Can Music Educate Feeling? Susan Davis. E Psychology of Music. April 29, 2008

Transcription

1 Music and Emotion 1 Running head: MUSIC AND EMOTION Can Music Educate Feeling? Susan Davis E Psychology of Music April 29, 2008

2 Music and Emotion 2 Abstract Most people will tell you that they listen to music because of the way it makes them feel. Many people can name a piece of music that has had dramatic emotional significance in their lives their wedding song, a song associated with senior year in high school or a heart wrenching break-up. Music therapists have built their careers on the belief that their work has demonstrable effects on their clients emotions, psychological states, and physiological capabilities. What is it about music that profoundly affects our emotional sensibilities? This paper investigates the plausibility of one perspective: the view of Bennett Reimer that music is powerful because of its ability to educate our feelings.

3 Music and Emotion 3 Can Music Educate Feeling? A Reflection on Reimer s Music Education Philosophy Why do people listen to music? Some may listen to gain academic insight, some may listen passively to music inundating them in retail stores and medical practices, but so many will tell you that they listen to their preferred music because of the way it makes them feel. Most people can name a piece of music that has had dramatic emotional significance in their lives their wedding song, a song associated with senior year in high school or a heart wrenching break-up. Music therapists have built their careers on the belief that their work has demonstrable effects on their clients emotions, psychological states, and physiological capabilities. If music is so obviously linked with our emotions, how do we explain the phenomenon? Does music actually change our emotions? Is it possible to measure or to delineate the effect? Can music actually alter how we feel? One music education philosopher, Bennett Reimer, has suggested that the experience of and participation in art (specifically music) can educate our feelings (2003). Reimer espouses, Creating music as musicians, and listening to music creatively, do precisely and exactly for feeling what writing and reading do for reasoning (sic) (p. 93). He later concludes, In this profound sense, creating music as musicians and listening to music creatively educate feeling (sic) (p. 93). The purpose of this paper is to investigate the potential validity of the assertion that listening to and creating music can educate our feelings. Although Reimer s discourse is of a philosophical nature, he cites contemporary research in neuroscience to marshal support for his theory. In light of his amalgamation of philosophy and science, I venture to answer the question Does music educate feeling? with my own blending of methodologies.

4 Music and Emotion 4 In order to address Reimer s supposition, I have to properly frame the discussion. While there is a plethora of information on the topic of music and emotion, this paper will focus on the physiological effects of music, in the hopes of establishing an empirical grounding for my argument. I will begin by asking the questions: What is feeling? And, What is feeling in music? Is feeling the same as emotion or is it some other construct? Secondly, I will explore what it means to educate feeling and attempt to determine if feeling can, in fact, be educated. Finally, I will endeavor to answer the ultimate question: Does music educate feeling? Through my reflection I will attempt to offer a response to Reimer s philosophy. What is feeling? Is feeling the same as emotion? We often use the words emotion and feeling interchangeably, yet they may not be synonymous. Griffiths (1998, 1999) summarizes several prominent ideas about theories of emotion that I encapsulate here. He first reports on Darwin s universal ideas about emotion: Darwin thought of the physiology of emotion as a mere manifestation of private emotion feelings (Griffiths, p. 197). In the late 19 th century, however, William James suggested that conscious emotion feelings are the result of perceived autonomic nervous system transformations. Others, including Walter D. Cannon, Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer, disagreed with James. They asserted that physiological arousal may be a part of emotion, but the same type of arousal can be present for multiple emotions. Schachter and Singer (in 1962) specifically proposed a cognitive labeling theory of emotion where emotions are demarcated by the cognitive processes that attend them. The disagreement between cognitive versus noncognitive theories of emotion became heated in the 1980 s with Richard Lazarus and R. B. Zajonc. Like others before, Lazarus believed that emotion required cognitive processing of a stimulus. However, Zajonc s modular view of emotions became compelling after looking at

5 Music and Emotion 5 evidence of pathways connecting the perceptual system to the limbic system, and experiments showing emotions able to be triggered by subliminal stimuli (Griffiths, 1998, 1999). Bigand, Vieillard, Madurell, Marozeau, and Dacquet, (2005) cite studies that indicate emotional responses may rely on a rapidly acting mechanism where 250 ms of music is an ample time to distinguish happy from sad excerpts. This continues to reinforce the idea that cognition is not necessarily a mediator in emotional experience. Recently, Antonio Damasio, a leading scholar in the field of neuroscience, has come to the fore of this emotion debate. Damasio (2005) considers emotion to be a simple or complex mental evaluative process combined with a corresponding response to the process that results in an embodied emotional state that leads to supplementary mental changes. He categorizes emotions as primary and secondary. Damasio regards primary emotions to be base emotions (e.g., fear) that both humans and animals experience. They involve activation of the limbic system, amygdala and anterior cingulate. Secondary emotions, by contrast, are often stimulated by mental representations processed in the visual or auditory cortices (e.g., the experienced emotion upon finding out about an unexpected death). These are learned or acquired subjective representations that signal the amygdala and anterior cingulate. They subsequently activate the autonomic nervous system, chemical messages are emitted, and the body experiences an emotional state, although no physical stimulus is present. Damasio explains the experience of feeling as an awareness of the changes in your body state as time passes through seconds and minutes. His theory has been strongly influenced by the James-Lange theory of emotion (Griffiths, 1998, 1999). He writes: If an emotion is a collection of changes in body state connected to particular mental images that have activated a specific brain system, the essence of feeling an emotion is

6 Music and Emotion 6 the experience of such changes in juxtaposition to the mental images that initiated the cycle. (Damasio, 2005, p. 145) The experience is not necessarily concordant, meaning that it is possible to feel unhappy even when faces or situational stimuli are not depressing. Damasio delineates three kinds of feeling: basic universal emotions, subtle universal emotions, and background feelings. Basic universal emotions include happiness, sadness, anger, fear and disgust, while subtle universal emotions include the more complex expressions of euphoria, ecstasy, melancholy, wistfulness, panic, shyness, remorse, embarrassment and Schadenfraude. Background feelings are dissimilar in that they are not provoked by emotional embodied states. Damasio considers background feelings to be the body states that persist between emotions. This notion seems similar to that of a general temperament, whereas people seem to be characteristically happy or melancholy by nature. Background feelings are not emotion driven. Therefore, Damasio makes the assertion that feelings are not equivalent to emotions. All primary and secondary emotions generate feelings, according to Damasio, but not all feelings are rooted in emotions. So what is it that we experience when we listen to or perform music feeling, emotion, or the perception of the two? What is feeling in music? What happens in our brain and body when we listen to music? Multiple studies have shown noticeable connections between music and neurological and/or physiological responses. Ellen Winner of Harvard s Project Zero is currently involved in a longitudinal study of the change in children s brains as a result of music learning through piano lessons (Sackner, 2007). Altenmüller, Gruhn, Parlitz, and Liebert (2000) showed long-term brain alteration as a result of procedural learning modalities in distinguishing antecedent and consequent phrases. Oliver

7 Music and Emotion 7 Sacks has written about the transformation of patients with dementia during music therapy sessions: It is astonishing to see mute, isolated, confused, individuals warm to music, recognize it as familiar, and start to sing, start to bond with a therapist. It is even more astonishing to see a dozen deeply demented people - all in worlds or nonworlds of their own, seemingly incapable of any coherent reactions, let alone interactions - and how they respond to the presence of a music therapist who begins to play music in front of them. There is a sudden attention: a dozen pairs of distracted eyes fasten on the player. Torpid patients become alert and aware; agitated ones grow calmer. That it may be possible to gain the attention of such patients and hold it for minutes at a time is itself remarkable. (Sacks, 2008, p. 344) Studies of particular interest for this paper examined the relationship between music and feelings or emotions. One such investigation looked at the intervention of listening to Bach s Magnificat in the treatment of patients with infectious lung conditions such as pneumonia or acute bronchitis (le Roux et al., 2007). An experimental group that listened to Bach for one half hour, in addition to the standard physiotherapy treatment, displayed lower cortisol levels and lower cortisol:dhea (the dehydroepiandrosterone hormone) ratios than a control group that simply received physiotherapy treatment. Reduction of cortisol is associated with positive emotions (e.g., happiness and love) and likely had a positive effect on the subjects of the study. In addition, analysis of the administered Profile of Mood States (POMS) instrument demonstrated statistically significant improvements in all self-reported categories for the subjects: tension, depression, anger, confusion, fatigue, and vigor. The authors considered their results to be indicative of our emotions, immune system and nervous system working in

8 Music and Emotion 8 synchronicity with one another as a response to music. Recalling Damasio s demarcation of feeling as inclusive of emotions, we can infer from this study that music is capable of positively influencing feelings. Carol Krumhansl has spent a great deal of time looking at the relationship between music listening and emotional experience. In one study she evaluated physiological measures of emotional response, cardiac function, blood flow, electrical conductance of the skin, and respiratory function as a reaction to classical works chosen to represent sadness, happiness, and fear (2002). The measures either remained steady or increased during the music listening activity, and they exhibited different values of change for different emotional qualities perceived. Sad ratings were most strongly associated with changes in heart rate, blood pressure, and skin conductance and temperature. The fear ratings were associated with changes in the rate and amplitude of blood flow. The happy ratings were associated with changes in respiration measures (Krumhansl, 2002, p. 46). Krumhansl concluded that music does have an effect on emotional physiological response. Schmidt and Trainor (2001) found that positively valenced (or pleasant) musical excerpts demonstrated greater relative left frontal EEG activity, while negatively valenced (or unpleasant) musical excerpts showed greater relative right frontal EEG activity. Additionally, positively valenced excerpts produced more activity than negatively valenced excerpts as indicated by less frontal EEG power and more activity displayed in the left hemisphere across valence. This is noteworthy because it confirms the belief that the left frontal area of the brain is associated with the experience of positive emotions (e.g., joy and happiness) while the right frontal region is concerned with the experience of negative emotions (e.g., fear and sadness). Schmidt and

9 Music and Emotion 9 Trainor s study also verified that high intensity (e.g., joy and fear) musical examples evoke more activity than low intensity (e.g., happy and sad) musical examples. One particularly remarkable study by Blood and Zatorre (2001) examined the brain response of subjects listening to pieces of music known to trigger the pleasurable experience of chills. The subjects involved in this study were university students with at least eight years of personal music training. Each student brought a piece of music to the investigators that consistently caused them to experience the phenomenon of chills or shivers-down-the-spine. The subjects were presented with four stimuli: the selected music, control music, amplitudematched noise, and silence. PET scans recorded information in conjunction with measurements of heart rate, electromyogram, respiration depth, electrodermal response, and skin temperature taken by an F1000 polygraph instrument. Subjects were also asked to rate their reaction (chills intensity, emotional intensity, and unpleasant versus pleasant) to each stimulus on a scale. Blood and Zatorre found that as intensity of chills increased, brain regions suspected to be involved in reward or motivation, emotion, and arousal, exhibited cerebral blood flow changes. Brain structures including the ventral striatum, midbrain, amygdala, orbitofrontal cortex, and ventral medial prefrontal cortex, known to be stimulated by other intensely pleasurable activities (e.g., food, sex, and drugs), were activated in this process. In Levitin s book, This is Your Brain on Music (2007), he outlines a neurological sequence observed through analysis of brain scans taken while subjects were listening to classical music: Listening to music caused a cascade of brain regions to become activated in a particular order: first, auditory cortex for initial processing of the components of the sound. Then the frontal regions, such as BA44 and BA47, that we had previously identified as being

10 Music and Emotion 10 involved in processing musical structure and expectations. Finally, a network of regions the mesolimbic system involved in arousal, pleasure, and the transmission of opioids and the production of dopamine, culminating in activation in the nucleus accumbens. And the cerebellum and basal ganglia were active throughout, presumably supporting the processing of rhythm and meter. (Levitin, 2007, p. 191) Levitin credits the release of dopamine and activation of the mesolimbic system during music listening with being the source of music s ability to alter our moods. He also cites the role of the cerebellum, the reptilian brain, as deriving pleasure from adapting to the ebb and flow of music s pulse. Unlike spurious theories that have attributed music to being a predominantly right-brain phenomenon, Levitin and numerous others have found that music involves a wide distribution of brain stimulation. Perhaps this is another reason for its powerful effect. Subsequently, when we listen to music, are we actually feeling emotions or just perceiving emotions in the music that evoke a sympathetic response in our bodies? We now know that the same parts of our brain are stimulated when we observe an activity as when we participate in one. Molnar-Szakacs and Overy have proposed that, the human mirror neuron system may subserve some effects, linking music perception, cognition and emotion via an experiential rather than a representational mechanism. A review of the literature on musically induced emotions provides support for our proposal that music can invoke motor representations of emotions by recruiting the insula, a neural relay between the limbic and motor systems. (p. 239) Could this be the origin of our perception? Philosophers like Bennett Reimer and Peter Kivy have devoted many pages to our aesthetic perception of music. Is this congruent with feeling or emotion, or is it something entirely different? Is it possible that music is subliminally

11 Music and Emotion 11 activating our limbic system, hormones, and autonomic nervous system while we just reflexively respond and rationalize it as feeling, emotion, or aesthetic experience? The multifaceted nature of music, the brain and our physiological response makes it difficult to definitively discriminate the reasons we perceive or experience feeling in music. However, all of the studies noted thus far make one thing obvious music has a palpable effect on our embodied mind, and that includes our feelings. What does it mean to educate? According to the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary (2008), to educate is (1a) to provide schooling for (b) to train by formal instruction and supervised practice especially in a skill, trade, or profession (2a) to develop mentally, morally, or aesthetically especially by instruction (b) to provide with information [or] (3) to persuade or condition to feel, believe, or act in a desired way. From this definition, an education might include anything from behavioral conditioning to a presented stimulus to master-apprentice style inductive training, or constructionist self-guided learning. Within the field of education, however, effective learning has become associated with more specific pedagogy. Bruer writes about education based in cognitive theory. He posits that this kind of learning is guided by the learners introspective awareness and control of their mental processes as well as being facilitated by social, collaborative settings that value self-directed student dialogue (Bruer, 1998, 1999, p. 681). Freire (2007, 1970) advocates for reconciliation of the teacher-student contradiction in education whereby both students and teachers actively participate in student and teacher roles. He writes:

12 Music and Emotion 12 The teacher is no longer merely the-one-who-teaches (sic), but one who is himself taught in dialogue with the students, who in turn while being taught also teach. They become jointly responsible for a process in which all grow. (p. 80) Gruhn (2006) specifically describes music learning, or music education, as a process by which mental representations (genuine musical conceptions) are developed and gradually altered, differentiated, extended, and refined (p. 17). David Elliott s praxial music education philosophy (1995) emphasizes the importance of music education as a form of human action that is purposeful, context-specific, and revealing of one s individual and community identity (Davis, 2008). Education is a complex process that ideally transforms the way the student and the teacher view and understand the studied subject matter. Can feeling be educated? If we designate education of feelings simply as a state where a person is conditioned to feel in a certain way, then perhaps Reimer s theory has validity. The work of Phelps and LeDoux (2005) has shown that fear responses can be conditioned by tone-shock pairings and the amygdala appears to be a necessary component of the acquisition and storage of a memory of the conditioning experience and the expression of fear responses (p.175). Since fear has been identified as one of our most basic emotions (by Damasio, 2005, and others) and feelings of fear emerge concomitantly with emotion, this work of Phelps and LeDoux potentially reinforces the notion that our feelings can be educated by an external stimulus. In their particular case of fear conditioning, rats were presented with a tone as a neutral conditioned stimulus accompanied by an electric shock to the foot as an aversive unconditioned stimulus. The rats came to associate the tone with the shock and, thereafter, automatically exhibited fear responses of freezing

13 Music and Emotion 13 behavior, blood pressure and heart rate increase, as well as pituitary-adrenal excitement at the onset of the neutral conditioned stimulus (Phelps et al., 2005). We could extrapolate from this study a learning situation, potentially endorsed by Reimer, in which a student is presented with a piece of music to listen to, such as Beethoven s Symphony No. 5, first movement; Duke Ellington s Caravan; or Led Zeppelin s Stairway to Heaven. The student, guided by their teacher to listen for the formal elements of the composition (i.e., melody, harmony, timbre, dynamics), would ideally have a feelingful and meaningful musical experience. The enjoyment of this music experience would likely be a result of the release of dopamine and stimulation of the mesolimbic system involved in arousal (Levitin, 2007), and the student would learn, i.e., become conditioned, to associate musical stimuli with enjoyment and motivation. In this hypothetical situation, the music is the neutral conditioned stimulus while the hormonal change is the reinforcing unconditioned stimulus. As the subject of this occurrence becomes conditioned to behave or feel in a certain way in response to the musical stimulus, we could argue that his feelings are in fact being educated. Reimer would likely caution that it is not merely a conditioned response, but rather, the experience of music as an affecting presence (p. 94) that causes the subject to have this feelingful musical experience. If the act of music listening is capable of eliciting such a response, perhaps experiential participation in music making would be even more effective for education of our feelings. Music making is a form of procedural learning, where a participant engages in interactive music production, experiencing all facets of the activity. This differs from music listening activities where the participant is limited to an observational perspective. A study by Altenmüller, Gruhn, Parlitz, and Liebert (2000) examined the effect of declarative and procedural learning modalities on students ability to distinguish balanced and unbalanced antecedent and consequent phrases.

14 Music and Emotion 14 Students trained in a declarative manner (i.e., verbal concepts taught through direct instruction with visual aids and examples) did not exhibit the wide distribution of cortical activity that students trained in a procedural manner (i.e., participation in musical tasks through singing, playing, improvising, and performing musical works) displayed. The authors associated this brain activity with a more global way of processing information and found that after one year, with no further training, the procedural group still exhibited an increase in achievement (Gruhn, 2004). Although the Altenmüller, et al. study only evaluated brain maps obtained by EEG (electroencephalograph) techniques, once again we might extrapolate about the procedural music making process. In addition to engaging the brain in a more global way, experiential music making has the potential to absorb students in the state of flow as identified by Mihalyi Csikszentmihalyi. Flow is the intrinsically rewarding state in which a person s level of ability matches the level of the challenge they are engaging that leads to an optimal experience seeming to halt time. Flow is linked to increased feelings of self-growth, self-knowledge, self-esteem, and enjoyment (Elliott, 1995). In this way, active music making would seem to have the potential to educate feelings by providing rewarding feelingful experiences. However, there are several deficiencies in this line of thinking. In the first case, is conditioning of emotions truly the goal in music education? Many scholars and educators have worked diligently in the past few decades to impel all of education past a behavioral mindset and into the constructionist arena, where learning is not simply a passively conditioned response, but mediated actively by the student. Reimer himself does not define education of feelings as conditioning of feelings. Rather, he claims that music and music education serve to clarify, organize, broaden, deepen, concentrate, refine, sensitize, discipline, [and] internalize feeling in

15 Music and Emotion 15 the way that reading and writing do the same for conceptual reasoning (2003, p. 93). The difficulty with Reimer s analogy lies in the fact that (1) conceptual reasoning, or cognitive thinking, is not sufficiently educated by reading and writing alone - visual imagery, kinesthetic experience, and interpersonal relations are just some of the other areas critical to conceptual reasoning as recognized in Gardner s multiple intelligence theory; (2) the result of conceptual reasoning can be evaluated through conversation, written artifacts, or paper-and-pencil tests; while the education of feelings, if the concept is indeed genuine, remains elusive and immeasurable; and (3) music may very well be able to affect our feelings before we are even cognitively aware (Bigand, et al. 2005), however the very acts of clarifying, organizing, broadening, deepening, concentrating, refining, sensitizing, disciplining, and internalizing feeling cannot be initiated by music alone they require cognitive or conceptual reasoning to be fully developed. Unfortunately Reimer s hypothesis perpetuates the notion of cognitive and emotive duality by making a distinction between the education of conceptual reasoning and the education of feeling. Additionally, our current methods of examining brain activity are not able to explore human neural systems with the same detail as animal systems (Phelps et al., 2005). Phelps and LeDoux, as experts in the field, acknowledge that there may be multiple systems for the encoding and expression of emotional learning (p. 177) and cognitive control of emotion in humans adds another variable to the mix. We cannot be sure of the causal links in the brain and body as people experience music. Finally, several recent studies (Bigand et al., 2005; Lychner, 1998) have shown that musicians and non-musicians do not exhibit significantly different emotional responses to Western Classical music excerpts. In fact, Bigand et al. found very strong correlation between musicians and non-musicians in identifying emotional response to complex

16 Music and Emotion 16 musical examples (e.g., Stravinsky s Petrouchka and Beethoven s Piano Sonata No. 32) even when only one second of an excerpt was played. These findings strongly imply that musical training does not have a quantifiable effect on how we perceive music emotionally, that is in the physiological expression of emotions. This is perhaps the strongest evidence that feelings are not available for learning. Does music educate feeling? It sounds perfectly reasonable to argue that reasoning can be educated in quality and depth and breadth and that we have the means to do so in education by using the forms of cognition appropriate to conceptual thinking languages and other symbolic systems. The parallel claim being made here, that feeling can be educated in quality and depth and breadth, and that we have the means to do so in education by using the form of cognition appropriate to the affective domain music and the arts sounds remarkable or even radical. But with work such as Damasio s to add credence to the philosophical intuitions preceding it, we can now make that claim with substantial confidence. And we can organize our efforts as music educators to effectively achieve the education of feeling available through musical experience. (Reimer, 2003, p. 94) Reimer appears quite confident that we can achieve the education of feeling through music. He also believes that Damasio s work lends full support to his view. While Damasio (2005) elucidates the relationship of feelings to emotions, and he even acknowledges the capacity for the auditory image of a melody to affect feeling (p. 145), his work does not offer substantiation of feelings being educated by external sources such as music and art. Reimer makes that assumption by himself.

17 Music and Emotion 17 I submit that the evidence presented in this paper confirms that a music education, while valuable and inspiring in innumerable ways, does not have the power to educate feelings. It may never even be possible to know the extent of music s effect on the one hundred million neurons in our brains (Levitin, 2007). It is important to remember that individual differences in personality and subjective experience may be connected to the way an individual processes and normalizes various emotions (Schmidt et al. 2001). It is also best for us to be cautious regarding the data that we choose to build a theory on. Prominent neuroscientists cannot even agree on the definitions of emotion and feeling, how can we expect music education to infallibly synthesize information from the field? Finally, I would also propose that music is ultimately utilized and experienced at the prerogative of the consumer, student, or end user. Some may choose to actively engage with music and surrender themselves to emotions that emerge from their chosen music of stimulation. Today, however, I believe we see many that use music to manage the background feelings Damasio writes about. Sloboda (2001) notes that, Unprecedented choice, and miniaturisation (sic) of delivery technology, gives much greater individual autonomy in musical experience than has been possible hitherto. Young people can easily and cheaply create their own musical worlds. Institutions such as schools no longer comprise a privileged route to access (p. 250). Sloboda s observation is insightful; music has the capacity to create a world of experience unique and autobiographical for each person. In a sense, a person can write the soundtrack of her life through the music that she embraces effectively moving between feelings of joy, melancholy, fury and serenity ad libitum. Throughout our lives, these feelings may be clarified, organized, broadened, deepened, concentrated, refined, sensitized, disciplined, and internalized. They may also be at times obscured, disorganized, narrowed, superficial, unfocused, tainted,

18 Music and Emotion 18 desensitized, unmanageable, and transferential. And these feelings may at times be enhanced by music, however music alone cannot educate feelings. Concluding thoughts Unquestionably, music reaches people in a profound and meaningful way. Whether this phenomenon is embedded in music s aesthetic or feelingful nature (as identified Bennett Reimer), or music s ability to arouse emotion (including physiological responses that we have little control over), or music s narrative role in our individual and social development, is yet to be determined. And perhaps, not even necessary to classify or educate. I leave this discussion with an example that speaks volumes about music s function for many. On Friday, April 18, 2008 approximately 1,000 people gathered in Union Square, New York City for a silent rave. Each person danced to their own musical theme emanating from their ipod or MP3 player into their earphones as part of one mass musico-social event (Ramirez, 2008). No wonder Levitin calls music a human obsession. We may never find the precise origin of music s stimulation of our emotions. We may never ultimately be able to utilize music to educate our emotions, but that does not mean that we cannot enjoy, value and be inspired by music perennially throughout our lives.

19 Music and Emotion 19 References Altenmüller, E. & Gruhn, W., Parlitz, D. & Liebert, G. (2000). The impact of music education on brain networks: evidence from EEG-studies. International Journal of Music Education, 35, Bigand, E., Vieillard, S., Madurell, F., Marozeau, J., & Dacquet, A. (2005). Multidimensional scaling of emotional responses to music: The effect of musical expertise and of the duration of the excerpts. Cognition and Emotion, 19(8), Blood, A. J., & Zatorre, R. J. (2001). Intensely pleasurable responses to music correlate with activity in brain regions implicated in reward and emotion. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 98(20), Bruer, J. T. (1998, 1999). Education. In Bechtel, W., & Graham, G., (Eds.). A companion to cognitive science (p ). Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. Damasio, A. (2005). Descartes error: Emotion, reason, and the human brain. New York: Penguin Group. Davis, S. (2008, March). Praxial music education as a springboard to meeting 21 st century demands. Paper presented at the Steinhardt Arts Education Conference, New York University, New York. Elliott, D. J. (1995). Music matters: A new philosophy of music education. New York: Oxford Publishing. Freire, P. (2007). Pedagogy of the Oppressed. 30 th Anniversary Edition. New York: Continuum International. Griffiths, P. (1998, 1999). Emotions. In Bechtel, W., & Graham, G., (Eds.). A companion to cognitive science (p ). Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing.

20 Music and Emotion 20 Gruhn, W. (2004, July). Neurodidactics A new scientific trend in music education? Paper presented at the XXVI ISME International Conference, Tenerife, Spain. Gruhn, W. (2006). Music learning in schools: Perspectives of a new foundation for music teaching and learning. Action, Criticism, and Theory for Music Education, 5(2), Krumhansl, C. L. (2002). Music: A link between cognition and emotion. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 11(2), le Roux, F. H., Bouic, P. J. D., & Bester, M. M. (2007). The effect of Bach s Magnificat on emotions, immune, and endocrine parameters during physiotherapy treatment of patients with infectious lung conditions. Journal of Music Therapy, 64(2), Levitin, D. J. (2007). This is your brain on music: The science of a human obsession. New York: Penguin Group. Lychner, J. A. (1998). An empirical study concerning terminology relating to aesthetic response to music. Journal of Research in Music Education, 46(2), Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. Definition of educate. Retrieved April 20, 2008 from Molnar-Szakacs, I., & Overy, K. (2006). Music and mirror neurons: From motion to e motion. SCAN, I, Phelps, E. A., & LeDoux, J. E. (2005). Contributions of the amygdala to emotion processing: From animal models to human behavior. Neuron, 48, Ramirez, A. (2008, April 20). For 1,000 Solo Dancers, a Soundtrack of Silence. New York Times. Retrieved April 22, 2008, from Reimer, B. (2003). A philosophy of music education: Advancing the vision. New Jersey: Prentice

21 Music and Emotion 21 Hall. Sackner, S. (Director). (2007). Class act: There s a little drama in all of us [DVD]. Studio-on- Hudson. Sacks, O. (2008). Musicophilia: Tales of music and the brain. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. Schmidt, L. A., & Trainor, L. J. (2001). Frontal brain electrical activity (EEG) distinguishes valence and intensity of musical emotions. Cognition and Emotion, 15(4), Sloboda, J. (2001). Emotion, functionality, and the everyday experience of music: Where does music education fit? Music Education Research, 3(2),