Research Methods Writing Style

Transcription

1 Research Methods Writing Style I. The writing process A. Your outline or storyboard is the overall guide for your work. 1. This shows the chapters and major issues to cover. 2. It keeps you on track. 3. It shows the big picture to keep you from getting lost in the details. B. Order of composing sections 1. Most people start writing a thesis with the history of research. 2. There is no need to write each chapter sequentially a. Start with the section you are most comfortable with. b. The key is to keep writing and not get bogged down. 3. When you get an insight out of order, quickly put it in the file for the appropriate section or on your storyboard or a note card. 4. Usually it is best to write the introduction when you are finished with the whole document. You now know what is really important, why it is important and what you have really proven. C. Before you write a chapter, create a chapter outline or copy the chapter detail from your storyboard. 1. It keeps you focused and carries the argument along. Without it, it is easier to wander off topic. 2. There is no need to write the chapter sequentially if you have an outline. Write the section that is easiest to write first. D. Stages of writing 1. Outline/storyboard 2. First draft: Create this rough draft from your notes. 3. Second draft: Polish the text for content, flow of ideas, sentence structure. 4. Third draft: Correct mistakes in grammar, footnotes, bibliography, punctuation. 5. Final revision: Correct all minor formatting details. E. Two approaches to creating the First draft: 1. Option 1: slow, careful sequential writing a. This works best with a well thought out plan and if you are a logical, sequential thinker. b. The extra time spent in outlining and story boarding pays off, so you can write one sentence at a time carefully. 2. Option 2: Write in whatever order things come to you, starting with the part that you know the most about. a. Step 1: Write down your ideas, even if they are incomplete sentences and some elements are out of order. (1) This initial brainstorming may include ideas for a different section. (2) Don t worry about spelling initially. Correcting spelling interrupts the flow of ideas. b. Step 2: Go back and polish the rough ideas into smooth prose, rearranging material as necessary. c. Advantages (1) This brain dump or brainstorming process allows you to get something down quickly. (2) You don t get bogged down if you cannot figure out what to say next. You avoid writer s block by writing anything. (3) It avoids the feeling that your writing must be perfect before you move to the next paragraph. (4) One idea leads to another. d. Disadvantage: You must allow time for polishing and reorganizing e. Use codes to indicate more work needs to be done in a section: (1) If sentence is incomplete: === (2) If something is missing: [=== proof ===] Copyright 2016 Dr. Harry A. Hahne

2 Research: Writing Page 2 (3) If unsure of something: [?] (4) Put brackets [] around a section if you think you might omit it. 3. Regardless of the method you use, don t worry about perfecting your writing the first time. This takes too much time and interrupts your train of thought. F. Tips for dealing with common writing problems 1. Schedule regular and significant blocks of time for writing a. You will not make good progress if you only work on the thesis one or two days a week, because you spend half your time figuring out where you were. b. Allocate significant blocks of time, so you have time to get a momentum. 2. Often during the writing process you will discover a need for further research a. If you stop to get the information, it can interrupt the thought process. b. Mark in your draft where you need more information. You can later find get that information. c. If you can get the missing information quickly, do it while writing (e.g. look up a Greek word in a lexicon). 3. How to handle tangents in your thinking: a. Option 1: Write the idea down in another section or a to look at file and then continue on with what you were writing. Keep moving ahead with your writing. b. Option 2: Explore the thought a bit to see if you are on to something. Sometimes this can lead to exciting new discoveries. 4. If you chop out a substantive sentence or paragraph, consider moving it to a comment in your document or a scrap heap file. You might need it later! G. Avoiding writer s block and procrastination 1. The huge size of a project can make it seem overwhelming and paralyze your thinking. 2. Beak the project into small pieces. Focus on completing one piece at a time. 3. Set a schedule for when you want to finish certain stages. 4. Set a reasonable goal for each day s work. 5. Make sure you write something every day, even if it is only a paragraph. Your progress will encourage you to keep going. 6. If you get bogged down in a section, don t fight it. Write a note about what needs to go there and go to another part. 7. Don t feel your writing must be polished or perfect. Get something written down. You can always smooth it out later. 8. If ideas just don t come, you may genuinely not be ready to write. Perhaps you have not done enough research and thinking about the subject to have anything to say. H. See Robert Boice, Professors as Writers: A Self-Help Guide to Productive Writing (Stillwater, OK: New Forums, 1990). Practical tips for overcoming blockages to writing particular to specific personality types. II. Editing, revising and proofreading A. The first rule of good writing is to edit, edit, edit. 1. Even the best professional writers do not produce perfect work on the first draft. 2. You must go through multiple drafts to produce quality writing. 3. Pliny the Younger: I apologize for this long letter; I didn t have time to shorten it. 4. The difficulty is that your words are like your babies they seem perfect in your eyes, no matter how others see them. 5. To be a good proofreader you have to learn to look objectively at what you have written and view it from the standpoint of a reader. a. Dr. Samuel Johnson gave this rule for writing: Read over your compositions, and when you meet with a passage which you think is particularly fine, strike it out. b. Sometimes those clever expressions you are so proud of are the ones that readers fine most difficult. Don t try to sound profound!

3 Research: Writing Page 3 B. General proofreading and revision tips 1. Allow the manuscript to cool off for at least a day or two before trying to revise it. You will see many things that you miss when it is too fresh, because the mind tends to fill in the missing points. 2. Print out the document and mark up corrections on the printed document. It is much easier to see mistakes from a printed page than a computer screen. 3. Date and/or number your drafts (perhaps in a header or footer on each page). 4. Initially proof each chapter separately. Later look at the whole thesis for structure and flow of ideas. 5. Often reading aloud helps you hear if sentences flow well and make sense. You can hear many problems that you might pass over when reading silently. C. Beware of special errors produced from using a word processor 1. Partially deleting old text when inserting new text. This can result in grammatical nonsense (partially change on the other hand to however, you end up with on the however ). 2. Misspellings that accidently produce real words (you type rude when you meant ride or sue instead of use ). 3. Selecting the wrong replacement text with a spell checker. 4. Trusting the automatic correction of spelling in your word processor (e.g. Qumran is changed to quorum ) 5. Excessive verbosity: Since it is easier to write with a word processor, many people write more words. 6. Not proofreading a printed draft. It is very difficult to spot mistakes on the computer screen. D. Preproof First Draft: on the computer screen 1. Use the spell checker in your word processor. 2. Read each sentence to make sure it makes sense. 3. Rearrange material to make the ideas flow better. 4. Look for obvious mistakes. E. Proofread First Draft: print out 1. Look for the overall structure of chapter. 2. Make sure section headings help the reader see the flow of ideas. 3. Read to see if the flow of argument makes sense. 4. Trim out extraneous material. Strip out anything that is off topic 5. Polish the grammar. 6. Simplify sentences: Tighten sentences and break complex sentences into two or more sentences. You ought to be able to easily cut out 20-30% of the bulk. 7. Remove redundancy (things you have already said earlier). 8. Read the footnotes only generally for grammar. Don t worry about citation format at this stage. 9. After marking up your printed copy, enter the changes in the computer. F. Proofread Second Draft: print out and proof several days later 1. Polish the grammar and word selection. 2. Further tighten the sentences. 3. Cut out anything off topic. 4. Check every bibliographic footnote and bibliography entry in detail. Don t assume your citation formatting software is perfect. G. Proofread Third Draft: print out 1. Read for overall smooth flow and readability. 2. Check minor formatting points: proper punctuation; spaces; spelling of unusual and foreign words (including proper diacritical marks); pagination; consistent references to Bible and other primary sources; formatting: line spacing, table captions, etc.; consistent abbreviations; front matter (table of contents, abbreviation list); cross references point to the right page or footnote; no widows or orphans. 3. Check bibliography details, including proper sorting.

4 Research: Writing Page 4 4. Backward scanning may show mistakes that don t appear when you read in order. H. Proofread Final Draft: One last browse through to make sure everything is in the right place. I. Use standard proofreaders marks

5 Research: Writing Page 5 III. Writing style tips A. Consult a good guide to writing style. 1. Time spent with a style guide will improve your writing more than a style checker in a word processor. 2. William Shrunk and E.B. White, The Elements of Style, New York, Macmillan, A small paperback suggesting improvements for common writing errors. 3. Rudolf Flesch. The Art of Readable Writing, New York: Collier, Jane E. Aaron. The Little, Brown Essential Handbook. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Longman, See for video tutorials and exercises. 5. Mignon Fogarty. Grammar Girl s Quick and Dirty Tips for Writing. A witty and informative collection of writing tips in 5 minute audio clips. 6. Jennifer Frost, English Grammar. Free Daily English Grammar Lessons and Exercises Very basic, but useful information about writing well. It was designed for people who speak English as a second language, but would benefit anyone. 7. A Guide to Grammar and Writing, A basic guide to English grammar. B. Don t trust the grammar checker in your word processor. 1. The software does not understand the content, but looks for common problems, such as singular verbs with a plural subject, passive voice, lack of a verb in a sentence (incomplete sentence), etc. 2. E.g. it may say you have an incomplete sentence if the sentence has an abbreviation with a period. C. Some marks of high quality writing (see the writing rubrics handouts) D. Write for a specific audience 1. A thesis or dissertation is written for a scholarly audience. a. Write with an objective tone, not expressing your feelings or exposing your biases. b. You can assume the reader has a basic knowledge of Greek and Hebrew c. You can assume the reader knows technical terms in biblical studies 2. Aim for scholars in the field, but not necessarily specialists in your subfield. For example, if you are writing on the book of Job, write clearly for Old Testament or biblical scholars, but do not assume the reader has a detailed knowledge of specialized technical issues in the wisdom literature. E. Aim for clarity and simplicity of expression. 1. Many scholars look for a more difficult way to say things. Instead of saying Sugar frosted flakes they say glucose encrusted packets of toasted wheat derived food product. 2. Do not try to impress the reader with your complex expression of ideas. F. Minimize the use of passive voice 1. Don t say: The methods of the Jesus Seminar has been criticized by many scholars. Active voice is more direct: Many scholars have criticized the methods of the Jesus Seminar 2. In general, the active voice is clearer and more forceful than the passive 3. Passive can be used if necessary, but poor writing uses it excessively. G. Avoid the first person. 1. The report is not about you, but about the results of your research. 2. First person conveys a tone lacking in objectivity and implies inappropriate casualness and familiarity. 3. Although some academic publications allow first person, it is usually unnecessary. a. You don t need to say in my opinion or I would argue. b. There is no need to say I have chosen to limit the research to... Simply say This study focuses on...

6 Research: Writing Page 6 4. Simply state your view along with the evidence, because the reader knows you are stating your opinion. 5. Also avoid in the author s opinion, we and other circumlocutions to refer to yourself. H. Choose the right words 1. Use a thesaurus and dictionary to pick the word that conveys exactly what you mean. Make sure you know exactly what the word connotes. 2. Avoid colloquial and slang terms: irrational is better than crazy or nuts ; excellent is better than first-rate or cool ; avoid contractions ( hasn t ). 3. Don t use a fancy word when a simpler word will convey the meaning clearly. ( Think is better than cogitate. ) 4. There are two situations in which it is better to use a less common word: a. If the word more accurately reflects what you want to say. b. If the best word is a technical term used in your field. 5. If the word is unusual or you are using it in a special way, define it when you first use it. I. Use gender neutral language 1. Professional writing etiquette requires that male nouns and pronouns not be used for generic people or situations where the gender is unknown. 2. Say humanity or humankind or people rather than mankind 3. When referring to a person of unknown gender, avoid saying he. 4. Since English lacks a generic personal pronoun you have to work around it: a. When possible substitute a plural: rather than a pastor prays for his congregation use pastors usually pray for their congregations. b. You can use he or she rather than he : a scholar usually prefers his or her own first hand research. This gets tedious if it is done this excessively, so the plural is easier on the ear. c. Some use she as a generic pronoun: a scholar usually prefers her own first hand research d. Some recommend using they, although this is less widely accepted and sounds awkward. J. How to use the names of scholars in the body of the report 1. Refer to well-known scholars by last name. 2. For less well-known persons, refer to their first and last name for the first reference, then last name only thereafter. 3. If more than one person has the same last name in your study, distinguish them with an initial or always use the first name. 4. Never include a title (Dr., Professor) or degrees (John Smith, PhD), even if they are included on the title page of the book. K. Common style problems 1. Misuse of homonyms: a. accept/except b. hear/here c. their/there/they re d. Its vs. it s (1) its = possessive form of it (2) it s = it is or it has ) (3) What is its color? It's green. (4) It is best to avoid it s entirely, since it is colloquial e. immanent/imminent/eminent f. See 2. Misused idioms (e.g. beg the question does not mean leads naturally to a question ; it is the logical fallacy of assuming the answer in the form of your question or assumptions).

7 Research: Writing Page 7 L. Don t preach. 1. Don t calling the reader to action or emphasize applications in academic writing. 2. Avoid personal references and anecdotes. 3. Replace expressions such as people won to Christ or souls saved with something neutral, such as people who became Christians. M. Be consistent in the verb tense used to refer to the ideas of dead authors. 1. It is often best to use present tense to describe a written source ( Luther argues... ). Past tense is acceptable if you are consistent. 2. To refer to an event in the past, use past tense ( when Luther nailed his 95 theses on the Whittenburg door, he argued... ). N. Writing clear sentences 1. See the excellent advice in Turabian, ch There is always a trade-off between precise expression of complex ideas and clear language. But even the most complex ideas can be made clearer if the sentence complexity is reduced. 3. Sentences should usually be of short to medium length (about words or about 2 lines). 4. Avoid excessive use of subordinate clauses a. If there are more than 2 subordinate clauses, consider breaking it into two or more sentences. b. Subordinate clauses between the subject and the verb make the sentence hard to read. c. Starting a sentence with a subordinate clause also reduces readability. O. Writing clear paragraphs 1. A paragraph must discuss one main subject. 2. The first sentence usually establishes the theme or major issue ( topic sentence ). 3. A paragraph always has more than one sentence and rarely should be longer than half a page. 4. When you state a summary list of list of views or points, it is more readable if you enumerate them. 5. Use connectives to carry the flow of thought between sentences ( therefore, however, similarly ) or to show a sequence of ideas of support for a view ( first, second, third, finally ).November 30, 2007 P. Use the abbreviations described in SBL Handbook of Style and Turabian 1. Typical abbreviations include: a. Common terms used in biblical research: NT, OT, MSS (manuscripts) b. Journal names c. Series titles d. Primary source references (Bible, ancient Jewish literature, Church Fathers) e. General abbreviations (e.g.; cf.; etc.) 2. Special biblical studies terms, journals and series titles should use SBL abbreviations. 3. References to the Bible and other ancient sources should use SBL abbreviations, rather than those in Turabian. 4. General abbreviations should conform to Turabian. 5. List all abbreviations in the front section of the thesis, even if you use standard ones. Q. When quoting from the English Bible, indicate the version you normally use in a footnote after your first Bible quotation ( Quotations of the Bible are taken from NIV, unless otherwise stated ). 1. If you usually use your own translation, indicate this in that footnote. 2. When you quote from a different Bible version, put the version in parentheses after the quotation. 3. Use standard version abbreviations (NIV, NRSV, etc.). Include them in your list of abbreviations. IV. Formatting the document A. Papers and theses at Golden Gate Seminary must follow 3 style and format guides: 1. Turabian 7 th edition.

8 Research: Writing Page 8 2. Watson, Gregg. A Student Supplement for Form and Style as Required by Turabian, 7th Edition. a. This is a summary of Turabian and specifies Golden Gate preferences, where Turabian is ambiguous. b. It also specifies issues pertaining to biblical studies that Turabian does not treat. 3. SBL Handbook of Style B. The interaction between these three guides is: 1. For abbreviations, follow the SBL Style. 2. Follow the Turabian format and citation rules meticulously. 3. If Turabian allows for several choices, Watson s guide specifies the preferred format (e.g. font, margins, indentations). C. The smart way to create a consistently formatted document is to use the Styles feature in your word processor. 1. Do not set the line spacing, font, tabs, etc. for each paragraph or manually change these things when you get to a heading or indented quotation. This is tedious and error prone. 2. Advantages: a. Define this formatting once and it applies to every portion of the document of this type. b. If you need to change the format, it affects the whole document c. The styles for Heading 1, 2, 3 are automatically included in the Table of Contents. 3. Unfortunately, neither Word nor WordPerfect are set up for a usable academic writing format. You can modify the styles to fit Turabian style. 4. Word styles are defined in Document Templates. a. When you create a document, you can select a template that specifies the desired styles. b. They are stored in a folder called User Templates, listed in the Word Options dialog, File Locations page. c. The location is something like: C:\Documents and Settings\Administrator\Application Data\Microsoft\Templates (if your user name is not Administrator, substitute your user name) D. Put each chapter in a separate word processor file 1. You can create a master document to merge them into one. This will give continuous pagination and a single table of contents. 2. Each chapter file is called a Subdocument. 3. All should be attached to the same template, so the formatting is consistent. 4. If you prefer, you combine the chapters manually into one document at the end.