are not consciousness directly streaming onto paper. Van Manen suggests a variety of ways in which lived experiential'data' can be gathered as follows (990:54-76): Tracing etymological sources Searching idiomatic phrases Obtaining experiential descriptions from others Protocol writing Interviewing Biographies, autobiographies and personal life histories Diaries, journals, and logs Art (poetry, novels, stories and plays) Phenomenological literature Reflecting on the essential themes which characterise the phenomenon Third, reflecting on what it is that constitutes the nature of the lived experience under study. The nature or the essential themes are the typical structures or characteristics of the experience. For example this study, involved reflecting on the question of what is the typical nature of women receptionists' lived experience in the hospitality industry. In reflecting on this we have to bear in mind that in our everyday existence we may have taken for granted some of these typical characteristics. Van Manen states that "phenomenological research consists of reflectively bringing into nearness that which tends to obscure, that which tends to evade the intelligibility of our natural attitude of everyday life" (van Manen 990:32). Describing the phenomenon through the art of writing and rewriting Fourth, writing a piece of phenomenological text is a lengthy exercise, because it needs to be crafted in such a way that the description takes on a certain transparency - "it permits us to see the deeper significance, or meaning structures, of the lived experience it describes" (van Manen 990:22). For example, in this particular study, the 'data' that was collected by interviewing women receptionists has to be carefully crafted into episodes of practice so that the experience 'comes to life' for the reader, exhibiting its 'lived' or experienced nature.

9 3 rd Critical Tourism Studies Conference Proceedings 69 Maintaining a strong and oriented pedagogical retation to the phenomenon Fifth, the researcher is expected to be dedicated to uncovering knowledge about the phenomenon true to the phenomenological and hermeneutic traditions. Van Manen explains this as follows: "[t]o establish a strong relation with a certain question, phenomenon, or notion, the researcher cannot afford to adopt an attitude of so-called scientific disinterestedness. To be oriented to an object means that we are animated by the object in a full and human sense. To be strong in our orientation means that we will not settle for superficialities and falsities" (Piantanida & Garman 999:33). Balancing the research context by considering parts and whole Sixth, it is important to plan a careful inquiry into the phenomenon and not get lost in the data or get sidetracked in other ways. Van Manen suggests the following guiding questions to map out the inquiry (990:34): Is the study properly grounded in a laying open of the question? Are the current forms of knowledge e)(amined for what they may contribute to the question? Has it been shown how some of these knowledge forms (theories, concepts) are glosses that overlay our understanding of the phenomenon? In looking at these activities, it is possible to see an overlap with the criteria for determining good qualitative research that Piantanida and Garman (Piantanida & Garman 999) have proposed. Judging the quality 0 a 'good' qualitative inquiry In the book, The qualitative dissertation: a guide for students and faculty, Maria Piantanida and Noreen Garman (999:48) address the important question ofhow to meetthe criteria ofquality or 'goodness' in qualitative dissertations. They present eight criteria that can be used to judge the soundness of qualitative dissertations. These criteria are now explained.. Verisimilitude - this is one of the critical attributes that a phenomenological study should have. To judge verisimilitude one should ask, "Does the work represent human experiences with sufficient detail so that portrayals can be recognizable as 'truly conceivable e)(perience'?" (Garman 996:8). 2. Verite - authenticity of the study in a number of ways: Is it consistent with accepted knowledge in the field? Or ifit departs, does it address why? Does it fit within the discourse in the appropriate literature? Has the researcher taken pains to cultivate a mindset conducive to an authentic inquiry? Is it intellectually honest and authentic? How well has the researcher articulated, documented and questioned the researcher's reactions and thinking throughout the inquiry process? 3. Integrity - the soundness of the conceptual structure of the study in terms of its flow and connectivity, logic of justification, and voice and stance of the researcher. 4. Rigor - quality of thought in the inquiry and is related to the criteria of integrity and verite: is there sufficient depth of intellect, rather than superficial or simplistic reasoning? s. Utility - ways in which the researcher has helped the advancement of knowledge in the field under study, and the importance of this contribution. 6. Vitality - When related to the dimension of verisimilitude the portrayal should create "a vicarious sense of the phenomenon and context of the study, readers often feel a sense of

10 3'd Critical Tourism Studies Conference Proceedings 70 immediacy and identification with the people and events being described. So, the study comes alive forthe reader" (Piantanida & Garman 999:52). 7. Aesthetics - "is it enriching and pleasing to anticipate and experience? Does it give me insight into some universal part of my educational self? Are connections between the particular and the universal revealed in powerful, provocative, evocative and moving ways? Does the work challenge, disturb, or unsettle? Does it touch the spirit?" (Piantanida & Garman 999:48). 8. Ethics - relates to the researcher's ethical sensibility. Conclusion Most research using Interpretative hermeneutics and phenomenology do research but do not adequately explain how the ontology and epistemology informs the chosen methodology. In this paper, I address this gap by explaining how the theoretical underpinnings ofthe philosophical tenets of phenomenology and interpretative -hermeneutics can be translated into a research methodology. This paper provides a theoretical framework and some of the methodological conceptions to conducting 'lived experience' studies. The practical application of this methodology is shown through examples from my PhD study undertaken to research the lived experience of hospitality reception practice. It is shown here that the ways in which phenomenology and philosophical hermeneutics deal with the process of meaning and understanding are fairly different and even contradictory to a certain extent. Yet this does not exclude the possibility of simultaneously employing both as methodologies in the research process. In my 2 nd paper presented at this conference, the path for the research inquiry is plotted further to make the connection from the methodological conceptions to the techniques and procedures of portraying and interpreting lived experience is shown using hospitality reception work as the context. References Barone, T & Eidsner, E (eds) (997), Arts-Based Educational Research, American Education Research Association, Washington, DC. Crossan, F (2003), Research Philosophy: Towards an Understanding, viewed , < philosophy towards an understanding/> Crotty, M (996a), 'Doing Phenomenology', in Qualitative Research Practice in Adult Education, eds. P Willis & B Neville, David Lovell Publishing, Melbourne, pp Crotty, M (996b), Phenomenology and Nursing Research, Churchill Livingstone, Melbourne. Dilthey, W (985), Poetry and Experience, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ. Gadamer, H-G (970), 'On the Scope and Function of Hermeneutical Reflection (G.B Hess & R.E. Palmer, Trans.)', Continuum, vol. 8, pp Garman, N (ed.) (996), Chapter : Qualitative Inquiry: Meaning and Menacefor Educational Researchers, David Lovell Publishing, Ringwood, VIC. Heidegger, M (927), Being and Time, Blackwell, Oxford.

11 3'd Critical Tourism Studies Conference Proceedings 7 Hogan, P (2000), Hermeneutics and Educational Experience, viewed 24/06/2003, < Honeycutt, L(995), Hermeneutics, viewed 24/06/2003, < Moustakas, C(994), Phenomenological Research Methods, Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, CA. Piantanida, M & Garman, N (999), The Qualitative Dissertation: A Guidefor Students and Faculty, Corwin Press Inc, Thousand Oaks, CA. Ricoeur, P (ed.) (98), Hermeneutics and the Human Sciences, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Schleiermacher, FED (977), Hermeneutics: The Handwritten Manuscripts, Scholars press, Missoula, Mont. Sokolowski, R (2000), Introduction to Phenomenology, Cambridge University Press, Melbourne. Spiegelberg, H (959), The Phenomenological Movement: A Historical Introduction, Martinus Nijhoff, Boston. van Manen, M (2002), Hermeneutic Interview Reflection, viewed 4/2/2003, < van Manen, M (2003), Phenomenology Online, viewed 9/02/2003, < van Manen, M (990), Researching Lived Experience: Human Sciencefor an Action Sensitive Pedagogy, State University of New York Press, New York. Weininger, D (999), Hermeneutics and Phenomenology, viewed 8/06/2003, < meneutics: Introduction>. Wijesinghe, G (2009), 'An Arts Based Phenomenological and Hermeneutic Framework for Researching Lived Experience - an Example from the Hospitality Industry', paper presented atthe 3rd International Critical Tourism Studies (CTS) Conference, Zadar, Croatia, 2-24th June Willis, P (2002), Inviting Learning: An Exhibition ofrisk and Enrichment in Adult Education Practice, NIACE, Leicester, U.K.

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