The impact of biological factors on musicality

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1 EUROPEAN JOURNAL FOR YOUNG SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS The impact of biological factors on musicality Anne Lehtimäki Abstract This paper discusses the impact of biological factors on the musicality of an individual. Researchers offer various definitions of musicality, such as a having good judgment skills in music. Evolutionary theories aim to explain musicality in terms of biological factors. Charles Darwin related musicality to sexual selection, a trait worth passing on. Later on, it was emphasised that in evolutionary terms music aids the survival of an infant. Furthermore, twin and family studies are research methods used to explain the biological effects of musicality. A previous twin study concluded that auditory development was caused by 80 percent of genetic components. Additionally, as the result of three family studies, a gene variant, arginine vasopressin 1a receptor gene (AVPR1A), was discovered and associated with musical aptitude. The studies concluded that 50 percent of the determination of an individual s musicality is the result of genes. Musical development is also dependent on environmental factors. Previous study has listed categories such as motivation, quality practice and coping with pressure, which were all involved in the musically defined participants environments. Based on the results of the studies, it can be concluded that genetics constructs an important basis for musicality, and specific genes related to music and language make humans susceptible to be musical. However, even though genetics consists of over 50 percent of one s musicality, it is only consistent exposure to a stimulating environment that ultimately activates these musical genes. 1 Introduction According to the Cambridge Dictionaries, musicality is briefly explained by skill and good judgment in playing music (Musicality, n.d.). However, it is challenging to find definitions of musicality, which are widely applicable. A child singing a nursery rhyme, a harmonica player playing by ear and a conductor, such as Toscanini, may all be considered musical to a certain extent (Jaffurs, 2004). The term musicality has many meanings and is applicable to various definitions. Hence, researchers offer various ways to define musicality. Gembris (1997) argues that definitions of musicality gradually change over time according to the time period. For example, later in the 1900s, emphasis was largely put on psychometric tests measuring musicality including cognitive elements of musical perception. Today, according to Gembris, the focus has been directed to the musical meaning approach, which is based on the idea of subjective sense and meaning of music. He emphasises that as well as handling psychometric tests, musical research ought to be grounded in the aesthetic perspective of musicality that maintains the musical meaning approach. Professor Edwin Gordon (2011) sees that every individual is born with an innate capacity to develop musicality. Gordon calls this degree of innateness musical aptitude. Musical aptitude tests have been developed to assess basic musical skills of an individual, thus, determine a basis for musicality. In other words, musical aptitude tests aim to reveal the musical potential of the individual. Additionally, 3

2 LEHTIMÄKI according to Gordon, the degree of musical aptitude may be shaped by early environment influences from birth, only until the age of nine. However, afterwards, the individual may still achieve in music, but according to their musical potential. Therefore, exposing a child to music from a young age will help to assure a child will come close to reaching their full potential. Sandra Trehub (2001) argues that humans possess a biological basis for musical processing and expression. Her research based on infant studies has shown that infants have predispositions for musical elements, such as melodic contours and rhythm, and are highly responsive and show sustained attention to their mothers singing. In her study, singing episodes also showed inverse correlation in connection to the infants salivary cortisol levels, which supports the existence of neurobiological factors on processing of musical elements. Music perception from some perspectives seems to be unique in humans. In general, animal studies have been conducted in order to recognise the role of biological factors in musicality, more specifically determine the functional specificity of musical traits (McDermott, 2008, p. 288). This evolutionary view is based on the idea that if similarities between humans and nonhuman animals exist, it can suggest that the trait did not evolve for musical behaviour (McDermott, 2008). The aim of this paper is to discuss the impact of biological factors on musicality. Genetics, neurobiological and animal studies, and studies on human infants give an insight to the biological origins of musicality. In particular, researchers have searched for genes to explain musicality in terms of inheritance. In this examination also other possible factors, such as the role of the environment, will be considered. Ultimately, the investigation of the effects of biological factors on musicality helps to develop the field of music education in order to detect and motivate musically potential individuals. 2 Evolutionary explanations for musicality The first ideas and views of the origins of musicality were based on the evolution theory. Charles Darwin ( ) was one of the first people to consider reasons for the existence of music. He presented the theory of evolution using two potential theories: Natural selection (Survival of the fittest) and Sexual selection. According to Darwin, natural selection had no connection with music, but instead he suggested that sexual selection was more likely on the right track. Here it is considered that the ability to make music displays coordination, determination and good hearing, in other words portrays good genes that a female would like to pass on (Ball, 2010). However, considering the fact that Darwin constructed his theories in the 19 th century, it is worth looking at more recent views on this same issue. Even though there is scientific evidence for the evolution theory, certainly not all researchers agree with this view to musicality. With the huge aid of modern technology and more scientific studies, researchers have managed to generate qualified arguments to back up the evolutionary aspects of music. 4

3 THE IMPACT OF BIOLOGICAL FACTORS ON MUSICALITY Contrary to Darwin s views, Konner (1987) first stated that in terms of evolution, parent-infant bonding may have been the primary survival benefit (as cited in Hodges and Sebald, 2011). As young infants do not yet fully comprehend speech, they do indeed sense the feeling of pitch, rhythm, timbre and dynamics all crucial elements of music. A lack of love and affection causes permanent psychological and emotional harm for infants. However, music is a means of parent-infant bonding. Therefore, as the love between the parent and infant strengthens their bond and thus the infant s survival, this makes musicality worth being passed on through inheritance for the survival of species (Hodges and Sebald, 2011). Hodges and Sebald (2011) continued the explanation of the link between evolution and music in terms of survival benefits. Musical features are a tool in communicating the needed love and affection to a newborn. Small gestures such as patting, rocking and stroking the baby with additional singing increase the survival rate of babies. To conclude, it is essential that newborns have the ability to respond to anything related to musical behaviours for the mother to communicate love. A newborn cannot yet acquire these abilities from its environment, thus s/he must have it innate for survival. In terms of evolution, without the musical behaviours the species could become extinct. Hodges cited that Dissanayake (2009) confirms this statement that music strengthens the mother-infant vocal communication and thus expresses the love and affection between the two individuals (Hodges and Sebald, 2011). Secondly, for the survival of humans, man must develop sufficient language skills for communication and self-expression. Speech and music share the same elements such as melodic contour, timbre variations and rhythm. The use of infantdirected speech aids the infant to recognise these elements, and with the help of music (such as the singing of parent) the motivated infant will gradually acquire essential language skills. Looking from the survival perspective, it was crucial for the brain to possess neural systems that can produce and interpret verbal and nonverbal messages (Hodges and Sebald, 2011). Ultimately, social organisations are kept together with music. Cross and Morley (2009) came to the conclusion that music enhances group unity by formation of group identity, synchronisation of behaviour and cognition, and so on. Taking prehistoric times into account, cooperation was central for hunting, gathering and protection. In other words, as music strengthens the bonds between humans, it is a crucial aspect for survival. Music and dance are perfect ways to develop a feeling of unity and share thoughts and emotions (Hodges and Sebald, 2011). Furthermore, animal studies have been used to study the biological basis of musical processing, such as sound perception. Researchers have studied nonhuman primates to compare their auditory processing to that of humans. McDermott and Hauser (2007) conducted a research study to find out how adult tamarins and marmosets responded to music with a fast (techno) or slow tempo (a lullaby played on the flute) and to see if the findings were comparable to humans. According to the results, both the tamarins and the marmosets clearly preferred the lullaby over the fast techno. Both musical stimuli were of the same loudness to the human ear, but this might have varied for the monkey subjects. In variations of the method, it was 5

4 LEHTIMÄKI also noted that the tamarins and the marmosets showed a strong preference for silence over the musical stimuli, while this occurred vice versa among humans. McDermott and Hauser suggest possible explanations for this, one being that animals associate stressful events in the natural environment, such as storms, with high levels of arousal. Conversely, humans tend to find musical stimuli relaxing, hence prefer music over silence (McDermott & Hauser, 2007). Studies, such as McDermott and Hauser (2007), emphasise the differences between humans and animals in terms of sound perception. However, the knowledge related to animals and music perception is not close to being sufficient, but offers a valuable insight into evolutionary psychology. Overall, a large number of species lack music, apart from birds and whales and other species that rely largely on their song sequences (McDermott, 2008). 3 Genetics and musicality 3.1 Twin research on musicality Another biological point of view to musicality is twin research. Twin studies can help to determine the role of genetics in musicality. Drauna and colleagues (2001) studied 136 pairs of monozygotic twins and 148 pairs of fraternal twins aged The participants were to identify false notes in familiar tunes played. As in twins studies generally, both members of each pair of twins shared the influence of the same environment. They concluded that the influence of heredity on the level of auditory development was around 80 percent. Furthermore, the US National Institute on Deafness requested 136 pairs of identical twins and 148 pairs of non-identical twins to identify distorted tunes 20- second clips of 26 melodies including national anthems, nursery rhymes and other common songs. The monozygotic twin participants gave correct answers 75 to 80 percent of the time, resulting with a strong correlation. However, those who were dizygotic twins answered correctly only 40 percent of the time. The researchers concluded that one in four adults had problems with recognition of tunes, whilst one in 20 had severe tone deafness. Moreover, it can be shown that since there were more genetically related participants who succeeded in the test, genetics must play some closely dominant role in musicality (Duckworth, 2001). Despite the twin studies mentioned, there are almost no published twin studies on musicality, and those that are published, may have conclusions made on the basis of informal biographical data with no objective psychometric measures applied (Lehmann, Sloboda and Woody, 2007, p.38). Hence, this puts emphasis on the unreliability of measuring such abilities including intelligence and musicality. 3.2 Family studies on musicality The role of biological factors is not only studied by twin studies, but family studies are also used for a more generalizable account of musicality. Researchers have only recently succeeded to identify a gene related to musicality. Previously, Roni Granot 6

5 THE IMPACT OF BIOLOGICAL FACTORS ON MUSICALITY and his colleagues have showed that the arginine vasopressin 1a receptor (AVPR1A) and serotonin transporter genes are associated with a music-related phenotype, creative dance. In 2007, Granot, et al. continued their research on the genes and conducted a pilot study on 82 university students. They concluded that the AVPR1A gene is associated with musical memory (Granot, et al., 2007). Furthermore, Irma Järvelä and colleagues (see Pulli, et al., 2008; Ukkola, et al., 2009; Ukkola-Vuoti, et al., 2011) continued this research even further, increasing the sample size studied. As opposed to the method used by Granot and colleagues (2007), the later studies used musical aptitude tests to better associate musicality and the gene. In general, aptitude tests are commonly used to assess basic musical skills, since they allegedly do not rely on training on specific instruments or concepts (Lehmann, Sloboda and Woody, 2007). Pulli and colleagues (2008) conducted the first study showing that musical aptitude has a link to genes. (Wright, 2008) There were 224 Finnish participants (105 males and 119 females) nationwide consisting of active amateurs and/or professional musicians. Snowball sampling was used as a sampling technique to gather the 15 families studied. The participants were to complete three musicality tests and fill in a questionnaire, which was to divide them into three musicality levels. In addition, the DNA of 205 individuals was extracted. As a conclusion, results showed that the overall heritability of musical talent is 50 percent, whilst the remaining 50 percent was left for other environmental factors (Pulli, et al., 2008). In 2009, Ukkola, et al. studied 19 Finnish families (n=343) (mean age of 43 years) with professional and/or amateur (active) musicians. DNA samples were taken from 298 participants (86.9%) of those who were over 12 years of age. All participants were tested using the auditory structure ability test and tests for pitch and time discrimination. In addition, each family member completed a questionnaire on creativity in music. Results showed that the haplotype AVPR1A was associated with the musical activity of the participants (Ukkola, et al., 2009). Interestingly, AVPR1A has been previously correlated with social cognition and behaviour, which makes it a strong potential gene with music perception and production. It has also been associated with intrinsic attachment behaviour, thus relates back to the evolutionary theories. Hence, Darwin proposed that music is involved with sexual selection among animals to attract a suitable mate. Furthermore, music (singing or playing an instrument) is a means of attaching a mother to her child, and to add group cohesion. Overall, human cognitive social skills, such as bonding and altruism, are associated with the haplotype, demonstrating the close linkage between this specific gene and musicality (Ukkola, et al., 2009). Ukkola-Vuoti and colleagues (2011) found a connection between the previously mentioned AVPR1A gene variants and listening to music. The participants came from 31 Finnish families (n=437) of ages 8-93 from professional to amateur musicians lacking music education. Their active (such as attending concerts) and passive music listening (hearing as background music) habits were recorded. Participants took a musical aptitude test and their DNA was analysed. 7

6 LEHTIMÄKI Consequently, this gene was involved in music listening. Hence, results indicated a linkage between sound perception and the gene. Research on AVPR1A gene variants and its association with musical aptitude has been conducted only on Finnish participants, but needs further cross-cultural research in the future for generalisation to a larger population. In addition, the samples in the aforementioned studies are rather small. As gene interaction is complex, up to now it can merely be stated that one gene is only associated with a certain trait. The present research area is still a beginning, but constructs a wide base on which more research can be conducted. Absolute pitch (AP) is a rare ability related to identification of musical tones and their corresponding note names. Theusch, Basu and Gitschier (2009) studied the genetic basis of AP in a cross-cultural sample of a family study. The analysis of DNA samples of individuals possessing AP reflected results showing a linkage peak in the genotype data, which also was reported as being statistically significant. Overall, the researchers concluded that AP is genetically heterogeneous, at least in families of European ancestry. 3.3 Possible link between language gene and musicality Music and language have a close linkage. Studies on a British family (also known as the KE family) constructed a link between a single gene and a developmental disorder of speech and language. This specific gene (FOXP2) is simply inherited, but one damaged copy leads to a disorder with problems in grammar and sentence production, called aphasia. It is known that speech/language and musical harmonic processing are all localised in Broca s and Wernicke s areas in the human brain. Studies (e.g. Haesler, et al., 2004), suggest that FOXP2 expression in specific brain regions of birds is related to learning song sequences. Overall, language and music share common elements, such as rhythm and pitch, and are localised in the same areas of the brain, which may suggest reasons for their close relationship and same origin, and again highlights the impact of genes on musicality (Patel, 2008). Further research in the future might reveal some possible interaction between the genes related to language and music, FOXP2 and AVPR1A, respectively. Music and language have a close linkage. Studies on a British family (also known as the KE family) constructed a link between a single gene and a developmental disorder of speech and language. This specific gene (FOXP2) is simply inherited, but one damaged copy leads to a disorder with problems in grammar and sentence production, called aphasia. Moreover, the speech disorder also affects vocal abilities, such as singing. Alcock and colleagues (2000) studied members of the KE family using music perception tasks, comparing their performance with control groups. They concluded that the affected family had no problems with intonation tasks or control of pitch, but were impaired on the vocal production of rhythm. It is known that speech/language and musical harmonic processing are all localised in Broca s and Wernicke s areas in the human brain. Studies suggest that FOXP2 expression in specific brain regions of birds is related to learning song 8

7 THE IMPACT OF BIOLOGICAL FACTORS ON MUSICALITY sequences (e.g. Haesler, et al., 2004). Overall, language and music share common elements, such as rhythm and pitch, and are partly localised to the same areas of the brain, which may suggest reasons for their close relationship and same origin, and again highlights the impact of genes on musicality (Patel, 2008). Further research in the future might reveal some possible interaction between the genes related to language and music, FOXP2 and AVPR1A, respectively. Moreover, there are also other genes that have been linked to susceptibility of language impairment. Couto and colleagues (2008) studied a candidate gene (KIAA0319-Like) and its association to reading disabilities using DNA extraction. The study found supporting evidence for the linkage between the expression of the candidate gene and reading disabilities within the sample of families with European ancestries who were under study. 4 The interaction between biological and environmental factors 4.1 The impact of family environment on musicality Whilst discussing the impact of biological factors on musicality, environmental factors must also be considered, as they are closely shaped by each other. In the 1960s, the origins of musicality were mostly studied by comparing non-musical and musical children. This was one way of determining the effect of family environment on musicality. In 1965, John Shelton conducted a study by dividing the participants, English schoolchildren, into two groups: musical and non-musical. The results were reasonably clear: 91.6 percent of non-musical children were from non-musical families (cited in Kirnarskaya, 2009). However, these results are ambiguous, as it is not known whether the children are unmusical due to their non-musical environment or whether they had just inherited their non-musicality. There are also other statistics by Shelton going even deeper into categorisation: About 16.6 percent of musical children are from musical families, 61.1 percent from moderately musical families and lastly 22.2 percent come from noticeably unmusical families. These figures refer to the fact that an individual inherits his/her musicality, thus the environment is not a key factor in stimulating musical development. However, as 22.2 percent of musical individuals are born into unmusical families, it is noticed that there are factors other than genetics explaining musicality. On the other hand, it can be concluded that 90 percent of unmusical children are from unmusical families. This implies that there most likely is some direct correlation between the parents non-musicality and their children s (Kirnarskaya, 2009). 4.2 The effects of practice on the brain Deliberate practice is crucial while developing musical skill. Researchers have conducted several studies confirming the necessity of deliberate practice for musical development. Moreover, researchers debate on whether quality or quantity leads to 9

8 LEHTIMÄKI direct success. Ericsson, Krampe and Tesch-Römer (1993a) conducted a well-known study clarifying the relationship between the number of hours rehearsed and the level of success achieved. Music professors nominated violin students into the following categories: 10 best, 10 good and 10 lower achieving. Students were asked to estimate the amount of practice they had done each year since they had started playing. By the age of 20, the best violinists had completed 10,000 hours of practice, the good 7500 hours and the least achieved a little over 4000 hours. In their second study, the researchers found that expert pianists had practised altogether over 10,000 hours, while amateurs had only accumulated less than 2000 hours. The studies underline the necessity of practice in acquiring musical talent (Ericsson, Krampe and Tesch-Römer, 1993). In terms of biology, formal practice is known to shape the human brain. In 2009, Hyde, et al. conducted a longitudinal study comparing the brain structure of two groups of young children. The first group received 15 months of musical training, whilst the other did not. Consequently, there was a positive correlation between the increase of the size of the corpus callosum and practice intensity. In addition, there were other structural brain changes in the participants brains. Thus, this suggests that deliberate exposure to music can facilitate neuroplasticity, at least in children (Hyde, et al., 2009; Schlaug, 2009). 4.3 The effects of motivation and self-efficacy on musicality Furthermore, motivation and self-regulation are central to the development of musicality. By definition, self-efficacy is the belief of an individual that one can perform sufficiently to their competent level in particular situations (Hodges and Sebald, 2011). Lehmann, Sloboda and Woody (2007) stated that motivation can originate from intrinsic (inner, personal enjoyment) or extrinsic (environmental) sources. They implied that musicality requires motivation and self-efficacy to be acquired, both largely determined by the environment. Thus, self-efficacy and motivation are inextricably connected with musicality. Generally, origins of musicality have been studied by taking into account different environmental factors. Macnamara and Collins (2008) conducted a longitudinal investigation of the psychological elements of developing excellence in musical development. They used semi-structured interviews to process the data collected from 15 young musicians, who were nominated as having potential for later excellence in music. Common to all participants, the researchers listed categories such as motivation, quality practice and coping with pressure, which all were 100 percent involved in the three cohorts presented. On the other hand, there was no note on hereditary factors in the study, but shows to a large extent that musical competence is acquired intrinsically and extrinsically. Ultimately, Kamin and colleagues (2007) studied the influences on the talent development process of non-classical musicians. They especially looked at psychological, social and environmental influences. They confirmed the results of Macnamara and Collins (2008), and added that some participants had more 10

9 THE IMPACT OF BIOLOGICAL FACTORS ON MUSICALITY positive influences from informal teaching (without a teacher). Furthermore, the researchers underlined the importance of self-confidence in musicality. 5 Conclusions Genetics has an important impact on the musicality of an individual, as humans inherit necessary traits from their kin and pass them on to later generations. Already in the 19th century, Charles Darwin related musicality to sexual selection, thus, a trait worth passing on. Later on his views were updated, and it was emphasised that in many ways music aids the survival of an infant (Ball, 2010). The idea of investigating the necessity of musicality helps to determine its chances of being inherited through generations. There has been constant research to find a specific gene for musicality. The development of technology has made it possible to make new genetic discoveries, in which Professor Irma Järvelä and her colleagues have been involved. Their work has made it possible to open a new scope of research in further identifying musical genes and other effects of genetics on musicality. In 2008, Pulli and colleagues concluded that 50 percent of musicality is the result of gene interaction. Their recent discoveries are an advanced basis for further confirmation of the relationship between AVPR1A gene variants and musical aptitude (Pulli et al. 2008, Ukkola et al. 2009, Ukkola-Vuoti et al. 2011). Music and language have been localised in the same brain areas, and they are alike, having similar elements such as rhythm and pitch in common. The vital mother-infant bonding, as suggested by the evolutionary theories, is to some extent formed through communication and language (Patel, 2008). A specific languagerelated gene has previously been identified, but it is not yet known whether there is some interaction between the language and musical genes, FOXP2 and AVPR1A. Additionally, twin studies have been conducted in order to determine genetic components of musicality. However, the lack of twin studies on musicality makes it harder to generalise results (Lehmann, Sloboda and Woody, 2007). Based on some twin studies, results vary from genetic components of 75 to 80 percent (Kirnarskaya, 2009; Duckworth, 2001). However, the findings of Pulli and colleagues (2008), Ukkola and colleagues (2009) and Ukkola-Vuoti and colleagues (2011) state that the gene involvement is 50 percent in humans, having used a different method in their studies. Even though these results vary, it can still be considered that biological factors are in some ways responsible for largely over 50 percent of musical talent. Alternatively, it is interesting to realise how one gene can be related to so many dispositions, such as musical memory, creative dance and musical activity. Hence, there might be other unidentified genes interacting with the AVPR1A gene. On the other hand, genes are activated differently in different environments. In order to activate them, the environment must provide stimulation for the brain. For example, active practising of music has shown to activate and enlarge parts of the brain, for instance the corpus callosum. This is why environmental factors such as 11

10 LEHTIMÄKI deliberate rehearsal and motivation are necessary for the development of musicality. Yet to conclude, up to now it is known that musicality originates from the interaction of genetic predispositions, but an individual s environment is the key that activates these genes, and ultimately shapes the outcome of musical talent. 12

11 THE IMPACT OF BIOLOGICAL FACTORS ON MUSICALITY References Alcock, K.J, Passingham, R.E, Watkins, K. and Vargha-Khadem, F., Pitch and Timing Abilities in Inherited Speech and Language Impairment. Brain and Language, 75, Ball, P., The Music Instinct: How music works and why we can t do without it. London: The Bodley Head. Couto, J. M., et al., The KIAA0319-like (KIAA0319L) gene on chromosome 1p34 as a candidate for reading disabilities. Journal of neurogenetics, 22(4), Cross, I., The nature of music and its evolution. In S. Hallam, I. Cross and M. Thaut (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Music Psychology (pp. 3 13). New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Cross, I. and Morley, I., The evolution of music: theories, definitions and the nature of the evidence. Communicative musicality, Dissanayake, E., The artification hypothesis and its relevance to cognitive science, evolutionary aesthetics, and neuroaesthetics. Cognitive Semiotics, 9(5), Drayna, D., Manichaikul, A., de Lange, M., Snieder, H., and Spector, T., Genetic correlates of musical pitch recognition in humans. Science, 291(5510), Duckworth, L., Musical talent proves to be air on gene string - Science, News - The Independent. The Independent, 9. Mar Ericsson, K.A, Krampe, R.T and Tesch-Römer, C., The role of deliberate practice in the acquisition of expert performance. Psychological Review, 100, 3, Gembris, H., Historical Phases in the Definition of Musicality. Psychomusicology, 16, Gordon, E., Roots of Music Learning Theory and Audiation. Chicago: GIA Publications. Granot, R. Y., et al., Provisional evidence that the arginine vasopressin 1a receptor gene is associated with musical memory. Evolution and Human Behavior, 28(5), Haesler, S., Wada, K., Nshdejan, A., Morrisey, E. E., Lints, T., Jarvis, E. D. and Scharff, C., FoxP2 expression in avian vocal learners and nonlearners. The Journal of Neuroscience, 24(13), Hodges, D. A. and Sebald, D. C., Music in the Human Experience: An Introduction to Music Psychology. New York, NY: Routledge. Hyde, K. L., Lerch, J., Norton, A., Forgeard, M., Winner, E., Evans, A. C. and Schlaug, G., The effects of musical training on structural brain development. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1169(1), Jaffurs, S., Developing musicality: Formal and informal practices. Action, Criticism and Theory for Music Education, 3(3), Kamin, S., Richards, H. and Collins D., Influences on the talent development process of non-classical musicians: psychological, social and environmental influences. Musical Education Research. 9(3), Konner, M., The enigmatic smile. Psychology Today, 21(3), Kirnarskaya, D., The Natural Musician on Abilities, Giftedness and Talent. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. 13

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