ANALYSIS OF THE LANGUAGE TECHNIQUES AND THEMATIC ASPECTS OF THE BASOTHO ACCORDION MUSIC LEHLOHONOLO SAMUEL PHAFOLI

Transcription

1 ANALYSIS OF THE LANGUAGE TECHNIQUES AND THEMATIC ASPECTS OF THE BASOTHO ACCORDION MUSIC LEHLOHONOLO SAMUEL PHAFOLI A THESIS SUBMITTED IN ACCORDANCE WITH THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE PHILOSOPHIAE DOCTOR DEGREE IN THE FACULTY OF HUMANITIES, DEPARTMENT OF AFRICAN LANGUAGES AT THE UNIVERSITY OF THE FREE STATE DECEMBER 2009 PROMOTER: PROFESSOR MOHLOMI MOLELEKI

2 ABSTRACT ANALYSIS OF THE LANGUAGE TECHNIQUES AND THEMATIC ASPECTS OF THE BASOTHO ACCORDION MUSIC L.S. Phafoli Ph.D Thesis, Department of African Languages, University of the Free State Informed by the functionalist perspective, the study analyzes the Basotho accordion music over the period Of particular importance are the various themes addressed by the verbal text that comes up in the music. Specifically, the study analyzes the language used in the composition of the songs accompanying the Basotho accordion music; the rationale behind the use of such language. The study also looks at the status of the composers or artists of the music as well as the role of their music among Basotho; and last, it looks at the reception of the Basotho accordion music by Basotho. In order to address the above purposes of the study, the qualitative method was used to interpret the songs. The population of the study was all the Basotho artists, radio presenters of the music, shop owners selling the music, street vendors and the public that listens to the music and buys it. A stratified random sampling method was used to select with the subjects of the study. A total of 100 songs were analyzed while 81 subjects were interviewed for this study. The findings of the study on the issues investigated are that, Basotho accordion music promotes or helps in the aesthetics of the Sesotho language; that it is a reservoir of rich language. The recurring themes in the music range from social, political and economic issues. The music forges patriotism among Basotho by promoting customs, norms and values of the nation. In terms of status, the artists are either illiterate or semi-literate and the music is their main means of livelihood. On the whole, most Basotho are receptive to Basotho accordion music in many different ways. The study concludes that Basotho accordion music is part of the oral traditional music of Basotho since it retains some features of oral traditional music. Accordion music is very rich in a variety of linguistic techniques common in oral traditions of Basotho. The music also reflects the lifestyle of Basotho because of its historicity and coverage of concerns of the nation. December 2009 i

3 OPSOMMING ONDERSOEK NA DIE TAALTEGNIEKE EN TEMATIESE ASPEKTE VAN DIE BASOTHO TREKKLAVIERMUSIEK L.S. Phafoli Ph.D Tesis, Departement van Afrika Tale, Universiteit van die Vrystaat Die studie is onderneem vanuit n funksionalistiese perspektief en daarin word Basotho Trekklaviermusiek gedurende die periode vanaf 1980 tot 2005 geanaliseer. Van besondere belang is the verskeidenheid temas wat na vore kom uit die verbale teks met die musiek wat daarmee gepaardgaan. In hierdie studie word die taal van die liedere, wat met die bypassende Basotho Trekklaviermusiek gesing word, in meer besonderhede ontleed. Die doel hiermee is om die onderliggende motivering vir die taalgebruik in die gekomponeerde liedere te probeer vasstel. In die studie word ook na die status van die komponiste of skrywers van die musiek gekyk, sowel as na die rol wat hul musiek in die Basothokultuur speel; en laastens, wat die ontvangs van Basotho Trekklaviermusiek onder Basothomense is. Ten einde die bogenoemde aspekte van die studie te ondersoek, is daar van die kwantitatiewe metode vir die interpretasie van die liedere gebruik gemaak. Die omvang van die studiegroep bestaan uit al die Basothokunstenaars, radio-omroepers wat die musiek speel, winkeleienaars wat dit verkoop, smouse en die publiek wat daarna luister en dit aankoop. n Gestratifiseerde ewekansige streekproefmetode is gebruik om die proefpersone van die studie te selekteer. n Totaal van 100 liedere is geanaliseer, terwyl daar met 81 proefpersone onderhoude vir die studie gevoer is. In die studie van die onderwerpe wat ondersoek is, het geblyk dat Basotho Trekklaviermusiek die estetika van die Basothotaal promoveer of aanhelp; dit is n reservoir van ryke taalgebruik. Die herhalende voorkoms van temas in die musiek strek oor sosiale, politiese en ekonomiese kwessies. Die musiek bevorder patriotisme onder die Basotho deur gebruike, norme en waardes van die nasie te bevorder. Die kunstenaars is statusgewys óf ongeletterd óf semigeletterd en die musiek is hul hoofbron van inkomste. Die meeste Basotho is oor die algemeen en op baie verskillende wyses ontvanklik vir Basotho Trekklaviermusiek. Die studie se bevinding is dat Basotho Trekklaviermusiek deel vorm van die mondelinge tradisionele musiek van Basotho, aangesien dit sommige elemente van die mondelinge tradisionele musiek bevat. Trekklaviermusiek is baie ryk aan n verskeidenheid taalkundige tegnieke wat algemeen in die mondelinge tradisies van die Basotho voorkom. Die musiek reflekteer ook die leefwyse van die Basotho as gevolg van die geskiedkundigheid daarvan en die oorsig wat dit bied van die nasie se belange. Desember 2009 ii

4 DECLARATION I declare that ANALYSIS OF THE LANGUAGE TECHNIQUES AND THEMATIC ASPECTS OF THE BASOTHO ACCORDION MUSIC is my own work, that it has not been submitted before for any degree or examination in any other university, and that all the sources I have used or quoted have been indicated and acknowledged as complete references. Lehlohonolo Samuel Phafoli December 2009 Signed: iii

5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am indebted to Prof. M.Moleleki for his commitment in ensuring that this piece of work goes through to its final stage. I am also grateful to Prof. N. Maake for his constructive contribution in restructuring this research. My thanks to the following Prof. Love, Dr. P. Shava, Dr. C.G. Thamae, Mr.Samson-Akpan, Mr. T. Khalanyane, Mr. K.Lofafa, and other friends for their contribution while I undertook this research. Many thanks to accordion artists, promoters and radio presenters especially those whose names appear in the study. My thanks to hawkers, National University of Lesotho students and interviewees who provided me with valuable information regarding the accordion music. My gratitude to the following structures of the National University of Lesotho: Localization and Training Board, Faculty of Humanities and Department of African Languages and Literature for affording me the opportunity to further my studies. Last, I want to thank my wife, daughter and son for their support during my studies. iv

6 ABBREVIATIONS ALASA - African Languages Association of Southern Africa ANC - African National Congress BCP - Basutoland Congress Party BNP - Basotho National Party MFP Marema-tlou freedom Party NRC - National Recruiting Companies UDM United Democratic Movement SAFOS - Southern African Journal of Folklore Studies v

7 KEY WORDS Accordion artists Accordion music Famo Functionalism Language techniques Lead-singer Soloist Thematic aspects vi

8 TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT II OPSOMMING II DECLARATION III ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS IV ABBREVIATIONS V KEY WORDS VI TABLE OF CONTENTS VII CHAPTER INTRDODUCTION INTRODUCTION BACKGROUND STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM PURPOSE OF THE STUDY VALUE OF THE RESEARCH DEFINITION OF TERMS SCOPE OF THE STUDY LITERATURE REVIEW History of Southern African Township music and Basotho Accordion Music Basotho migrant labourer s lifela/travellers songs Basotho Music African Music in General METHODOLOGY Research design Population Sample Sample Procedure and Sampling Technique Data Collection Collection of Cassettes Interviews Observation CONCLUSION CHAPTER THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK INTRODUCTION ELEMENTS OF FUNCTIONALISM Function Social system Social Structure OVERVIEW vii

9 2.2.1 Function Interdependence Consensus Equilibrium Evolutionary change CONCLUSION CHAPTER HISTORIOGRAPHY OF BASOTHO ACCORDION MUSIC INTRODUCTION THE CONCEPT OF MOSOTHO AND SESOTHO Examples of dynamic changes within the Basotho culture OVERVIEW OF BASOTHO MUSIC IN GENERAL Traditional music Acculturation in Lesotho Transformation within church services Gospel music Jazz music Choral music ORIGINS OF THE BASOTHO ACCORDION MUSIC Evolution of accordion music a) The beginning, b) Military era c) Mokhehle era, d) Mosisili era, The status of the music a) Artists and their training b) Performance c) Naming of the albums Language usage Predominant themes of the accordion music Musical Instruments Recording Accordion Music and its Reception General views a) Appreciation of the lyrics in the music (i) Use of Sesotho as a mother tongue (ii) Employment of language techniques (iii) Manipulation of emotions (iv) Thematic aspects b) Appreciation of Personal identity (i) Eloquence viii

10 (ii) Voice (iii) Dramatic performance (iv) Musical instruments (v) Social identification CONCLUSION CHAPTER ANALYSIS OF THE LANGUAGE IN ACCORDION MUSIC INTRODUCTION POETIC NATURE OF ACCORDION MUSIC LANGUAGE PROVERBS Application of proverbs Use of proverbs a) Proverbs used as titles of songs b) Proverbs with no fixed or rigid pattern FIGURES OF SPEECH Apostrophe Euphemism Hyperbole Imagery Metaphor a) Animal metaphors (i) Animal metaphors with positive attitude (ii) Animal metaphors with negative attitude b) Plant metaphors c) Bird metaphors d) Natural phenomena Repetition a) Repetition of chorus b) Repetition of letters or syllables c) Repetion of clauses and phrases d) Repetition of words e) Repetition of one idea in different words Simile CONCLUSION CHAPTER THEMATIC ASPECTS OF BASOTHO ACCORDION MUSIC INTRODUCTION THE SOCIAL CONTEXT OF ACCORDION MUSIC ARTIST ANALYSIS OF THEMATIC APSECTS SOCIAL ASPECTS Introduction Concept of Self ix

11 a) Birth b) Identification by clan c) Names places of origin d) Names of chiefs e) Nurture of the artist f) Marriage life g) Working experience in the Republic of South Africa Social trends common to accordion artists a) Advice b) Extra-marital affair c) Dishonesty d) Death e) Portrayal of women f) HIV/AIDS g) Tribute to accordion artists Tradition and Change ECONOMIC ASPECTS Introduction Background Poverty in Lesotho a) State of poverty b) Poverty alleviation c) Unemployment Exploitation by coordinators and recording companies a) Exploitation by coordinators b) Exploitation by recording companies Protest against chinese firms POLITICAL HISTORY Introduction Background Political Events of Political Events of Political Events of Political Events of Political Events of Political Events of Political Events of Political Events of CONCLUSION CHAPTER CONCLUSION FINDINGS AND OTHER POSSIBLE AREAS OF RESEARCH Findings x

12 6.1.2 Possible areas of further research PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED CONCLUSION RECOMMENDATIONS Recommendations for artists Recommendations for artists BIBLIOGRAPHY Books Journals Dissertations and Thesis Unpublished Papers Internet Newspapers,Radio & Television Artists Songs and Albums Reports Interviews Artists (Interviews) Coordinators (Interviews) Radio and Television Presenters (Interviews) Some Members of the Public (Intervews) Speeches APPENDIX INTERVIEW QUESTIONS PER GROUP Artists Radio Presenters Hawkers Audience xi

13 CHAPTER 1 INTRDODUCTION 1.0 INTRODUCTION This chapter covers the following sub-topics: introduction, background of the study, statement of the problem, purpose of the study, value of the research, definitions of terms, scope of the study, literature review and methodology. 1.1 BACKGROUND Famo is a term used to describe Basotho music sung in Sesotho which started with concertina as the key instrument and later accordion and drums. This music was played in shebeens and was famous for the immorality of its participants. The famo music, which is currently known as accordion music, had been a popular shebeen performance from its origins in the Republic of South Africa but, with migrant labour from Lesotho, it crossed into Lesotho. Not much has been has written about this music except by Coplan, who from time to time the study will refer to. Additional information about the music was gathered from interviews and personal experiences of the researcher. Famo music was played in shebeens in Lesotho, especially in the outskirts of major towns. The music was played mostly during weekends where people had organized themselves into the business of stokvel. The music was meant to attract more customers. However there were other places known as lipoto where this music was played regularly. The famo artists did not have their music recorded except one, Malitaba, whose recorded songs could be heard over Radio Bantu and Radio Lesotho. In 1979, a group by the name Tau-ea-Matšekha released their album of the same name. The album became popular among the Basotho to the extent that the group was highly in demand and was invited to perform at different places on a variety of occasions. The formation of Tau-ea- Matšekha and others that followed instantly sparked a change of attitude among the Basotho. Instead of referring to the music as low class and associated with immoral behaviour, Basotho began to identify themselves with it, accepting the music as it reflected their culture, as 1

14 highlighted by Coplan (1995:258). In it, they felt that their language, customs and beliefs were retained and propagated. Based on the change of attitude, the famo music was renamed `mino oa koriana (accordion music). There are two reasons for this change of name. One was that, the accordion, as a musical instrument played a major role, as it was only accompanied by the homemade drum. The second reason was that it had its own special and acceptable taste, and had to be distinguished from famo which was associated with immorality. The accordion music was welcomed with respect as opposed to the famo which was meant for the commercial business of prostitution. The years could be referred to as the larva stage where a few groups began to organize themselves and recorded their albums. Some of these groups were Tau-ea-Linare, Tau-ea-Thaba, Lilala-tsa-Sekhonyana and Mahosana a ka Phamong. Currently, this music has won the hearts and sympathy of most Basotho. The period marks the increased production of the Basotho accordion music and the proliferation of artists in great numbers. One observes that, in each and every district, there are accordion music artists. This period has seen fast growing numbers of accordion music artists throughout Lesotho to the extent that it is difficult to give the specific number of artists in the country. Since , when there were about 15 artists who had recorded cassettes, the numbers have grown to over 200 in It could also be said that the change of attitude led to its high rate of production. Not only that, but it was seen as one way of generating income in order to alleviate poverty. One might also indicate that the rate of unemployment during was increasing at an alarming rate and as a result it also contributed to wide production of this music. Some artists had to resort to the production of accordion music in order to meet their economic needs. For instance, in 1987, about 10,000 Basotho miners lost their jobs after a National Union Mineworker s national strike (Teba, Lesotho 2005). Again, since 1990, there has been a drastic decline in the numbers of Basotho mine workers working in the Republic of South Africa due to retrenchment. The total number of workers has gone down from 125,786 in 1990 to 57,989 in 2004 (Central Bank 2005). One observes that as the rate of unemployment increased, the number of Basotho accordion musicians also rose. 2

15 This period could also be described as the evolutionary one as there had been various developments within the accordion music. One remarkable change is with regard to the instruments used during the performance. For instance, in the early eighties, artists played accordion and drum accompanied by lifela or praise poetry. The drum that was used in the early 1980 s was made up of either a 20 or 25 litre tin that had a car s inner tube covering its top end and fastened by wires. Alongside the top, there were either two sticks or any metal wire which were tied to the drum connected by another wire holding a string of beer bottle tops meant to produce a sonorous sound. The drummer used short beaters cut from tyres for improvised drum sticks. But, with time, the artists employed guitars, and later, modern drums and other instruments like saxophones, depending on an individual group. Currently, most groups use modern sound systems during their performance, which was not the case in the early 1980 s. When performing, they either connect their instruments to a car battery, generator or mains electricity. With regard to literary analysis of accordion music, most scholars have dwelt on the analysis of lifela-tsa-litsamaea-naha, also known as migrant workers songs. They have looked at the origins, language and contents of the lifela tsa-litsamaea naha. Many, except Coplan, linked Basotho accordion music to the migrant workers songs as both originating from similar setting in the mines of the Republic of South Africa. Wells (1994), like Coplan, also relates the history of accordion music focusing on the type of instruments used during the performance. Nowadays, this music is popular and Basotho identify themselves with it as their traditional music, which is why this study has undertaken to investigate why it is appreciated and regarded as Basotho traditional music. 1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM The research problem is the analysis of Basotho accordion music, in particular the evolutionary nature of the music, its creative production and attitude of Basotho towards the music. There has been a change of attitude among the Basotho towards accordion music, a lot of creativity to produce the music and the music has itself undergone evolutionary changes. The feeling among the Basotho is that, the accordion music is part of the Basotho oral literature and addresses the 3

16 social, economic and political issues of the Basotho in general. As such, it is regarded as a reservoir of the Basotho customs, beliefs and a variety of language techniques, hence, its popularity among the Basotho. Although the musicians refer to these important issues, very little has been written about this music to show the didactic and nation building role accordion music plays among the Basotho nation. The study responds to the question of to what extent is accordion music can be seen as a traditional music of Basotho. In brief, the study argues that, indeed, Basotho accordion music is part of Basotho oral literature as it retains some of the orality features found in Sesotho oral literature. Since not much has been written about this genre, the research fills the gap through comparison of accordion music and some Sesotho oral genres in order to justify its being regarded as Basotho oral literature. That is, the period 1980 to 2005 had not seen much scholarly analysis of the Basotho accordion music; therefore, there is a need to carry out this study in an attempt to analyse in depth the propagation and refinement of the accordion music, considering its form, content and status among the Basotho. The study raises awareness with regards to the importance of this music and emphasizes that it deserves to be documented for future reference. 1.3 PURPOSE OF THE STUDY This study is a response to and a continuation of the spadework done by Coplan in various works ( ), who relates the origins and the development of this music, focusing on its performance, although he attaches it to Basotho migrants which is not the case nowadays. The aim of the study is to analyse the themes of the Basotho accordion music from 1980 to It examines a variety of thematic aspects which have been incorporated by the artists in the production of accordion music. The study also analyses the language used in the composition of the accordion songs and the rationale behind the employment of such language. It also aims at looking at the role of their music among the Basotho, and the reception of the accordion music by the Basotho. 4

17 1.4 VALUE OF THE RESEARCH This study helps to enhance the importance of this music socially, politically, economically and academically. Socially, this music carries along the cultural aspects that in some cases, guide us in our daily lives. As an embodiment of Basotho customs and beliefs, accordion music sets examples of behaviour worth practicing and those to avoid in life focusing on the Basotho in general. This aspect is in some cases, reflected through the experiences of the artists. Again, this study will contribute towards the social status of the artists, enhancing their dignity in the society as public figures that deserve respect as eyes and voices of the people. In contemporary times, politically, this music raises concerns of the public in the form of songs. It addresses the feelings of the public with regard to good governance and problems experienced by society due to political upheavals of Lesotho. Thus, in short, the artists do not only speak for themselves but for the nation as a whole. It is through this study that the public will learn that their concerns about the politics of Lesotho are encapsulated in accordion music. Economically, this music addresses the Basotho standard of living. Through this study, the public will learn that the artists are aware of the economic problems of Lesotho such as high rate of unemployment and unreliable economic policies which create insecurity and instability. This study will also benefit the artists themselves in that the public will buy more of their music in order to cater for the economic needs of the artists. By so doing, the public will be contributing towards poverty alleviation in the country. Academically, this study sensitises the academics about what is entailed in accordion music, for instance, poetic language and language skills of the Basotho nation. It also helps students to understand the use and application of different language techniques when speaking and writing Sesotho. This is because accordion music is enriched with a variety of language devices. This music focuses on some historical aspects of Lesotho especially between 1980 and Therefore, the study conscientises the public about the didactic role played by the accordion 5

18 music with regard to historical events of the Lesotho. It enables people to view this music as one of the genres which preserves the history of Lesotho. 1.5 DEFINITION OF TERMS Basotho accordion music is the genre of Basotho songs where they sing lifela in Sesotho, accompanied by the accordion and the drum as the key instruments. There are two types of these songs; The first one is makhele, where the artist and his team sing the chorus together followed by an individual lifela and end by repeating the chorus. In some cases, the makhele sound like mangae songs of the initiates. The second type is masholu, these are the songs where there is no chorus at all, where the artists and other members of the band sing the lifela in turns, one after the other until the end of the song. These types of songs were named after one Thabo Lesholu Tšoanelo Peni, who started his music career in 1969 in the Republic of South Africa. He used to play accordion for a group of men called Marashea. He became famous to the extent that the accordion songs, similar to his, became known as masholu in singular it is lesholu. Artists/singers refer to people who compose and sing the accordion music. Themes refer to various topics that artists sing about in their songs. Famo is a term used to describe Basotho music sung in Sesotho which started with the concertina as the key instrument and later accordion and drums. This music was played in shebeens and was famous for the immorality of its participants. Focho is another name for famo music which was used in the 1970s. Style refers to the Sesotho language choices and techniques used by the artists in their songs. 6

19 Lifela tsa li-tsamaea- naha is a solitary form of Sesotho mélange poems recited by Basotho men. They are mostly referred to as migrant labourers songs. They are recited in a distinctive tonal manner of a song. Marashea are groups of Basotho men residing in the Republic of South Africa who have formed different units famous for terrorizing people in the locations. The name comes from Russians. These groups are based in different locations; they sometimes fight each other and forceably take other people s wives. `Mino oa litsamaea-naha is the term used by presenters of Leseli FM Radio in the Republic of South Africa for the programme on Basotho accordion music. Mino oa koriana is a term used by presenters of Mo-Afrika FM Radio in Lesotho for a programme on Basotho accordion music. Re hlasela thota is a term used by presenters of Radio Lesotho in Lesotho for the programme on Basotho accordion music. Rea kubasela is a term used by presenters of Catholic Radio in Lesotho for the programme on Basotho accordion music. Seoeleleoelele/oeleoelele is another term for famo music used by some scholars like Coplan. In most cases, the seoeleoelele/oeleoelele is heard in songs where female participate in the music. The lead-singers, especially female ones, usually repeat the word seoeleoelele throughout the songs. Sepoto is a drinking place for certain people who prefer privacy while drinking beer. Such a place is normally frequented by the friends or people with close social relations. Stokvel is normally a group of people who have organized themselves to hold monthly or weekly functions where they contribute a certain amount to one of their members. They either drink 7

20 together as members or invite other people to boost their business. In such gatherings, they buy and drink beer, and to attract more customers, they may invite the famo musicians. It is worth noting that, for the purpose of this study, names of bands or groups are used as sources, except where individual artists have used their names instead of the group name. This is done in order to avoid confusion that may arise when it comes to the writing of the references. Again, for convenience, the names of groups have been bolded while personal names which are sometimes are names of groups, have not been bolded. Titles of songs and Sesotho lines have been italicized. 1.6 SCOPE OF THE STUDY The study covers the period from 1980 until 2005 when Basotho accordion music became famous and popular among the populace. The study involves the accordion music artists, radio stations presenters, business people who sell accordion music and the general public who have interest in this music. These are stake-holders in this music who contribute to its production and sustainability. For instance, artists produce the music, radio presenters promote it while the public are the consumers. There are three major reasons for choosing this period, namely: Change of attitude towards Basotho accordion music; High creative production of accordion music; and Evolutionary changes of accordion music. The study is structured in the following manner: Chapter 1: Introduction Chapter 2: Theoretical framework Chapter 3: Historiography of Basotho accordion music Chapter 4: Analysis of the accordion music Chapter 5: Thematic aspects of accordion music Chapter 6: Conclusion. 8

21 1.7 LITERATURE REVIEW The researcher read a variety of documents that included journals, theses, and books that dealt with aspects related to Basotho accordion music. The materials cover four broad topics, which are, the history of Southern African Township music, the Basotho migrant labourers lifela, the Basotho music and African music in general. These topics are related in that, Basotho accordion music is traced from the 1920 s to It is said to have emerged in the Republic of South Africa, in the mining compounds and around the squatter camps, and even to date, it still retains some aspects of African oral literature. Most of the literature review would take a closer look at most of Coplan s ( ) works since he has related the history of accordion music until as late as the 1990 s. Coplan s works at the time of writing this research were the only which had intensively treated the famo music. And, because of the quality and relevance of the works to the study, the researcher had to pick on his works. For instance, Coplan s works touch on origins, audience and function of the famo in the 1920s until 1990s. The documents that were read still leave a gap for further research as they do not address the language, themes and change of attitude towards Basotho accordion music HISTORY OF SOUTHERN AFRICAN TOWNSHIP MUSIC AND BASOTHO ACCORDION MUSIC This section deals with works that cover the history of Southern African Township music and Basotho accordion music. In Township Tonight Coplan (1985) relates the brief history of Basotho accordion music. Coplan highlights the origins of lifela from as far back as 1867 with the opening of the South African gold mines. He describes the mining compound conditions, which prompted the migrant workers to compose lifela. He also points out that migrant workers used to sing lifela in their solitary journeys to and from the mines. Thus, the composition covered various topics, which referred to social problems such as family life and economic issues such as unemployment, which led to their going to the mines. Coplan seems to have done intensive research with regard to the origins of what is now called Basotho accordion music. He traces the origins of this music from as far back as the 1920 s in the shebeens and in the squatter camps of Johannesburg. He points out that the popular instruments in those days were the concertina and the home-made-drum. These instruments were 9

22 accompanied by a variety of lifela from the audience who participated in the dancing during the drinking session. The establishment of shebeens became one way of solving the problem of unemployment through illegal sale of liquor. The music was played in the shebeens as one way of attracting more customers and entertaining them so as to speed up cash flow into the shebeen queens pockets. He further indicates that the music was played in shebeens for rough and sexy Basotho migrants, both men and women. He writes: According to numerous eyewitnesses, the famo (from ho re famo) to open nostrils; to raise garments, displaying the genitals, was almost defiantly suggestive. Women made shaking and thrusting movements with their shoulders, hips and bossoms while lifting their flared skirts in an effort, perhaps to show their ass to Lesotho. The dancers wore no underwears but instead had painted rings around the whole area of their sex, a ring they called stoplight.... Men, dancing along side or seated against the walls, chose the women they wanted and took them into the back for intercourse (1985: 98). Coplan goes on relating the historical background of this music until the 1950s when some of the recording companies recorded the famo music. He further points out that the famo music was recitative songs performed by the women with the purpose of paralleling the male s lifela, that is, women addressed their famo songs to men. Against the historical background given above by Coplan, this study wishes to treat the recorded materials, which are in the form of cassettes that are produced by different groups, in a well-organized manner. Coplan s work, which concentrates on performance, leaves room for one to analyse the language and thematic aspects in the Basotho accordion music. The focus of the study is not only based on the fact that accordion music is produced by migrant workers but, that it is currently sung by any artist who feels he has the talent of singing, not necessarily because he has been to the mines. When considering themes, one would say that, currently, the Basotho accordion music addresses various aspects that affect Basotho lives in general. Attention is no longer on the ill-treatment of miners or poor living conditions experienced in the mines. It is worth noting that the setting and the form of performance that used to take place as mentioned above by Coplan is no longer the case nowadays. For instance, at the present moment, women no longer flare their skirts without under-wears to attract men, but dress in any form 10