Kyoto City University of Arts Research Centre for Traditional Japanese Music

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1 Kyoto City University of Arts Research Centre for Traditional Japanese Music PENDULUM 3 Intensive course on Japanese music in English August 15-17, 2017 LECTURE NOTES TABLE OF CONTENTS (page) 1. Overview 2 2. Gagaku 6 3. Shomyo Shakuhachi Koto (jiuta-sōkyoku) Biwa story-singing Noh Gidayū-bushi Tokiwazu-bushi and kiyomoto-bushi Nagauta Naniwa-bushi 64

2 Overview of Japanese Music 振り子 The swing between one pole and another Japanese traditional music x western music. Chinese music x indigenous music. Shinto x Buddhism. The dominance of western music in contemporary Japan may be seeing a swing back to traditional music, such as in school music, and collaboration between western and Japanese music in young performers practice. Overview of Japanese music How should we define Japanese music? Map: the extent of Japan? Alternating periods of being open to outside influence, and being closed: transmission, preservation and adaptation / change 2 1

3 Relations between Japan and Asia As a backward country, Japan experienced successive waves of influence from more advanced civilizations a receiver of culture By land By sea Peoples, technology (esp. wet rice agriculture), social/political systems, religion, writing system, arts, music etc. 4 Periods of most intensive reception of continental culture Jōmon (12,000? 300 BC) Yayoi (300 BC 300 AD) Kofun ( ) Asuka( ) Nara ( ) Tenpyō (729-48) Heian ( ) Kamakura ( ) Muromachi ( ) Azuchi-Momoyama to early Edo Christian Century Edo ( ) Closed Country Meiji ( ) 5 Historical overview History see table of periods and genres Genres: we are just sticking to extant ones, cannot cover all. Leaving out folk music, festival and village music (minzoku geinō); Okinawan music; Ainu music; Minshingaku; most modern music and contemporary popular music So we are restricting this course to Japanese classical music (as defined these days), koten ongaku, koten geinō. 3 2

4 Characteristics of Japanese music Korea, China, West. What is indigenous Japanese music? Actually, all imported genres have become Japanese, adaptation, preservation Hardware (instruments, notations, even musical theory) can be easily imported. Software (musicality, aesthetics, the meaning of music in society) is not so easily changed. Music introduced from the Asian continent entered elite society, powerful groups, and gradually filtered down. Indigenous folk music gradually filtered up, and was incorporated into elite arts. The result is the development of new genres that are uniquely Japanese. One feature is the continuation of old genres, alongside newly developed or newly introduced genres. Gagaku, noh, heike (What is the position of Ainu music? Okinawan music?) Characteristics of Japanese music Aesthetics (are these uniquely Japanese?) Jo-ha-kyū 序破急 Ma 間 Miyabi 雅, Yūgen 幽玄, wabi-sabi 侘び 寂び, iki/sui 粋 Preservation: tendency to formalize, become slower Oral notation 口唱歌 for instrumental music Named formulaic musical material, patterns, units for vocal music Not so much pure instrumental music (gagaku, matsuribayashi, some koto repertoire, shakuhachi, kokyū) Vocal music, narrative music, musical accompaniment for theatre and dance music is a corollary, subordinate Mode and scale Chinese modal theory imported with gagaku and shōmyō See separate charts prepared by Nelson Indigenous modal practice based on framework of intervals of a fourth (Koizumi Fumio model). See Tokita paper (1996) "Mode and Scale, Modulation and Tuning in Japanese Shamisen Music: The Case of Kiyomoto Narrative". Ethnomusicology (Journal of the Society for Ethnomusicology, USA) 40, 1,

5 Transmission mechanisms 伝統の伝承 Oral transmission 口伝 口頭伝承 Secret teachings 秘伝 Oral mnemonics 口唱歌 口三味線 Written notations 楽譜 記譜法 Learning by stealth 芸を盗む Professional, hereditary transmission from parent to child 一子相伝 Living with the teacher, apprentice 内弟子 Musical notation Oral notation (oral mnemonics, kuchi shōga 口唱歌 ): the instrumental melody is verbalized. Noh flute. Shamisen. Koto. ARCJM p. 17 Hughes DW. No nonsense: The logic and power of acoustic iconic mnemonic systems. British Journal of Ethnomusicology, 2000, Vol.9(2), p Written notations: gagaku and shōmyō since 8 th century. Instrumental music: oral mnemoni syllables written down and used as a tablature Vocal music: symbols and words added to the sung text to indicate pitch, ornamentation, named phrases, instrumental interludes etc Modern systems of notation for shamisen, koto, shakuhachi Discussion questions What is Japanese music? What is its future? Does it matter if traditional music dies out? (Revisit these questions at end of course) 5 4

6 AUGUST 16, 2016 PENDULUM HŌGAKU 京都芸 KYOTO GEIDAI GAGAKU 雅楽 THE OLDEST ONE : PAST, PRESENT OR FUTURE? ANDREA GIOLAI JAPAN FOUNDATION FELLOW RESEARCH CENTRE FOR JAPANESE TRADITIONAL MUSIC, PHD CANDIDATE CA FOSCARI UNVIERSITY IN VENICE AND LEIDEN UNIVERSITY 2 WHAT IS GAGAKU? OFFICIAL NARRATIVE MUSIC DEPARTMENT OF BOARD OF CEREMONIES OF THE IMPERIAL HOUSEHOLD AGENCY (KUNAICHŌ SHIKIBUSHOKU GAKUBU) SINCE 1870 VARIOUS GENRES à INTERNALLY DIVERSE OTHER COURT MUSICS: VIETNAM, KOREA, MUCH MORE RECENT (14 TH TO 19 TH C.) PENDULUM HŌGAKU 京都芸大 KYOTO GEIDAI 万歳楽 MANZAIRAKU MUSIC DEPARTMENT OF BOARD OF CEREMONIES OF THE IMPERIAL HOUSEHOLD AGENCY 3 WHAT IS GAGAKU? CONTINENTAL ORIGINS GOODS, IDEAS AND SOUNDS TRANSPORTED THROUGH THE SILK ROAD(S) à CULTURAL FLOWS DUNGHUAN CAVES MAKE US RECONSIDER ANCIENT CHINESE THOUGHT (AND GAGAKU) CHANGAN: MULTICULTURAL CAPITAL BANQUET MUSIC VS RITUAL MUSIC CONFUCIAN RITUAL MUSIC PENDULUM HŌGAKU 京都芸大 KYOTO GEIDAI 4 ON THE ROAD: DOUBLE REED OBOE GUAN CHINA PIRI KOREA DUDUK ARMENIA AFRICA HICHIRIKI JAPAN 6

7 5 SHŌSŌIN INSTRUMENTS NO LONGER IN USE MODERN RECONSTRUCTIONS: - NATIONAL THEATER CONCERTS -SHIBA SUKEYASU AND REIGAKUSHA PENDULUM HŌGAKU 京都芸大 KYOTO GEIDA 6 HEIAN PERIOD( ):MAXIMUM SPLENDOR INSTITUTIONALIZATION OF TRANSMISSION AND PERFORMANCE: 701: GAGAKURYŌ IMPORTED REPERTOIRE / ŌUTADOKOTO AUTOCHTHONOUS REPERTOIRE 950: BIRTH OF THE GAKUSO/GAKUSHO (SPECIALIZATION OF LOCAL GROUPS/FAMILIES) FIRST COLLECTIONS OF SCORES: EX. TENPYŌ BIWAFU (738) GYOYU (PRIVATE PERFORMANCES): GENJI MONOGATARI, MAKURANOSŌSHI PENDULUM HŌGAKU 京都芸大 KYOTO GEIDAI 番假崇 BANKASŌ HAYASHI KENZŌ RECONSTRUCTION 7 THE INSTRUMENTS: AEROPHONES TRANSVERSE FLUTES (YOKOBUE): DIFFERENT ACCORDING TO THE REPERTOIRE DOUBLE REED OBOE: HICHIRIKI ONE-OCTAVE RANGE, LARGE SOUND, GLISSANDOS (OMERIBUKI) MOUTH ORGAN: SHŌ 17 PIPES, PLAYS CLUSTERS OF SOUNDS (AITAKE) BAMBOO (LAQUERED) AS PRIMARY MATERIAL HICHIRIKI RYŪTEKI KOMABUE SHŌ PENDULUM HŌGAKU 京都芸大 KYOTO GEIDAI KAGURABUE 8 THE INSTRUMENTS: AEROPHONES FROM THE DOCUMENTARY GAGAKU: THE COURT MUSIC OF JAPAN (UNIV. OF OKLAHOMA, 1989) NARRATED AND PRESENTED BY PROF. WILLIAM MALM RYŪTEKI and HICHIRIKI PENDULUM HŌGAKU 京都芸大 KYOTO GEIDAI 7

8 9 THE INSTRUMENTS: CORDOPHONES PLUCKED BOARD ZITHER: (GAKU)SŌ, 13 STRINGS, ANCESTOR OF MODERN KOTO PLUCKED BOARD ZITHER: WAGON, 6 STRINGS AUTHOCHTONOUS, USED FOR SHINTŌ-MUSIC PEAR-SHAPED LUTE: (GAKU)BIWA, 4 STRINGS, ANCESTOR OTHER BIWAS (HEIKEBIWA ) WAGON GAKUBIWA GAKUSŌ PENDULUM HŌGAKU 京都芸大 KYOTO GEIDAI 10 THE INSTRUMENTS: CORDOPHONES FROM THE DOCUMENTARY GAGAKU: THE COURT MUSIC OF JAPAN (UNIV. OF OKLAHOMA, 1989) NARRATED AND PRESENTED BY PROF. WILLIAM MALM GAKUBIWA and GAKUSŌ PENDULUM HŌGAKU 京都芸大 KYOTO GEIDAI 11 THE INSTRUMENTS: MEMBRANOPHONES AND IDEOPHONES BARREL DRUMS: KAKKŌ, SAN NO TSUZUMI FRAMED DRUMS: TAIKO, DADAIKO GONG: SHŌKŌ SHAKUBYŌSHI WOODEN CLAPPERS: SHAKUBYŌSHI DADAIKO TAIKŌ KAKKŌ SAN NO TSUZUMI SHŌKŌ PENDULUM HŌGAKU 京都芸大 KYOTO GEIDAI 12 THE INSTRUMENTS: PERCUSSIONS FROM THE DOCUMENTARY GAGAKU: THE COURT MUSIC OF JAPAN (UNIV. OF OKLAHOMA, 1989) NARRATED AND PRESENTED BY PROF. WILLIAM MALM TAIKO, SHŌKŌ and KAKKŌ PENDULUM HŌGAKU 京都芸大 KYOTO GEIDAI 8

9 13 THE REPERTOIRE: KUNIBURI NO UTAMAI ACCOMPANIED VOCAL MUSIC AND DANCE INDIGENOUS ORIGIN SMALL ENSEMBLE, OUTDOORS IMPERIAL CEREMONIES SHINTŌ CEREMONIES 庭 NIWABI FROM RITUAL MIKAGURA NO GI" PENDULUM HŌGAKU 京都芸大 KYOTO GEIDAI 14 THE REPERTOIRE: KANGEN TŌGAKU PIECES (MAINLY CHINESE ORIGINS) PURELY INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC, ORCHESTRAL PENDULUM HŌGAKU 京都芸大 KYOTO GEIDAI 越天楽 ETENRAKU FROM WAX CYLINDERS RECORDING, PLAYERS PER AEROPHONE, 3 PERCUSSIONISTS, 2 PER STRING (TOT.16 PS) 15 THE REPERTOIRE: BUGAKU ACCOMPANIED DANCE TŌGAKU OR KOMAGAKU: MAINLY KOREAN 蘭陵 RANRYŌ REHEARSAL AND PERFORMANCE PENDULUM HŌGAKU 京都芸大 KYOTO GEIDAI 16 THE REPERTOIRE: UTAIMONO ACCOMPANIED VOCAL PIECES COMPOSED IN JAPAN FORM THE 10 TH CENTURY ON. SAIBARA: FOLKSONGS IN GAGAKU SETTING, RŌEI: CHINESE INTONED POETRY WITH GAGAKU MELODIES, IMAYŌ: LATER (13 TH C.) POPULAR SONGS ILLUSTRATED SCROLL WITH COPY OF WAKANRŌEISHŪ 和漢朗詠集抄 SAIBARA 更 KOROMOGAE PENDULUM HŌGAKU 京都芸大 KYOTO GEIDAI (1160) KYŌTO NATIONAL MUSEUM RŌEI 令 REIGETSU 9

10 17 MUSICAL THEORY: MODES AND SCALES BASED ON CHINESE THEORY: CYCLE OF FIFTHS SANBU SUNYIFA ABSOLUTE PITCHES (12) AND RELATIVE PITCHES (5) PENTATONIC BASE (GOSEI: KYŪ SHO KAKU SHI U) AND EPTATONIC SCALES (SHICHISEI) CHANGE OF THE MODAL FUNCTION OF THE PITCHED à KYŪ AS MODAL CENTRE OF ALL POSSIBLE MODE-TYPES BUILT THROUGH CYCLE OF FIFTHS CHART BY STEVEN G. NELSON IN ASHGATE RESEARCH COMPANION TO JAPANESE TRADITIONAL MUSIC (2008, P.22) PENDULUM HŌGAKU 京都芸大 KYOTO GEIDAI MODEL SANBU SUNYIFA 18 MUSICAL THEORY: MODES AND SCALES SCALE-TYPES DEVELOPED IN JAPAN: RYO (CHINESE BASED) RITSU (JAPANESE PREFERENCE) CHŪKYOKU (MIXED) SIX MODES IN MODERN TŌGAKU: 3 RYO 呂 (ICHIKOTSU, SŌJŌ, ŌSHIKI) 3 RITSU 律 (HYŌJŌ, BANSHIKI, TAISHIKI) PENDULUM HŌGAKU 京都芸大 KYOTO GEIDAI 19 NOTATION DIFFERENT PRINCIPLES FOR EACH INSTRUMENT (+ DANCE) PART SCORES, NOT FULL ORCHESTRAL SCORES ORAL MNEMONICS: KUCHI SHŌGA MODERN NOTATION (SINCE EDO PERIOD) AND ORAL MNEMONICS ARE DIFFERENT FROM ANCIENT ONES MODERN PENTAGRAMMATION (GOSENFUKA): PIONEERING FROM THE 1907, LATER COMPLETE BY SHIBA SUKEHIRO AND OTHERS GAGAKU AS ART MUSIC PENDULUM HŌGAKU 京都芸大 KYOTO GEIDAI : BIRTH OF MODERN GAGAKU 1868: MEIJI RESTORATION, CAPITAL MOVED TO TOKYO (EDO) 1870: OFFICE OF GAGAKU FOUNDED IN TOKYO SUPPRESSION OF LOCAL GROUPS (SANPŌ GAKUSO SYSTEM) SEPARATION SHINTŌ/BUDDHISM (RE)INVENTED CONNECTION WITH (STATE) SHINTŌ AND EMPEROR TRAINING IN WESTERN MUSIC SINCE 1870 à BIMUSICALITY SO-CALLED MEIJI SENTEIFU SCORES CREATION OF UNIFIED SCORES (MEIJI SENTEIFU) AND UNIFORM STYLE PENDULUM HŌGAKU 京都芸大 KYOTO GEIDAI 10

11 21 THE PRACTICE OF GAGAKU IN CONTEMPORARY JAPAN THE OCEAN OF AMATEURS : HUNDREDS OF GROUPS, UNPRECEDENTED SCALE SOCIAL SIGNIFICANCE: TERRITORIAL BONDING, COMMUNITY-MAKING (MACHI-ZUKURI?) COMMUNITIES OF PRACTICE: IDENTITY OF COMPETENCE, LEARNING AS A SOCIAL ACTIVITY, RENOGOTIATION OF THE MEANINGS OF TRADITION INTEREST FOR ANTHROPOLOGISTS: BODILY EXPERIENCE (EMBODIMENT), IMMERSIVE QUALITY OF FIELDWORK, PARTICIPATORY/COLLABORATIVE RESEARCH PENDULUM HŌGAKU 京都芸大 KYOTO GEIDAI 22 THE PRACTICE OF GAGAKU IN CONTEMPORARY JAPAN MAPPING GAGAKU PRACTICE UNIVERSITY CLUBS, CULTURE CENTERS, SHRINES AND TEMPLES, POP MARKET UNESCO ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES PENDULUM HŌGAKU 京都芸大 KYOTO GEIDAI 23 RECENT RESEARCH TRENDS PENDULUM HŌGAKU 京都芸大 KYOTO GEIDAI THE CAMBRIDGE OR PICKEN SCHOOL (LAURENCE PICKEN, ) (1960S~PRESENT) - HIDDEN MELODIC LAYER: STRING INSTRUMENTS AND SHŌ USED TO CARRY THE MELODIES, - TEMPI HAVE SLOWED DOWN MUSIC FROM THE TANG COURT (7 VOLUMES) THE RECONSTRUCTION PARADIGM (1980S~PRESENT) LAURENCE PICKEN INTERVIEW, 1983 HAYASHI KENZŌ, SHIBA SUKEYASU, TAKUWA SATOSHI, STEVEN G. NELSON GAGAKU AND POP MUSIC: TŌGI HIDEKI (WORLD MUSIC? HYBRIDITY?) OUTSIDE JAPAN: HAWAII, GERMANY, USA, NEW TRANSNATIONAL SPACES 24 RECENT RESEARCH TRENDS BEYOND THE CENTER/PERIPHERY DYCHOTOMY: LOCAL BUGAKU AND ANCIENT SCORES (TAKUWA SATOSHI: MORIMACHI PROJECT; RECONSTRUCTION OF DANCE MOVEMENTS) MELODY OF IROKA NO TORI FROM ŌKUNI JINJA (MORIMACHI) + RECONSTRUCTED KARYŌBIN FROM ANCIENT SOURCES LECTURE-DEMONSTRATION FOR MORIMACHI PROJECT, SEPTEMBER 14, 2014 PENDULUM HŌGAKU 京都芸大 KYOTO GEIDAI 11

12 25 DISCUSSION QUESTIONS IN WHAT SENSE IS GAGAKU JAPANESE MUSIC? IN WHAT SENSE IS IT NOT JAPANESE MUSIC? HOW DO YOU EXPERIENCE LISTENING TO GAGAKU? WHY HAS IT LASTED SO LONG? PENDULUM HŌGAKU 京都芸大 KYOTO GEIDAI AUGUST 16, 2016 PENDULUM HŌGAKU 京都芸 KYOTO GEIDAI THANK YOU! ご静聴ありがとうございました! ANDREA GIOLAI andrea.giolai@unive.it 12

13 Shōmyō 声明 PENDULUM Hōgaku 京都芸大 Kyoto 1 Shintō religion Originally, a diffuse lot of cults, beliefs and practices Animism nature revered sacred places Shamanism (role of women) Purification rites Spirits in many things, can appear in different forms Vengeance, grievance sought by angry spirits (goryō shinkō) 2 Buddhism Universal rather than local Philosophical Expressed in artistic forms temples, sculpture, stupas (pagodas) Extensive scriptures and teachings Community of specialist practitioners (monks, priests, nuns)

14 Origin of Buddhism Buddhism: India 5 th century BC; 1 st century CE saw new type, Mahayana, more universal and appealing. Transmitted to China in 1 st century CE, with Buddhist hymns. Sanskrit texts translated into Chinese. Entered Korea from China, then was transmitted to Japan from Korea (Paekche) in 6 th century. It became a state religion in 7 th century. Chinese texts were not translated in Korea or Japan. 4 Earliest ceremonies: reading of sutras (for protection of the state); and repentance. E.g. Shunie (Omizutori), Nigatsu-dō (Tōdaiji) held every March since also the consecration of the Great Buddha at Tōdaiji in Nara: it featured the four standard pieces of shōmyō (bai, sange, bonnon, shakujo) with a lot of continental and indigenous dances and music. Bugaku-shika-hōyō ritual form, combining shomyo with gagaku and bugaku, from 9 th century. Still done at some large temples. Shitennōji in Osaka, Sanze-in in Ohara, NE of Kyoto. 5 Esoteric Buddhism (mikkyō) developed in India in 7 th century CE; music and dance most important in this. Transmitted to Japan at beginning of 9 th century by Japanese priests who studied in China. Shingon esoteric teachings, Kūkai ( ). Kongōbu-ji, Kōyasan, south of Nara. DVD Tendai focus on Lotus sutra, Saichō ( ). Tendai shōmyō largely transmitted by his disciple Ennin ( ). Enryaku-ji, Hieizan. CD

15 Contact with continent broken in 9 th century, long process of Japanization. Became more personal and devotional. New forms were written in Japanese kanbun: hyōhaku, jinbun, saimon, rongi, kōshiki. Later still, vernacular Japanese in sandan, wasan, kyōke. Belief in rebirth in western paradise of Amitabha 阿弥陀如来 浄土. Nenbutsu, wasan, kōshiki. Large-scale ceremonies accompanied by gagaku ensemble to reproduce the glories of the Pure Land. 7 Fusion of Shintō and Buddhism Shinbutsu shūgō Shintō deities the local manifestation of universal Buddhist deities, e.g. Amaterasu (Sun Goddess) = Buddha Vairocana Shintō developed more systematic beliefs, clergy, parishes centred around shrines Shrines and temples located on same sites 8 Rinzai and Sōtō sects of Zen, 13 th to 14 th centuries. Nichiren from Tendai. Shōmyō of Tendai and Shingon developed to a peak in this period. The shōmyō repertoire transmitted today was largely complete by end of 14 th century. 15 th century saw beginning of extended period of civil war, Onin war and next hundred years, decline of gagaku and shōmyō. More transmission than creation and development

16 Mt Kōya Shingon centre printed shōmyō notations for first time in 声明集 Regeneration of Buddhist ceremonies in late 16 and early 17 centuries. Meiji Restoration 1868 laws were passed to separate Buddhism and Shintō, Buddhist temples and contents systematically destroyed. Pendulum swung back by late Meiji. Buddhist studies as a modern western discipline, structures adapted to the new modern age, and new performers and researchers emerged National Theatre encouraged concert performances of shōmyō and gagaku, overseas tours. 10 Shōmyō The music of Buddhist worship; liturgical music. Purely vocal music. Text-centred, unaccompanied, except for some percussion providing signals in between sections or pieces. Mostly by priests in temples, a leader (solo) and group (chorus) who alternate. Richest in the sects of Shingon and Tendai. 11 Languages of shōmyō Sanskrit 梵語 Chinese 漢語 (some from China, some written in Japan) Yomikudashi kanbun 読み下し漢文 (written in Chinese, read as Japanese) Kōshiki 講式 vernacular Japanese 日本語. Wasan 和讃

17 Mode and scale Like gagaku, but in Shingon shōmyō only five scales have been used since 13 th century: sōjō (ryo on G), oshiki (chūkyoku on A), banshiki (ritsu on B), ichikotsu (ryo on D), hyōjō (ritsu on E). Musical styles: syllabic (chant-like, eg for sutras), melismatic, florid. The value of sound as well as the meaning of the text. Octaves: shojū, nijū, sanjū. Melody built up of short melodic patterns. 13 Notations Many kinds; mostly neumatic, combinations of straight and / or curved lines. System developed by Kakui in 1270 still used in Shingon. Goin-bakase 五音博士 Lines that indicate the pentatonic scale arranged in clockwise from low to high around each character of the text. No need to indicate tone duration, as pulse is not regular. 14 Development of liturgy in Japanese language and music. Sekkyō teaching / preaching usually spoken, but sometimes in musical delivery. Kōshiki Wasan

18 Gagaku and shōmyō have traditionally been natural partners, though hard to see that today. In May every year, at Sanzen in temple in Ohara, the large-scale ceremony Senbō-e is carried out with gagaku supplementing the service, whose core is musical liturgy, that is, shōmyō. 16 Mandalas and esoteric Buddhism Enlightenment is gained not through study of sutras, but through teachings secretly transmitted by the cosmic Buddha, accessible through guided initiation in mandalas, mudras and mantras. The two great mandalas (ryōbu mandara): Womb Realm, Taizōkai Diamond Realm, Kongōkai. Express concretely the ideas on the sutras (Dainichi kyō and Kongōchō-gyō). Representations PENDULUM of a Hōgaku perfect 京都芸大 Kyoto cosmos. 17 Types of service / liturgy Shingon pieces relate to the various deities in the Diamond mandala. Shichi no bongo-san: Sanskrit of the four wisdoms. Can be in Sanskrit or in Chinese. Ceremony: hōe; particular rite: hōyō. If esoteric, kongōkai date, or taizōkai date. Four basic shōmyō : bai, sange, bonnon, shakujō. Bai only, Ikka hōyō. Bai + sange nika hōyō. Kyō-date centre round reading of a sutra (e.g. Rishu sanmai); kōshiki-date, built round a kōshiki; ju-date, centre on chanting of mantras

19 Kōyasan Shingon rite DVD Kōyasan no kokoro Tsukinami Mieku 2003 Of the four basic shōmyō pieces bai, sange, bonnon, shakujō, this rite has only bai, so it is ikka hōyō. 19 Tendai shōmyō Tendai shōmyō: Hieizan Enryakuji no shōmyō Taizōkai mandara ku (Studio recording) 20 Kōshiki shōmyō Lecture or teaching delivered musically by a solo cantor. Kanbun, read as Japanese. Three to five long movements (dan), consisting of a series of sections, each delivered with one of three main melody substyles Shoju: syllabic, low range Niju: syllabic, middle range Sanju: melismatic, high range Dan separated by kada hymn in Chinese verse, melismatic PENDULUM Hōgaku style 京都芸大 Kyoto

20 Demonstration by Rev Aoki Rinyū Shichi no bongo san 四智梵語讃 (song of praise in Sanskrit) Shichi no kango san 四智漢語讃 (song of praise in Chinese) Nehan kōshiki 22 Discussion questions What do gagaku and shōmyō have in common What are their obvious differences What is the most important aspect of shōmyō, its function Can shōmyō survive in a secular society Is its appeal more visual than musical Is it in fact music Should it be performed on the concert stage

21 Shakuhachi 尺八 1 Jiuta and sankyoku ensemble 地唄 Jiuta local music (Kyoto-Osaka region) 三味線 三弦 shamisen / sangen 箏 koto 尺八 shakuhachi 胡弓 kokyū 歌 song 三曲 sankyoku ensemble of three instruments (plus voice) 2 Shakuhachi 尺八 Shakuhachi as a solo instrument, its predominant image. Its predecessor, the hitogiri 一節切, accompanied song with shamisen in 17 th century; precursor of sankyoku ensemble. End-blown bamboo notched flute. Born in China, developed in Japan. Entered Japan as part of the tōgaku ensemble of gaaku, late 7 th or early 8 th century. No longer used in gagaku, but 8 specimens are preserved in the Shōsōin, and one in Hōryūji Temple (now Tokyo National Museum). Sharp blowing edge (utaguchi), five fingerholes (4+1) cm. Like Chinese nan-chiba ( 南尺八 ) of nanyin ensemble. Also dong-xiao

22 Other flutes (fue 笛 ) in Japan Transverse flutes: Gagaku ryūteki, nohkan, shinobue End-blown flutes: Hitoyogiri 一節切, tenpuku 天吹 Komusō 虚無僧 shakuhachi Various lengths, pitches. Used in a wide range of music. 4 尺八 Komusō shakuhachi 虚無僧. Begging itinerant flute players (komosō 薦僧 ) Itinerant beggar monks (shaven heads) who played hitoyogiri or similar. Komosō because carried straw mats to sleep on. Then became connected with zen 5 Komusō 虚無僧 priests of nothingness Mid-17 th century Fuke sect 普化宗 of Rinzai Zen established, the komosō were absorbed into it and were called komusō. Priests of the Fuke sect were required to play shakuhachi. 70 komusō temples in Japan late 18 th century. Developed repertoire now called koten honkyoku. Only for takuhatsu (playing in front of houses, receiving donations). Monopoly in principle, but not in practice. Semi-legendary account in Tsukitani,

23 Sect abolished in 1871, major changes in the instrument, its musical style, spiritual attitude of performers. Suizen 吸禅 blowing zen. After 1871, dominant organization was Kinko-ryū, and from 1896 Tozan-ryū in Kansai. Some still follow a spiritual path of shakuhachi. Bamboo cut so that wide root end forms bottom (bell). Cut in middle to regulate length, joined together. Inside coated with lacquer or lacquer mix, to regulate tuning and volume. Some spiritually conservative performers use uncoated jinashi instruments. 7 Schools ryuha 流派 Kinko-ryū 琴古流 (Kurosawa Kinko 黒沢琴古 ) Myōan-ryū, Ozaki Shinryū ( ) Many new schools created after late 19 th century. Tozan-ryū 都山流 (1896, Osaka, Nakao Tozan 中尾都山 ) Ueda Hōdō ( ) broke from Tozan in 1917, 7-holed shakuhachi in Sakai Chikuho ( ) Dōkyoku / Chikushinkai Watazumi Doso Roshi 海童道祖老師 in 1950s Kijishō-ryū founded by Tajima Tadashi (1942-) Several others 8 Categories of piece Two categories of piece in the traditional repertoire Honkyoku 本曲 original, basic Gaikyoku 外曲 performed in ensemble with shamisen and koto (sankyoku). According to Blasdel (quoted in Wade 53), these are to be mastered before honkyoku can be learned. Shinkyoku 新曲 since Meiji period. Also gendai hōgaku 現代邦楽

24 Tsuru no Sugomori 鶴の巣籠 Tokumaru Jumei : "Sokaku Reibo" 巣鶴鈴慕 Kokyū honkyoku Indicates interaction between performers of kokyū and shakuhachi Shakuhachi: Sakai Shozan plays five versions on his CD Primacy of oral transmission This piece was known as a shakuhachi piece in mid-18 th century (in Act 9 of Kanadehon Chūshingura, Yamashina Kankyo no dan, a komuso appears and plays Tsuru no sugomori) Sectional structure; some versions include sections in fixed rhythm Honkyoku usually in free rhythm 10 Repertoire 36 Kinko-ryū honkyoku established by Kurosawa Kinko in Edo period. 150 classical honyoku are extant. Transmitted over centuries, from temple to temple, because komusō travelled widely. E.g. Tsuru no sugomori, 10 variants survive, different melodies and playing styles. Regional styles: Kyushu, Kansai, Kanto, Tohoku. Oral transmission, until Kurosawa Kinko started to notate honkyoku. Tozan-ryū has 87 honkyoku, 27 composed by Nakao Tozan. Only 3 of latter are solo. Modernization. Western influences, e.g. 3/8 rhythm in Kojo no tsuki and Shinsei. Part of Shin Nihon Ongaku, worked with Miyagi. But more deriving from Japanese modes than Miyagi. Japanese harmony (Tsukitani 160). 11 Musical characteristics Mode and scale: standard pre-modern shakuhachi with 5 holes (4+ 1) naturally produces intervals close to pentatonic anhemitonic miyako-bushi (yō) scale. Standard length, d-f-g-a-c-d minyō scale used in folksong, but different from the scale of honkyoku. F and a are lowered by up to a tone, to create other scales, miyako-bushi (ritsu in Myōan ryū). Modulation occurs. Tsukitani 157, Example 7.2. Rhythm: mostly free rhythm. Short melodic units played in one breath. Structure/form: sectional. Tsukitani

25 Performance techniques meri Blow by putting the chin down, to lower the tone kari Blow by putting the chin up, to raise the tone meri-kari system of partial hole closing, up and down head movements and subtle changes in embouchure, a 12-tone chromatic scale up to 3 octaves can be produced nayashi To begin pitch meri and rise to standard pitch tamane Flutter tongue technique muraiki strong blast of breath rather than a musical tone 13 The International Shakuhachi Society The European Shakuhachi Society 岡田道明古典尺八本曲 打波 Okada Michiaki: Shakuhachi honkyoku Daha 14 Discussion questions Why has shakuhachi acquired such a strong international following Is it religious or secular What are its unique characteristics How did it modernize Why did so many new schools develop in the 20 th century Is it better solo or in ensemble What does it gain, and what does it lose in ensemble

26 Jiuta sōkyoku PENDULUM Hōgaku 京都芸大 Kyoto Jiuta, shamisen, koto and shakuhachi, sankyoku ensemble Koto and shamisen are inseparable Jiuta sōkyoku: a number of musical genres for koto and shamisen, transmitted by blind male musicians since the early Edo period Jiuta 地歌 : songs of the Kamigata region (Kyoto, Osaka), primarily for shamisen Sōkyoku 筝曲 : pieces composed primarily for koto Both were the province of blind male professional musicians Each has solo repertoire, but also play together in sankyoku ensemble Song uta 歌 is integral to jiuta Purely instrumental pieces: danmono 26 1

27 Shamisen 三味線 (sangen 三弦 ) comes in a variety of dimensions, though the length of the neck is the same in all varieties. Futozao, chūzao, hosozao. 3 silk strings, squarish body covered with cat or dog skin, the long neck has no frets, played with large bachi with two pointed edges. Sawari. Derives from the Chinese sanxian 三弦, and the Okinawan sanshin 三線. Entered Japan (Sakai) in mid to late 16 th century. Taken up by the biwa hōshi, and it supplanted the biwa as their preferred instrument. Soon played by many different types of artist, including geisha. Its structure was altered to meet the needs of different types of music. Became the accompaniment for popular songs (the origin of jiuta), jōruri (gidayu, tokiwazu, shinnai, kiyomoto etc), for kabuki (nagauta), short popular songs, folk song. Most popular these days is Tsugaru shamisen, which has become largely instrumental though it derived from vocal music of North East Japan. Jiuta shamisen 地歌三味線 In jiuta, it is called sangen 三弦 三絃 more than shamisen. Shamisen kumiuta. Basically, not an instrumental genre, but accompanied singing, with instrumental interludes. But also settings of koto danmono pieces, usually for ensemble performance. 27 2

28 Shamisen-koto relationship Shamisen was the most important (leading) instrument in early jiuta, while koto has a separate existence, but koto came to be more important later. Especially in Meiji shinkyoku, shamisen left out entirely. It is the most important instrument in the puppet theatre, and in the kabuki theatre, as we shall see. Koto an East Asian instrument 筝 琴 伽耶金 Japanese koto music derived from the gagaku sō (koto). In the 17 th century, it was taken up by the blind musicians who created a new repertoire for it. Zokusō The Tōdo organization of blind musicians authorized by the government; stipends given to the top musicians. In this way, it was played by the same musicians who played shamisen, and the two instruments merged into one sphere of practice and culture. Koto kumiuta, cycles of waka set to music. New purely instrumental music on similar principles as kumiuta. Pieces such as rokudan were created. It was subordinate to shamisen when played in ensemble. Ensemble playing Hitoyogiri flute used in ensemble with koto and shamisen to accompany song. Around the same time (17 th century), the kokyū starts to appear in historical documents and pictorial evidence. It was played also by the blind musicians. There is uncertainty as to its origins; China, Europe, Indonesia, or a Japanese creations. 28 3

29 Social context Shakuhachi honkyoku developed as religious music for Zen practitioners; sankyoku as domestic chamber music composed by blind professional musicians. The two spheres merged after the organizations granting performance monopolies to each type of musician were abolished in 1871 (Tōdō and the Fuke sect). From Meiji onwards, gaikyoku became mainstream of shakuhachi music; had to tune with koto and shamisen; observe the beat; developed notations that could indicate meter. Melody most closely follows shamisen part. Had to conform, be exact, not too loud. Koto repertoire Koto kumiuta (not often performed now) Danmono 段物 (Rokudan 六段, Hachidan 八段, Midare 乱れ ) the core of the contemporary repertoire Kinuta mono 砧もの (Godan-ginuta ご段砧 ) Tegotomono 手事もの developed out of koto kumiuta as the instrumental interludes became more complex and longer. Also the core of the contemporary repertoire All composed by or at least attributed the blind musicians of the Tōdō guild. The professionals were all these blind men; but they had many students who were sighted amateurs. Mode, scale and tunings Mostly the miyako-bushi scale. Hirajōshi The basic tuning of the koto is hirajōshi. In the key of D, the 13 strings are tuned as follows: D G A A# D D# G A A# D D# G A with ascending pitch, except: String 1 is in unison with string 5 in classical pieces. String 1 is usually an octave below string 5 in modern pieces. kokin jōshi In kokin joshi in the key of D, the strings are tuned as follows: D G A C D D# G A C D D# G A with ascending pitch, except: String 1 is in unison with string 5. String 2 is in unison with string 7. kumoi joshi In kumoi joshi in the key of D, the strings are tuned as follows: D G G# C D D# G G# C D D# G A with ascending pitch. 29 4

30 Fluidity Pieces can be played as solo koto (with voice), 2 kotos (honde, kaede), koto and shamisen, add shakuhachi or kokyū. Very fluid. Unlimited number of combinations, no definitive form Mitsuzaki Kengyō, Akikaze no kyoku 光崎検校 秋風の曲 1840s, Chōgonka, opening instrumental is danmono style, and song is kumiuta style Masubuchi Jinichirō 増渕任一朗 (d. 2003, age 58, b. 1945) Yamada-ryū. Modern developments Meiji shinkyoku 明治新曲 Koto left shamisen behind and further developed the tegoto-mono, and other forms influenced by western music. Shin Nihon ongaku 新日本音楽 (Miyagi Michio 宮城道雄, Yoshida Seifū, Nakao Tozan and others) Gendai hōgaku 現代邦楽 Post war developments. Sawai Tadao 沢井忠雄 built on the work of Miyagi Michio. Western-trained composers for traditional instruments wagakki 和楽器 30 5

31 Schools or ryūha Actually 12 koto ryūha. Yatsuhashi ryū, Ikuta ryū (square tsume), Yamada ryū (rounded tsume), has separate repertoire influenced by jōruri. More ryūha developed in modern period. Ikuta contains Miyagi ha, Sawai ryū etc. Miyagi Michio 17-string koto Jushichi-gen or bass koto Later, 20, 25 and 30 stringed kotos Each developed new solo and ensemble repertoire Haru no umi 1929 for koto and shakuhachi 宮城道雄 Michio Miyagi(Koto),Renée Chemet(Vn)_" 春の海 Haru no Umi Japanese Koto "Tegoto" by Michio Miyagi < 手事 第三章 > 宮城道雄作曲 Sawai Tadao, Tori no you ni 山路みほ 鳥のように 大阪フェニックスホール Concert pieces 筝曲 六段の調べ shirabe 三曲 尾上の松 matsu Koto Rokudan no Sankyoku Onoe no 31 6

32 Discussion questions Why could these two very different instruments koto and shamisen form an integrated musical form in jiuta-sōkyoku? Why has koto achieved a spectacularly successful modernization, in comparison with shamisen? In other words, why did they eventually separate? 32 7

33 Biwa story-singing heike, satsuma, chikuzen Origins Biwa was introduced as one of the gagaku instruments; counterpart of Chinese pipa. All biwa in Japan derive from the gagaku biwa. Adopted by the blind story-tellers called biwa hōshi who developed the musical recitation of the Tale of the Heike. Attached to shrines and temples but were travelling performers. Their organization / occupational guild, shoku yashiki, later Tōdō. Based in Kyoto. Biwa further spread to West Japan (Yamaguchi, Kyushu) and was used by blind priests (mōsō), who were in different organizational structure from the heike reciters. 今井検校勉 Imai (kengyō) Tsutomu ( ) His three teachers 井野川幸次 Inogawa Kōji ( ) 土居崎正富 Doizaki Masatomi ( ) 三品正保 Mishina Masayasu ( ) 33 1

34 The written Tale of the Heike 平家物語 No author for the tale. Is this oral literature? It exists as a written text (in dozens of versions) The different written versions: short and long; in Japanese and in Chinese; different perspectives. It is also as a performance tradition accompanied by biwa. Heike narrative and heike biwa The cataclysmic conflict between the Heike and Genji warrior clans in the late twelfth century brought to an end the Heian period ( ), taking away real power from the Imperial court, and initiating nearly 700 years of warrior rule. The story of the conflict was narrated musically by the blind biwa hōshi ( lute priests ) as well as being chronicled by court literati, both types of recording probably commencing soon after the conflict. While the best-known written version has the epic length of 200 chapters, some dozens of different textual versions accumulated, varying significantly in length, language and perspective. The material of the Heike cycle, both historical and apocryphal, was also drawn on by many subsequent performance genres, including contemporary television: the 2012 NHK Taiga Drama year-long saga was about the arrogant Heike leader, Taira Kiyomori. PENDULUM Hgaku 京都芸大 Kyoto Narrated content: history and legend (the key events) Wars between two warrior clans Heike (Taira) and Genji (Minamoto), (Genpei wars). The Taira decisively defeated at the battle of Dannoura in Chronicles of the battles were written by various parties; records of battles in particular. Oral accounts of battles and related incidents also circulated, performed by blind, lute-playing beggar priests, biwa hōshi. Eventually formed narrative cycle of the Tales of the Heike (Heike Monogatari). 34 2

35 Heike as romance and religious tale Opening: Gion shōja: condemns Kiyomori s pride and ruthlessness Pure Land ideas of karma and salvation Anecdotes from Chinese and Japanese classics Romantic setsuwa: Gio 祇王, Kogo 小督, Yokobue 横笛 - not connected with the central conflict. Gion shōja Royall Tyler s translation (Tyler 2012: 3). The Jetvana Temple bells Gion shōja no kane no koe ring the passing of all things. shogyō mujō no hibiki ari. Twinned sal trees, white in full flower Shara sōju no hana no iro declare the great man s certain fall. Jōsha hissui no kotowari o arawasu. Singing the Tale: biwa hōshi The biwa and its origins Edo: sighted amateurs, texts with musical notation 1871, abolition of feudal class structure, and of Tōdō Two lines of transmission: Nagoya and Sendai 35 3

36 Nagoya and Sendai Nagoya is the remnant of the blind priest tradition. Each generation, the repertoire shrinks, and now only 8 complete pieces are transmitted. In the Sendai line, they derive from amateur samurai aficionado performers. In the modern period, one former samurai wrote a detailed history of heike biwa narrative, and transmitted what he had learned to his son, and it spread among sighted performers. They read so can perform any chapter of the 200. However, they are regarded still as amateur, not the same caliber as the Nagoya transmission. Only one blind performer left in Nagoya, a problem being faced by research Komoda Haruko. She is training young jiuta performers in heike so that the Nagoya tradition will not die with the one PENDULUM remaining Hōgaku 京都芸大 blind Kyoto singer. Heike and jiuta It should be noted too that heike narrative was preserved in tandem with koto and shamisen chamber music (jiuta-sokyoku) in the Edo period, as the same blind performers forming the social institution of the Tōdō also performed koto and shamisen, the two new representative instruments of the Edo period. This factor must have contributed to the musical elaboration and refinement, as well as the preservation of heikyoku. Musical analysis Structure: 200 chapters (pieces, ku) (varies in different versions) The ku was not a stable unit of performance till textual chapter division came to dictate performance. The musical aspect of Heike recitation is made up of a succession of formulaic musical sections, most of which are named. Each section has a unified substyle, and ends with a cadential formula. There are however no special melodies which can only be used as opening or closing formulas for a piece. The narrative structure is thus relatively loose. 36 4

37 Named melody types (kyokusetsu 曲節 ) Heike narrative uses multiple melodies, or multiple styles of delivery. Within the typical piece, several substyles or musical patterns can be called on. These formulaic musical materials are named. There are over forty such named musical units, which Komoda classifies into thirteen groups of patterns. The biwa provides short to medium-length melodies played before major melody types. It also plays one or two punctuating strokes between the sung phrases. Each of these melodic types typically occupies one whole section of narrative, separated by a biwa interlude. This is closely connected to the method of notation which developed, in which the names of the formulaic melodies could be written as a short hand for the musical realization of a passage. This letter notation (mojifu) was used in conjunction with neumes (hakase) which indicated melodic movement, and with some symbols indicating pitch. The heike melody types are not of a fixed length, but can be applied briefly or extensively as the text requires. They are in fact not fixed melodies, but narrative substyles. They musically define or characterize whole sections of the narrative. The principle melodies and styles of delivery Kudoki Shirakoe Sashikoe Melodic styles: Shojū, chūon, sanjū (cf. koshiku shoju, niju, sanju, chuon) Content related: hiroi (martial or auspicious), orikoe (religious, elegiac) 37 5

38 The eight pieces transmitted in the Nagoya lineage Suzuki (hiroimono) Ikezuki (hiroimono) Ujigawa (hiroimono) Nasu no Yoichi (hiroimono) Yokobue (fushimono) Sotoba Nagashi (fushimono) Kōyō (fushimono) Chikubushima Mōde fushimono) Yokobue Book 10, chapter 8. Framed narrative, a flashback not connected with the battle taking place. Taira Koremori (a grandson of Kiyomori) has left the Heike camp at Yashima, ostensibly to return to his family in the capital, travelling via Kōyasan. There he took the tonsure, that is, became a monk, and then committed suicide by entering the sea at Kumano with two of his retainers. Story took place several years prior to Koremori s visit. Tokiyori is the link to the Heike narrative: he was known to Koremori who sought him out for spiritual and mental sustenance and support. The reputation of Tokiyori as an ascetic who gave up the world is brought out by the tale of his romance with Yokobue. Probably originated as a Buddhist tale (setsuwa) told by itinerant religious teachers Sections 3 and 6 feature orikoe, and sanjū (section 5), the poetic description of Yokobue s journey (michiyuki) to Saga to seek Takiguchi. 38 6

39 Nasu no Yoichi Book 11, Chapter 4. The Heike retreat to their ships after the battle of Ichinotani, a lull in the fighting. They challenge the Genji to shoot a fan pinned onto the mast of their boat, taken up by Yoichi, the young warrior from an Eastern province. The narrative delights in celebrating the breathtaking romance of the prowess of the unkown young hero,, not on the Genji strength as such. Celebrates military values, non-partisan. One of the shorter ku, transmitted in full. Very frequently performed. Just one scene and one incident, narrating in thirty-five minutes what must have taken only a few minutes to happen. Yoichi s armour described (hiroi). Anticipation and tension built up (kudoki, sanjū, kō, kudari). Yoichi prays to Hachiman (ro, ge, jō-on). Then shoots the fan (ro, geon). His action is applauded by both sides (jō-on, hashiri sanjū, jō-on). 39 7

40 Nasu no Yoichi is one unified episode consistent with the ku; Yokobue on the other hand is an embedded narrative, framed by a loosely connected narrative. It has several scenes spanning many years. However, the framing narrative has not been transmitted in the performance tradition, only the embedded narrative, which stands alone as a performance item. In addition to the changes in heike performance itself, the narrated material was adopted by many other genres, such as nō, kōwaka and jōruri (puppet theatre and kabuki). In addition, the tale of the Heike provided material for visual arts, in the form of picture scrolls (emaki), and for new media such as the modern novel, cinema and television. Regional biwa styles practiced by blind priests (like biwa hōshi): Higo biwa / zatō biwa, active till late 20 th C. Chikuzen, Satsuma These local narrative traditions in Kyushu in which blind males performed sutras and religious rites to the accompaniment with secular story-telling as a sideline, included many episodes from the Heike narrative in their repertoire (de Ferranti 2009). These were the source of new narrative styles accompanied by the biwa in the modern period, Satsuma biwa and Chikuzen biwa. 40 8

41 Modern biwa music (kindai biwa): Satsuma biwa and Chikuzen biwa Satsuma biwa: practised by blind priests (mōsō) but started to be learned by the samurai of the Satsuma Domain in early Edo period. So a sighted lineage developed. Chikuzen biwa; same origins, but did not produce sighted practitioners until late 19 th century. Both Satsuma and Chikuzen biwa performers moved to the new capital, Tokyo. Demonstration piece Watanabe Kyokuran: Chikuzen Biwa Nasu no Yoichi 片山旭藍筑前琵琶 那須与一 Chikuzen biwa is very common in Kansai. Discussion questions In what sense is heike (musical) narrative oral narrative What factors have enabled it to be transmitted for 600 years Will it be transmitted to future generations What are the differences between the heike biwa and chikuzen biwa performances of Nasu no Yoichi? Is it enough that new performance traditions are developing the musical narrative in more dynamic ways 41 9

42 Noh 能 What is noh? Noh (nō) drama: poetic text, vocal and instrumental music, dance, acting, narrative Its companion art is kyōgen, comic drama. The music of noh: centred on a verbal and literary text; music is ancillary to the verbal content. Not pure music. 42 1

43 Origins and development Religious ritual performances that gradually took on aspect of entertainment Gigaku, bugaku, sangaku, sarugaku Ōkina sarugaku Yamato sarugaku (Nara): Developed by Kannami and his son Zeami in Nanboku period and early Muromachi period. 600 years since noh and kyogen took the form they basically have now. The time of Zeami ( ), and the influence of Zen on the military class. Patronage of military class, then in Edo period it spread to merchant class, and many libretto were printed and used by amateur practitioners. From late 16 th century (Hideyoshi) noh actors were systematically supported by the military government, given an annual stipend Ceremonial music, highly formalized Meiji period lost that support. World War II was destructive of traditions. The noh as drama Five categories of piece: god, warrior, woman, miscellaneous, especially about mad women, non-human (demon etc) Genzai noh and mugen noh plays different dramatic structure The stage originally outdoors The actors: male. Shite and waki; tsure; kokata; chorus (not in costume) Acting = monomane 物真似 Actors wear costumes in character, and masks for some roles Kata = movement patterns, both realistic and abstract Dance = mai 舞 can partially monomane, especially when with utai; or abstract dance without utai. 43 2

44 Noh as music The hayashi instrumental musicians: 3 drums and a flute Flute nohkan Kotsuzumi Ōtsuzumi Taiko stick drum They accompany utai (song, and sung narrative), and dance, they play entrance music, and interludes. Utai vocal music is delivered by the actors and by the chorus Utai can mean those parts of the text delivered melodically, and those delivered as spoken (kotoba). Both text and music: sections with formulaic musical features; both spoken and sung delivery Utai Very tense, deep, pentrating style of singing. Pitch is relative and shifts frequently even within sections Two types of singing and scale: yowagin and tsuyogin. Three nuclear tones, a fourth apart: jō, chū, ge, plus chū uki and kuri. Tsuyogin developed later, all tones concentrated around one nuclear tone, range minor third. Selected in relation to textual content. Soft and hard. 44 3

45 Example 6.1 The yowagin and tsuyogin scales (after Yokomichi 1986:88) Example 6.2 Basic melodic patterns of utai (based on Yokomichi 1986:92) 45 4

46 Styles of delivery Kotoba speech no hayashi; not realistic as in bunraku or kabuki Fushi melody hayashi accompaniment Rhythm is congruent (hyōshi au) and non-congruent (hyōshi awazu) Hyōshi au: ageuta, sageuta, kuse, rongi, shidai Clear musical meter; fixed pirch and duration, in relation to the 8-beat metrical unit of the percussion pattern. Hyōshi awazu: (melismatic) issei,waka, kuri; (syllabic) sashi, kudoki Framework of units Smaller units combined in a sequence: introductory song, speech of sung narrative; song. Each unit has its own style of musical delivery Smaller still, are melodic patterns, combinations of the scalar pitches. Patterns and styles do not signify specific extramusical content in themselves, but the alternation between them functions to express changes in mood, emotion or scene. 46 5

47 Chorus jiutai Pick up the utai towards the end of a section, doubling for the actor. transcends the viewpoint of the character, and become and impersonal text (Fujita) Only this role from 17 th century. Notation and librettos 謡本 Mojifu 文字譜 : written into the libretto with goma ten etc. and other terms. Each instrument has its own notation system and its own oral mnemonic system 47 6

48 Figure 6.1 Utaibon libretto: notation used by singers (Kanze School edition). Opening of kuse unit in the play Hagoromo Funa Benkei and Ataka Genzai noh Both about Yoshitsune and Benkei (see text or Ataka in Wade) Dynamic, dramatic action 48 7

49 Discussion questions How can this 600-year old performing art be passed on to future generations What does the noh have in common with heike narrative What does it have in common with puppet jōruri and kabuki What does it have in common with opera 49 8

50 Jōruri in the puppet theatre: Gidayū-bushi PENDULUM Hōgaku 京都芸大 Kyoto What is jōruri 浄瑠璃 A cluster of genres of musical narrative with origins in late medieval Japan Emerges from performed narratives such as heike, sekkyō and kōwaka mai, with which it is linked thematically and musically. It was transformed towards the end of the sixteenth century, when its reciters took up the shamisen (threestringed lute) as accompanying instrument, and collaborated with puppeteers, in effect creating a new art form. Jōruri can be seen broadly as one unified entity, but with several constituent narrative genres, all accompanied by the shamisen. The generic name of a number of shamisen-accompanied narrative musics Continuity from heike to jōruri the role of the biwa hōshi Continuity through the Tale of the Heike and subsequent elaborations: Princess Jōruri and Yoshitsune. Record of biwa hōshi (zatō) singing jōruri in early 16 th century. Shamisen enters Japan, and is taken up by biwa hōshi. Puppets and shamisen Jōruri becomes a genre, not just one story. New stories created, but many borrowed from kōwaka narrative and sekkyō narratives. Jōruri sung narrative accompanied by shamisen was at the core of the musical expression of both bunraku and kabuki. Types of jōruri: gidayū-bushi, itchū-bushi, tokiwazu-bushi, shinnai-bushi, kiyomoto-bushi etc. 50 1

51 The role of printing in early 16 th C. From oral to textualized performance: publication and commercial distribution of jōruri texts. The performer s own texts (yukahon) were (and still are) handwritten, as are the lesson books (keikobon) and the complete plays (maruhon) which were adapted for kabuki. Takemoto Gidayū ( ) and Chikamatsu Monzaemon ( ) collaborated from 1684 marking the beginning of gidayū-bushi, the musical narrative of the puppet theatre. Authorship, as distinct from oral transmission, was separated from the performer; plays were written down as a script to perform from. All the jōruri genres share much thematic content, with a common stock of narrative plots. musical structure and formulaic musical materials. These similarities are related to medieval narrative genres, showing significant formal continuity with medieval narrative. same structure of act (dan) and section (shōdan) as kōshiki, heike and kōwaka they use multiple melodies and delivery styles named musical formulaic material that functions like an oral notation, with progression through different pitch registers. The development of gidayū-bushi and the puppet theatre Historical plays: 5 acts Contemporary plays (especially love stories between a prostitute and a townsman, leading to their double suicide): 3 acts Development of the puppets from one to three manipulators: By the 1740s, each principal puppet was manipulated by three men, and puppets were technically developed to be highly realistic in actions and even facial expression. Evolution of the plays and the music: In this process, the focus of the performance shifted more and more to the puppets and the proportion of dramatic dialogue increased. In this sense, the third-person narrative of the gidayū-bushi performer became decentred and marginalized, but the narrator was still the voice of the puppets; he was the voice actor and his dramatic expression and realistic imitation of different characters gave life to the puppets and was crucial to the popularity of PENDULUM the plays. Hōgaku 京都芸大 Kyoto 51 2

52 Puppet theatre and kabuki live theatre The popularity of puppet theatre led to the puppet plays being adapted for kabuki. Texts: unlike heike, noh and kōwaka, jōruri performers (the narrators, not the shamisen players) always place the handwritten text in front of them when they perform. And yet, it still retains oral features, especially in the musical aspect. Mojifu notation Shamisen notation Mode and scale Whereas in noh, the scale was two conjunct tetrachords (jō-chū-ge, e- a-b). from the Edo period, pentatonic scale made of two disjunct tetrachords including half tones starts to become dominant. Miyako-bushi scale (efa-bce). Use often in hybrid form, mixed with minyō scale (ega-bde), and with ritsu scale (ef#a-bc#e, from gagaku). (Okinawan music uses ryūkyū scale: eg#a-bd#e) This was encouraged by the playing style of the shamisen, many repeated octave and fifth intervals. Biwa and shamisen compared both are plucked lutes the shamisen only three strings, the long neck with its unfretted finger-board gave more tonal flexibility. body is covered front and back with cat or dog skin easier portability, more melodic flexibility, and a brighter tone separation of narrator and instrumental performer meant the shamisen part could be more active and therefore more supportive of the narrative. The sawari effect was probably developed for the shamisen in Japan, and then transferred to the biwa. 52 3

53 Shamisen tunings and types of shamisen Honchōshi: b-e-b the standard tuning used in jōruri genres, except for some quotation song sections niagari : b-f#-b sansagari: b-f-a Futozao Chūzao Hosozao Musical analysis Fluid relationship between fixed formulaic musical material and non-fixed material Sectional cadences: fushi ochi Opening and closing of act: sanjū, okuri Announcing dialogue: irodome Substyles: pathos (kudoki), shock (seppaku-ji), fast action (noriji) Quotations from other music Gidayu-bushi in Bunraku puppet theatre and Kabuki theatre A play with several acts and scenes Jidaimono, sewamono One scene or act of a play. Michiyuki Keigoto Can be performed independently in dance or concert recitals A number of clearly identifiable sections are delineated by a cadential formula and an instrumental interlude. Sections with musically defined character: makura, kudoki, monogatari Each section, narrative or kabuki dance, is marked by a unified substyle: 1 basic / neutral; soft; includes oki, kudoki 2 urgent; hard;includes chirashi,narrative coda 3 declamatory old-style narrative; rōshō phrases Quotation song / dance Formulaic phrases (senritsukei), some with widely known names: sanjū, otoshi Unnamed patterns No particular pattern Shamisen backing for dramatic action: meriyasu Role of shamisen interludes Kanadehon Chūshingura 1748, based on scandalous events 1701 and 1703 Lord Asano was provoked into attacking Kira in the palace, and was made to commit seppuku as punishment. His retainers who thus became masterless samurai (rōnin) maintained a pretense of inaction, but eventually attacked Kira s mansion and killed him nearly two years later. Play transposes the events to the 14 th century (Taiheiki world), but includes anachronistic scenes that could only be Edo period. The selling of Okaru and the suicide of Kanpei: not politically or historically important, or even factual. Dramatically one of the highlights. 53 4

54 Characteristics of gidayū narrative the alternation of (1) sung narrative, third person but occasionally internal monologue or soliloquy, and (2) extensive sections of dramatic dialogue. The sung narrative is characterized by a variety of musical delivery styles, articulated in a series of short sections by the use of cadential and semicadential patterns. The shamisen has different roles in the different styles of delivery, from offering an opening pitch then being silent, to driving the sung rhythm forward with an insistent pulse. It also chimes in at certain points of the dialogue to accentuate moments of emotion. The emotions of the characters and their psychological drama are thus told not only through words but also through PENDULUM Hōgaku musical 京都芸大 means. Kyoto Jōruri: musical narrative and drama When jōruri went into a theatrical context it increasingly took on strongly dramatic features, such as highly realistic dialogue, a key feature of mature gidayū narrative of the mid-eighteenth century. A large part of the kabuki repertoire is straight drama, with no narrative, only background music and sound effects from offstage musicians. However, the plays transposed from the puppet theatre retained the gidayū pair of narrator and shamisen and their musicalized third-person narrative. Some scenes of such transposed plays (michiyuki scenes) were fully musicalized narrative with only small amounts of dramatic dialogue. Puppet jōruri was responsible for the full dramatic development of kabuki. Discussion questions Why does the jōruri tayū have the handwritten text in front of him in performance, but the shamisen player has no notation visible? Why did the narrator remain visible in the puppet drama? What are the continuities with heike biwa narrative and what are the main differences? 54 5

55 Jōruri as kabuki dance music Tokiwazu-bushi and kiyomoto-bushi Music in the kabuki theatre: offstage and onstage Offstage music is an ensemble hidden behind a curtain providing all sorts of sound effects to enhance the action of drama or dance. Kabuki drama: straight drama (kabuki kyōgen) and maruhonmono (adaptations from puppet theatre) Kabuki dance music: nagauta and bungo-kei jōruri Narrative music in kabuki Narrative music, or story-singing, was taken into theatre in several ways. (Noh too retains many narrative features.) Jōruri came into kabuki in two ways: Shosagoto, michiyuki, in late 17 th century, led to the development of kabuki dance and nagauta. Maruhonmono: the complete adaptation of puppet plays as kabuki plays. In both cases, the singing narrators and their shamisen accompanists are situated on the stage in full view, and perform the story as 3 rd person narrative, while the actors take the dialogue. 55 1

56 Jōruri in the kabuki theatre Jōruri started to be used in kabuki to accompany shosagoto from the Genroku period ( ), and its narrative style had an impact on the development of kabuki dance music. The spectacular success of the puppet theatre inspired the kabuki theatres to adopt and adapt jōruri puppet plays for the theatre of live actors. The blend of narrative, drama and dance in kabuki is similar to nō: in both the actor-dancer kinetically narrates (or mimetically dances) while a chorus or onstage musicians take the musical narrative. The speed with which new styles of jōruri accompanied by shamisen emerged in the 17 th and 18 th centuries was dizzying, testifying to the creative energy and productivity of the culture of the time. No joruri genres from before the 1680s have survived. This development stabilized by around 1800, the latest genre in this line of jōruri being kiyomoto (1814). Jōruri in the kabuki theatre Contemporary with Takemoto Gidayū s gidayubushi was Miyakodayū Itchū, and his itchū-bushi He had a disciple called Miyakoji Bungo no jō, who was active in Edo kabuki. He was a fashion leader, and his exquisite singing of love suicide narratives, michiyuki scenes in plays adapted from the puppet theatre, was so popular that it inspired young couples to commit double suicide. This is the reason his music was banned from the kabuki stage in His disciples had to suffer the ban too, but eventually they re-emerged with different names and different musical identities. Bungo-kei jōruri One of Bungo no jō s disciples, Miyakoji Mojitayū, made a come-back as Tokiwazu Mojitayū in 1747, as the head of the new genre tokiwazu-bushi. From among his disciples emerged a group of related styles of jōruri collectively known as bungokei jōruri; the surviving genres are: tokiwazu (1747), tomimoto (1748), shinnai (1750s), miyazono and kiyomoto (1814). 56 2

57 Development of kabuki dance music At first tokiwazu would have been virtually the same as bungo-bushi, characterized by michiyuki-mono, and erotic (iroppoi) narrative, with a kudoki as the highlight of every piece. With its new identity as tokiwazu-bushi, it gradually took on new characteristics in the context of kabuki dance. broader palette of musical resources than his predecessor, specifically the inclusion of hard narrative for which gidayū and ōzatsuma could have provided models, especially in historical narratives, or jidaimono. tokiwazu, tomimoto and later kiyomoto came to regularly incorporate a dance section (odoriji) as an integral component of most pieces, accompanied by the offstage hayashi ensemble. A lot of pieces from the 1780s are still in the extant repertoire. From the 1790s to the early 1800s, the fashion for quick change (henge) dance suites brought nagauta together with narrative genres. Suites consisted of three, four, five, six, even twelve pieces; the first piece might be nagauta, the second kiyomoto, the third tokiwazu, the fourth nagauta and so on. This meant that one genre drew close enough to another to blend with it. This flexibility in narrative expression made possible a convergence with nagauta. Categories of kabuki dance music Narrative / dramatic Lyric / dance Ceremonial Kabuki dance form Oki hanamichi setting the scene musically entrance music (unspecified number of sections; narrative or song) Kudoki Odoriji Chirashi plaint, entreaty dance finale 57 3

58 Narrative substyles: styles of performed narrative delivery A kind of prosimetric narrative: alternating song and speech The sung parts have several styles of delivery ginshō was close to speech and could not be notated with fixed pitches; rōshō used definite pitches and was syllabic; eishō was aria-like, melismatic and tended towards a high pitch register combination of musical stylistic parameters that characterize a section of sung narrative. Basic (soft) kihon Basic (hard) semeji Basic (declamatory) rōshō Special effects: passionate, eerie, comic Each section of kabuki dance has its characteristic substyle: oki, kudoki, chirashi etc Senritsukei formulaic phrases Cadential formulas Opening patterns Other patterns: nagashi Tokiwazu-bushi: Seki no to (The Snowy Barrier) (1784) A narrative / dramatic piece in two acts (dan), the most commonly performed second act is 50 minutes long Honchōshi except for one short quotation song Set at a barrier / check point (like Ataka) Heian period political intrigue with supernatural aspect Anachronistically enacts a scene from an Edo period brothel Extensive dialogue and dramatic action 58 4

59 Kiyomoto-bushi 1814, the newest style of jōruri High vocal register, kudoki section emphasized, lyrical But retains the full range of narrative styles for different stories Dramatic, gruesome, passionate, comic, light-hearted satirical, elegant Highly dramatic: Kasane Playful and humourous: Tamaya Elegant and poetic depiction of licensed quarter: Hokushū Shinnai-bushi Not in kabuki theatre, but sometimes used for nihon buyō Most known for the kudoki section the plaint of a rejected lover or other person suffering separation from a loved one Ranchō: about a male entertainer who neglects his wife because of his involvement with a female geisha; the wife comes to plead with the other woman to give him up; they commit suicide instead. Discussion questions Why do jōruri narrator / singers perform with the text placed in front of them, while the shamisen players do not use written notation? Why did kabuki dance develop keeping the narrator / singers on stage in full view of the audience? Why are they not out of sight behind a screen like the sound effects musicians? How is kabuki jōruri different from puppet theatre jōruri? 59 5

60 Nagauta the heart of kabuki music Renjishi The beginning of kabuki music Song and dance and attractive dancers (female, male) Increase of dramatic elements was essentially from the input of jōruri, narrative music Puppet and kabuki live theatres in competition, kabuki appropriated puppet plays repertoire 60 1

61 The original kabuki dance style: kouta odori _X4PEY&feature=endscreen 長唄 菊づくし ( 日本舞踊 ) Japanese traditional dance -Nagauta "Kikuzukushi" Nagauta musicians are the heart of kabuki The onstage musicians are singers, shamisen players and hayashi (same as noh, though the nohkan is sometimes replace by folk bamboo flute) The musicians in the off-stage ensemble are also called nagauta. Called: Geza; kage bayashi; kuromisu Structure of kabuki dance Kabuki dance form Blend of narrative and song and dance elements, due to influence of joruri 61 2

62 Musume Dōjōji, 1753 Pure kabuki dance Narrativization of nagauta Convergence of joruri and nagauta 1827, nagauta formally absorbed the old joruri genre, ozatsuma-bushi A body of hard, strong narrative musical resources making the mature nagauta Still basically different from joruri, basically lyric Yanone 矢の根, 1827 Ozatsuma-bushi in nagauta 62 3

63 Kanjinchō, 1840 From the noh play Ataka Discussion questions How is kabuki different from noh? How can we distinguish nagauta and joruri Why is nagauta dominant in kabuki music compared with joruri Can shamisen music become independent of kabuki and vocal music 63 4