PROBLEMS OF INTUITION IN COMPUTER AIDED ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN

Transcription

1 PROBLEMS OF INTUITION IN COMPUTER AIDED ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN Faculty of Architecture, Middle East Technical University, Turkey ABSTRACT The idea that architecture is a cultural entity has long been denied by various designers within the field of Computer Aided Architectural Design (CAAD). They rather prefer to describe architectural design as a unity of intuitive accidental processes. Their design strategies strictly follow the software programs, which are not produced for architectural purposes in general. As a result of these, within the limits of the software, they tend to produce architectural artifacts by means of the translation of data into meaningful form. One of the most significant consequences is that, this process extends the production line from the represented idea to the actual field, and closes the gap between the design and the production phases in architecture. However, as opposed to this popular idea of the early years, today design strategies and methods of CAAD has been transforming from the intuitive notions to the cultural or the intentional one. After making a short history, which is grounded onto the intuitive nature of the CAAD, pioneers of this movement has urged to renew their notions. One of the most significant examples of this situation is Greg Lynn. In his paper Calculated Variations in the catalogue of the exhibition Architectures Non Standard (Centre Pompidou-2003), he announces the end of an entry-level response to new digital techniques and proposes to start concentrating on cultural means in architectural design in addition to his former intuitive design period. On the bases of these, this study proposes to concentrate on the problems of intuition in Computer Aided Architectural Design in architecture with reference to Greg Lynn s paper Calculated Variations and, modifications of his design strategy by means of his former and later design phases. Furthermore, in reference to Allan Colquhoun, Lynn s paper is taken as a case for the critique of reductionism in architectural design. Keywords: Intuition, CAAD, Calculated Variations, Scientific Reductionism 15

2 INTRODUCTION In painting, auto design or any other field that has an expert discourse about form, meaning and performance, at the moment a new technique arises, it becomes the exclusive subject of discussion for the first few years. Once the ability for that technique to produce effects in a given discipline has been discovered, often through automatic processes and happy accidents, then the next task for the field is to begin to reproduce those effects with rigor accompanied by an aesthetic, social, cultural and technical discourse. This exhibition announces the end of the former and the beginning of the later. Working by happy accident for perpetuity does not work; once you do something by accident then you have to do it by intention the next time. (Lynn, 2003, 90) In his one of the most recent exhibition paper Calculated Variations Greg Lynn announced that because his technique is now on the verge of a consciousness accompanied by an aesthetic, social, cultural and technical discourse; manifested intuitive processes as parts of a learning exercise and a pseudo-scientism was left behind. With his essay therefore Greg Lynn accepts that architecture is more than a smoothly processed algorithmic conclusion, yet rather a cultural product. As grounded onto this shifting point this study focuses on Greg Lynn s former and later design phases. With these regards at the initial parts of this study and as a base for the general framework, problems of intuition will be discussed as one of the most vital part of the CAAD discourse and design methodology. Then roots of generic algorithmic forms and their contemporary architectural formal responses under the guidance of high-end computer software will be introduced. Then by following Lynn s essay Calculated Variations, former and later phases in his design strategy will be clarified. Because declaration of this two-folded strategy is so new, following Eisenman s criticism dangers of the earlier situation will be exemplified. In that sense because Greg Lynn uses the scientific variation method for providing geometric description of variable deformation in architectural form, D Arcy Thompson s scientific variation method will be analyzed by means of an entirely smooth and curvilinear former design phase. Then, as a significant case for the clarification of the later phase in Lynn s design strategy, Art Nouveau with its non-euclidean and cultural means will be examined. Problems of Intuition Following the article Typology and Design Method written by Alan Colquhoun in June 1967, this study argues that problem of intuition consists of a tension between the two contradictory ideas: biotechnical determinism, and free expression (Colquhoun, 1967, 46). It is an outcome of the involuntary decisions that emerges at the end of the processes of the pure technological design approaches which are grounded onto the solid determinisms.yet, our senses of place and rela- 16

3 1st International CIB Endorsed METU Postgraduate Conference Built Environment & Information Technologies, Ankara, 2006 tionship are not dependent on any objective fact that is measurable; they are phenomenal. As such, in short, intuition can be described as a vacuum that is created by the exclusion of cultural means from the design processes (Colquhoun, 1967, 46). In the article, Colquhoun criticizes the idea that as a result of the industrial age production process has radically changed and craftsmanship became less necessary. After arguing that there need to be developed a more comprehensive method to understand and solve the complexity of problems in the field of design methodology, he proposes to reinvestigate the aesthetic realm (Colquhoun, 1967, 43). Then, Colquhoun compares his view as opposed to the mainstream criticisms that suggest the conflict between craft and science in architectural production. On the bases of these, he reinterprets the craftsmanship as a case for typological processes which are focusing on tradition, habit, and imitation. Then, he argues about the exchange value generated by the process of the craftsmanship as the key element to construct system of communication within society (Colquhoun, 1967, 43). In the light of these, Colquhoun proposes that in spite of the scientific method, we must still attribute social or iconic values to the products of technology and recognize that they play an essential role in the generation and development of the physical tools of our environment. Besides the argument that is summarized on the above Colquhoun brings forward the main sources of the contrary views. The first one of those is the theory of biotechnical determinism which is known as the origin of scientific methods of analysis and classification (Colquhoun, 1967, 45). Then, he comments on the idea of biotechnological determinism by pointing out the unconscious and teleological process as defined by the Spencerian evolutionary theory (Colquhoun, 1967, 45). Subsequently, he underlines that, on behalf of the functional doctrine of modern architecture, the main idea as adopted from the two theories is that architectural form as something which was achieved without the conscious interference of the designer but as something which nonetheless was postulated as his ultimate purpose (Colquhoun, 1967, 45). On that point, Colquhoun notes that the literature of modern architecture is full of statements which indicate that after all the known operational needs have been satisfied, there is still a wide area of choice in the final configuration, and gives the example of the two designers who use mathematical methods to arrive at architectural solutions. Then, he claims that purely teleological [or unconscious] doctrine of technico-aesthetic forms is not tenable (Colquhoun, 1967, 46). On the basis of this assertion this study focuses on the three interrelated issues. First, the study concentrates on the pre technological design process of Greg Lynn s Embryological Houses as it was presented by Lynn; second, the study highlights Peter Eisenman s critique as a case for the critique originated by 17

4 Colquhoun discussed above; and the third, in light of these critiques the study focuses on the discursive changes in Greg Lynn s design methodology. Curved Space As a result of the non-euclidean geometry curved space, has affected contemporary architectural form creation in the place of the forms derived from discrete Euclidean geometry. On this regard, in relation with the non-linear systems Ali Rahim at the introduction of the special issue of the AD magazine clarifies that contemporary techniques are loop-like structures which have strong impact on architectural processes and end products themselves: Contemporary techniques are part of a complex feedback loop. They produce new effects which act on or influence an object, affecting human behavior and technical performance [ ] Contemporary techniques thus constitute the beginning and the end, of the loop, which is perpetuated and proliferated by technology. (Rahim, 2002, 5-8) On the bases of these, it can be useful to remember the differences of the two kinds of geometry under the category of Euclidean and, non-euclidean: the term non-euclidean geometry describes both hyperbolic and elliptic geometry, which is contrasted with Euclidean geometry. It can be stated that the essential difference between Euclidean and non-euclidean geometry is the nature of parallel lines. As in (Figure 1), in Euclidean geometry, the two lines are constantly parallel, while in non-euclidean geometry, however, they either curve away [hyperbolic] from each other or curve toward [elliptic] each other and eventually intersect (Stewart, 2001). Figure 1. Representation of Hyperbolic, Euclidean and Elliptic Geometry In the first pages of her book The Fourth Dimension: and Non-Euclidean Geometry and the liberating effect of the invention of the curved space onto the early twentieth century modern art: The two types of non-euclidean geometry (deriving either from alternatives to the parallel postulate or from questions of congruence) shared a critical and provocative idea: the possibility of curved space. The suggestions that space beyond our immediate perceptions might be curved or that the appearance of objects moving about in an irregularly curved space might change had a natural appeal to early modern artists. The existence of curved space would necessarily invalidate the lin- 18

5 1st International CIB Endorsed METU Postgraduate Conference Built Environment & Information Technologies, Ankara, 2006 ear perspective system, whose dominance since the Renaissance was being challenged by the end of the nineteenth century. (Henderson, 1983, 6) As a base for discussing contemporary calculus-based non-standard intricate forms in architecture, we need to be familiar with the mathematical models of these two types of curvatures that are defined above. On this basis, as shown below in (Figure 2), the first alternative to Euclid s fifth postulate which is called parallel postulate leads to the hyperboloid geometry [negative curvature] developed by the Russian N. I. Lobachevsky in 1826 independently by the Hungarian Janos Bolyai in The second alternative leads to the elliptic geometry [positive curvature] developed by the German Bernhard Riemann in Figure 2. From Left to Right, Beltrami Pseudosphere, as a Hyperboloid Model of Non-Euclidean Geometry, and Riemannian Sphere, as an Elliptic Model of Non-Euclidean Geometry (Banchoff, 1990; Berger & Gostiaux, 1988) In that sense, it can be stated that, the clear effect of this two types of algorithmic curvatures which were defined and modeled in the early 19 th century onto the computerized gestaltic organizations should not be neglected. As a part of this atmosphere, yet different than that of the mathematical openings of curved space the term curvilinearity seems to be important for the expression of the formal characteristics of these inventions within the field of art and aesthetic. These can also be traced from the definition of the curvilinear: Curvilinear: Consisting of, or contained by, a curved line or lines; having the form of a curved line. (Opposed to rectilinear and in Gothic Archit. to perpendicular, as applied to window-tracery.) Hence curvilinearity is the state of being curvilinear. (Oxford English Dictionary) Because state of being curvilinear seems to be the most critical architectural quality in creating generic algorithmic forms in CAAD design in general and in Greg Lynn s design specifically, in the next part, autonomous quality of Greg Lynn s computer-based produced curvilinearity effects (Lynn, 2003) and their gestalt organizations (Mennan, 2003, 8) will be examined. The Former Phase: Greg Lynn and Curvilinearity Effect In his essay The Folded, The Pliant and The Supple Greg Lynn seems to set up a glossary of the curvilinearity by giving the definitions of the fold, pliable, plexus, smooth space, supple, viscosity: as well as introducing some important figures like Edmund Husserl, D Arcy Thompson, Gilles Deleuze, Spinoza, Rene Thom (Lynn, 1998, ). In this way he constructs scientific and philosophical base 19

6 of the non-euclidean curvilinear geometry dominant in his architecture. Yet, on the basis of the same study it can be stated that by means of a direct application of his variation methods into Lynn s architectural design processes zoologist D Arcy Thompson has a privileged over other names. At the Conference of Growth and Form: the Engineering of Nature, about the more recent influences of D Arcy Thompson on science and contemporary aesthetics Ryszard Sliwka states that: D Arcy Thompson s explorations in On Growth and Form was influential in the positivistic debates crucial to the birth of the early modernism. However it can also be seen as a pivotal bridge between the nineteenth century attempts to establish a unity between scientific, aesthetic and spiritual life, and the more recent developments in science, biology and mathematics. (Sliwka, 2001) D Arcy Thompson examines such matters as the curve of frequency or bell curve which explains variations in height among 10-year-old schoolboys, the florets of a daisy, the distribution of darts on a cork board, the thickness of stripes along a zebra s flanks, or the shape of mountain ranges and sand dunes. On this basis, the two examples which are shown below (Figure 3) exemplify transformation of the prototype baboon skull geometry into skulls of other primates or humans; and of a frog into Apollo: Figure 3. Darcy Thompson, transformation of frog into Apollo. (Lynn, 1998) In these regards, D Arcy Thompson and his variation method can be highlighted as the boldest figure throughout the embodiment of the curved space in Greg Lynn s design terminology. Yet although technically they are the same, it is not proper to say that Lynn s computer generated algorithmic form variation processes may easily be classified as in the same category as D Arcy Thompson s attempt to reduce biological phenomena to mathematics. On the contrary, D Arcy Thompson s variations are from biological phenomenon to mathematics, whereas Greg Lynn s are from architectural/cultural phenomenon to mathematics. Shifting point in Lynn s design strategy is mainly grounded onto this difference. Although in Calculated Variations Lynn recently indicates that architectural design is more than a variation process and criticizes the production of mere process (Lynn, 2003); his earlier works indicate that he not only produced mere processes but also clearly defended them. At this point, it will be useful to remember a preparatory event towards shifting Lynn s design line. It is the memorable discussion about Embryologic Houses (1998) (Figure 4) between Greg Lynn and Peter Eisenman which corresponded to Lynn s earlier phase. 20

7 1st International CIB Endorsed METU Postgraduate Conference Built Environment & Information Technologies, Ankara, 2006 Embryologic Houses project is important for two reasons: first it significantly exemplifies Greg Lynn s fundamental design approach which is borrowed mainly from Henri Bergson and D Arcy Thompson; and second, it is exactly the main reason that Peter Eisenman criticizes him. On this basis, following Greg Lynn s words Embryologic Houses can be described as: The Embryologic Houses employ a rigorous system of geometrical limits that liberate models of endless variations [ ] This [variation] marks a shift from a modernist, mechanical technique to a more vital, evolving, biological model of embryological design and construction. (Lynn, 2000) Figure 4. Embryologic Houses, represented as series, (Lynn, 2000) The 6 th Discussion As the final meeting of the ANY Conferences, the 6 th discussion held at the Solomon Guggenheim Museum in New York City on June The reason that this study links to the 6 th Discussion is that it helps to clarify Lynn s recent position and underlines one of the crucial problematic between CAD design and Architecture. In these regards, the spectacular dialogue between Eisenman and Lynn in the discussion is this: - (Eisenman) In this profession we don t talk to one another anymore When Greg presents his work, I want to know what the design principles are that operate in his work so that we can have a critical debate. - (Lynn) I am resistant to talking here. - (Eisenman) I m just asking you a question. I ve asked it in private; I asked it in public. How do you chose the one out of 169; how do you know when you ve gotten there, and what makes it more than just an illustration of architecture? What kind of interiority of the discourse does it have? Just because it shelters does that make it architecture? - (Lynn) No. 21

8 - (Eisenman) And I ve asked you in many occasions to tell me how I would know that what you do could better or worse. -(Lynn)[ ] In terms of evaluating and picking which one is best, the whole point is that I don t want to have to do that. (Anything, 2001: Discussion 6) Peter Eisenman criticizes dominance of Lynn s dogmatic positivist approach over the design process. As constructed in this paper grounding idea under Eisenman s criticism can be summarized as: if D Arcy Thompson s systematic variation method is taken as an immense architectural process under the guidance of a software program for a highly autonomous and smooth continuation of the architectural conclusions, the result will only be digitally delayed simultaneous gestalt formations (Mennan, 2003). And for the reason that there is a chosen one, the whole production strategy of a series is lost. Below (Figure 5) the chosen one as presented by Greg Lynn. On these bases, it can be claimed that one of the reasons that Greg Lynn changed his design strategy is this kind of critiques that he was confronted with. On the basis of that, in this paper Alan Colquhoun s impressive analysis and critique will be taken as a focal point in solidifying and clarifying Eisenman s critique. Alan Colquhoun in his essay Typology and Design Method criticizes the reductionist Figure 5. Embryologic Houses, represented as the chosen one, (Lynn, 2000) theory and its problem solution process as the process of exclusion. On this base and following Colquhoun s own words, Lynn s expressionist attitudes which were dominated by believing in freedom and intuition those which belong to his former design phase can be criticized as untenable. On this regard, after clarifying that there is a close relationship between the pure functionalist or teleological theory and expressionism Alan Colquhoun states that: By insisting on the use of analytical and inductive methods of design, functionalism leaves a vacuum in the form-making process. This it fills with its own reductionist aesthetic-the aesthetic that claims that intuition, with no historical dimension, can arrive spontaneously at forms which are the equivalent of fundamental operations. (Colquhoun, 1986) In Calculated Variations Lynn makes a self-criticism and calls his design approach as: former. For the reason that Calculated Variations exemplifies a sharp difference in Lynn s position, before entering into the second part of this 22

9 1st International CIB Endorsed METU Postgraduate Conference Built Environment & Information Technologies, Ankara, 2006 study it will be useful to remember its logical self-critical structure. In this short paper Greg Lynn confirms that: First, Architecture is more than a smoothly processed algorithmic conclusion. Second, there is already a non-euclidean shape class through which producing the infinite numbers of gestalt organizations or effects is possible. Third, within the existence of this formal framework the former phase of the design strategy is for mastering over the software based formal variation techniques to reproduce these effects more smoothly. And fourth, the later phase is for reproducing these effects with rigor accompanied by an aesthetic, social, cultural and technical discourse. The Later Phase: Art Nouveau Lynn s exploration of the harmonics and proportion of new geometries is combined with the variation and mutation possible with forms defined by calculus. These two qualities, mutation and proportion, gives the work decidedly organic, animistic appearance. The new technologies of undulating surfaces are developed with rigor and precision along with a keen awareness of history, including Art Nouveau, Secessionist and Jugendstil design and architecture. ( 2004) In the Official web page of Greg Lynn it is underlined that for Lynn awareness of history of form is as important as the calculated form definition process. Furthermore, as it can be followed so literally through the lines of Calculated Variations, he underlines act of reproducing the Art Nouveau effects as accompanied by Art Nouveau as a cultural product. These two examples seem to support Lynn s transformed terminology on architectural design. In that sense, following the connotations and etymology of the word we can trace both formal and cultural effects of Art Nouveau on Lynn s design strategy. According to the Oxford English Dictionary Art Nouveau effect is characterized by the organic or foliate forms and by its flowing (i.e. non-euclidean) lines and curves. In addition to this, cultural means of Art Nouveau can be described through its historical and geographical features. for example, it flourished between 1890 and 1910 throughout Europe and United States. It was employed most often in architecture, interior design, jevelry, and glass design, posters and illustrations. Art Nouveau developed first in England and soon spread to the European continent, where it was called Jugendstill in germany, Sezessionstill in Austria, Stille Floreale (or stile Liberty) in Italy, and Modernismo (or Modernista) in Spain. On these bases, it can be stated that, Art Nouveau provides both a supportive atmosphere, and also an aesthetic, social, cultural and technical discourse for the curvilinear class of shapes. In Calculated Variations Lynn discusses curved space and curvilinearity under the term new class of shapes. He defines them as calculus based-that is, built out of interconnected and interacting variables, and having a high degree of continuity and intricacy (Lynn, 2003). 23

10 Below, Figure 6 shows aesthetic, social, cultural and technical continuity in Lynn s later phase design. Selected Art Nouveau class of shapes and Lynn s new class of shapes are compared with each other through their gestalt formations or effects. On this basis it can be stated that, although two groups of production are belong to the completely different production processes, as followed through the images they share same gestalt principles. Figure 6: Art Nouveau class of shapes: upper figures from left to right Art Nouveau Tropon Poster - Henri Van de Velde 1898, Art Nouveau style Louis Comfort Tiffany vase; Art Nouveau silver stamp detail, Below figures from left to right: Art Nouveau porcelain vase, 1900; detail of Hotel Solvay, Brüssel, Victor Horta, ; detail of Hotel Solvay; Louis Comfort Tiffany vase,1896; Art Nouveau glass vase, (Schmutzler, 1977; Selz & Constantine, 1975; Miller, 2004.) CONCLUSION This study intends to discuss the cultural means of architecture on the context of the CAAD. Since most of the familiarized examples of CAAD seem to exclude cultural means and includes closed processes of technological design loops on behalf of a solid scientific determinism, the study concentrates on the word intuition which discerns the differences between the design approaches of these two discourses. Following the critique of intuition as developed by Alan Colquhoun, the study then focuses on one of the significant discursive transformations within the CAAD culture. Therefore the main objective of this study can be summarized as rereading Greg Lynn s exhibition paper Calculated Variations with reference to his former discourses. Contrary to the former assertions of Lynn, Calculated Variations announces that architecture is a cultural product. Although Lynn seems to transform his termi- 24

11 1st International CIB Endorsed METU Postgraduate Conference Built Environment & Information Technologies, Ankara, 2006 nology and develop a sensibility to the architectural culture as seen from the exhibition paper, he still seems to confuse analyzing his design objects and denies the 200 years non-euclidean formal tradition behind the class of shapes through which they have produced. Even though, he refers non-euclidean geometry as a system in mathematics, he ignores the fact that in the 19 th century, this system generated a new class of shapes as new gestalt entities and chanced the perception as well. In this regard, Lynn s new class of shapes which is appointed to his series of production for Alessi is not new. Yet, origin of the formal codes of the new class of shapes can be found in non-euclidean geometry. From the point of view of the Gestalt psychology new class of shapes is a calculus based gestaltic organization. Since these organization still follows 19 th century non-euclidean formal codes, no matter how they were produced differently [i.e. produced by the CNC machine], they can be classified under the same principles of Gestalt psychology: those are law of continuation, simultaneous figure and ground reversal, and pragnanz. On the other hand, functional origins of these productions can be found in Art Nouveau movement. Yet, what makes Lynn s production different or new is then not in their gestalt formation, or in their function, but in the production process itself. Since he did not say so, this study worked on some possible paradoxical points in Calculated Variations. On the bases of these, it can be said that technological determinism cannot creates new gestalt formations. It neither creates them, nor decides or chooses one of them as an end product. Therefore, the involuntary decision which is created by technologically deterministic processes once more legitimizes Eisenman s question of how one can decide to choose and freeze a particular object in this kind of processes? As it is discussed earlier, origin of this question is in Alan Colquhoun s critique of intuition. Yet, like Colquhoun, Kurt Koffka in his book Principles of Gestalt Theory also points out the dogmatic positivist tendency founded in purely scientific approaches. In this regard, he states that if we claimed that the universe and all events in it form one big gestalt, we should be as dogmatic as the positivists (Koffka, 1963, 22). Like Koffka, Alan Colquhoun states that even though all artifacts have the power of becoming icons or gestalt entities, linking these entities directly with the closed loops of scientific processes [the idea of one big gestalt] can be described as dogmatism. In representing the surrounding phenomenal world, science by its nature has always tended to support objectification, reductionism, oversimplification, and therefore dogmatism. Since it has powerful relations with science and technology, CAAD has always be the field of experience in architectural design under these tendencies. With these in mind, On account of Lynn s changing terminologies accompanied by his design methodology, the study points out that, like science, CAAD also tends to conduct designers to reject questioning social, cultural, and communicational aspect in their design methodologies. Therefore, even if in one of his latest papers 25

12 Greg Lynn accepts that architecture is a cultural product, it may not be surprised that in the same paper he still uses a hybrid terminology, which sometimes reflects his former discourses. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Many of the ideas presented in this paper were the outcome of the course paper written by the author of this study. The name of the paper is Calculus Based Curvilinearity: An Inquiry into Calculated Variations and were presented to ARCH717 in 2004 in METU. REFERENCES COLQUHOUN, A. (1986), Typology and Design Method, in Essays in Architectural Criticism: Modern Architecture and Historical Change, Opposition Books, The MIT Press, Cambridge Mass., pp DAVIDSON, C.C. (2001), Discussion Six, Anything, Anyone Corporation, New York, The MIT Press, Cambridge Mass., London, pp HENDERSON, L.D. (1983), Non-Euclidean Geometry in The Fourth Dimension and Non- Euclidean Geometry in Modern Art, Princeton University Press, Princeton New Jersey, pp KOFFKA, K. (1963), Generality of The Gestalt Category in Principles of Gestalt Psychology, A Harbinger book, Harcourt, Brace & World, United States of America, p. 22. LYNN, G. (2003), Calculated Variations, English original of Variations Calculees, in Migayrou, F., Mennan, Z. (eds.), Architecture Non Standard, Paris, Editions du Centre Pompidou, pp LYNN, G. (1998), Folds, Bodies & Blobs: Collected Essays, Books-by-Architects Series, Bibliothéque Royale de Belgique. LYNN, G. (1999), Animate Form in Animate Form, Princeton Architectural Press, New York, pp LYNN, G. (2002), Embryologic Houses in Contemporary Processes in Architecture, Rahim, A. (eds.), Architectural Design, (vol. 72, no.1), January, pp MENNAN, Z. (2003), Of Non-Standard Forms: A Gestalt Switch, English original of Des Formes Non Standard: Un Gestalt Switch, in Architecture Non Standard, Migayrou, F., Mennan, Z. (eds), Paris, Editions du Centre Pompidou, pp RAHÝM, A. (2002), Introduction in Contemporary Techniques in Architecture, Rahim, A. (eds.), Architectural Design, (vol. 72, no. 1), January, pp RAJCHMAN, J. (1998), Other Geometries in Constructions, Writing Architecture Series, The MIT Press, Cambridge Mass, pp RYSZARD, S. (2001), On Growth and Form: Nineteenth Century Intimations in Emergent Contemporary Architecture in On Growth and Form: The Engineering of Nature of ACSA East Central Regional Conference, School of Architecture University of Waterloo, Canada. Available: 26

13 1st International CIB Endorsed METU Postgraduate Conference Built Environment & Information Technologies, Ankara, STEWARD, I. (2001), Flatterland: Like Flatland Only More So, Perseus Publishing, Greg Lynn s home page. Oxford English Dictionary, Second Edition 27