CHAPTER 2 SOUTH INDIAN DRAMA TRADITIONS WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO KERALA S KATHAKALI AND ITS ACTING STYLES.

Transcription

1 CHAPTER 2 SOUTH INDIAN DRAMA TRADITIONS WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO KERALA S KATHAKALI AND ITS ACTING STYLES. 14

2 CHAPTER -2 SOUTH INDIAN DRAMA TRADITIONS WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO KERALA S KATHAKALI AND its ACTING STYLES. Introduction In this chapter the scholar explores the evolution of Katahkali and the traditions and rituals that formed the foundation of this theatre form. Kathakali is an ancient popular classical traditional theatre of Kerala, has its own multifaceted history. Several South Indian drama traditions and rituals has had an influence on Kathakali and its form as we see today, yet this dance form has a clear distinction in terms of its aesthetics, dance form, gestures and the overall style. The emergence of Kathakali as a formal, stylized dance-drama during the 17 th century was also due to the influence of the then rulers of Travancore who were devotees of Krishna and Rama and the plays were designed to portray lives of them. The concepts were later revolutionized and no longer were restricted to Krishna and Rama s life, rather were depictions from Bhagavata Purana and Mahabharata. This chapter takes us through the evolution of this dance form. It also explains in detail the acting traditions and rituals followed in Kathakali. The details about the types of acting or Abhinaya such as Angika, Vachikam Satvika and Aharya followed in this dance form should be understood to appreciate the intricacies of this dance form. This chapter also explains the basic hand gestures or mudras. Kathakali follows the concept that the language of gestures is concentrated on the palm of the hand as detailed by Nandikeswara in his Abhinaya darpana:- 15

3 Where the hand goes, there the eyes follow; Where the eyes go, the mind follows; Where the mind goes, the mood (bhava) follows, and Where the mood goes, there arises the sentiment (rasa). A). Kathakali an ancient popular classical traditional theatre of Kerala evolution and a brief history. Kathakali creates a world of illusion unmatched by any other form of theater. With its captivating dramatics, its independently stylish grandeur and its transformational theatrics, Kathakali dominates the theatre. Though the art has been defined by its theatrics, Kathakali manages to encompass theatrics alone. The presentation has been known to constitute painting and narrative artistry therein creating a supernatural display. While enveloping itself with modernity in demonstration and a spirit unbiased by region, Kathakali remains true to its origin. Part of the illusion created by this mystical art is its portrayal of mythical ancientness. This illusion has been known to transport the audience to a mythical era where art was worship and vice versa. However ancient in portrayal, Kathakali evolved during the reign of Shakespeare. In 1600 a form of dance called Ramanattam 1 came into being. Still in its sprouting age, Ramanattam was adopted in the north as an infant art to be nourished and reformed into a new art form. Production of the art was given the name Aattam. The art developed over time and by the late 1700s took individual form and shape. 1- A Kerala temple art. It presents the story of Rama and it is a dance drama of eight plays and it was formed under the support of Veera Kerala Varma (AD ) alias Kottarakkara Thampuran. 16

4 The art continued in its development with the help of professional choreographers. The 1800s saw the emergence of a stylized and transformed art form, known to us today as Kathakali. The form therefore, unlike the illusion it creates, is barely 300 years old. The foundation of Ramanattam owes itself to various social breakthroughs in history. During the 15 th and 16 th centuries, the Bhakti (devotion) movement took upon itself the righteous task of tearing down any and all differences in caste and class that were existent at that time. This social upheaval made sacred and sanctified scripture available to all men. To add to the now available sacred literature, Stalwarts Ezhuththachchan 2, created another literary revolution. This further cleared the path that was on its way to attaining the democracy of knowledge. The Europeans, mainly the Portuguese, were constantly present during this period. Their presence added assistance to the development of art. All this development led to the establishment of the Printing press. History s mural paintings, Chavittunatakam- musicals on Biblical stories, and the Krishnanattam innovations; are all exemplary examples of the artistic effects of social deviation on society. Violence and rebellion have been known to be effective catalysts of art. The human need to face and rebel against challenges and obstacles are expressions of art in its own unique form. This desire for expression brought on the need for a new theater form. This form needed to consist of all integrally passionate elements- music, drama, strikingly colorful costumes, and dance. 2- Renowned Malayalam poet regarded as the father of Malayalam language. 17

5 While speculation that Ramanattam was formed to challenge Krishanattam was fairly true, it also had negligible influence from the Brahmins, thus earning itself the title of being a Soodra act, essentially catering to the non-brahmins. Apart from the Brahmins, Ramanattam was also treated contemptuously by the literati and conservatives. It was then that theatre decided to define Kathakali as an art form that excluded the temple. In its true modern, yet mythical form Aattam had its roots deeply planted in Natyasasthram bases. Though Ramanattam had its roots in Natyasastharam and was classically Indian with its Kerala-base, Kathakali eventually evolved into a revolutionary art form that did not enumerate Natyasasthram as its whole rule. Various rules of Natyasastharam were modified in Ramanattam as the situation demanded. Some of them were the involvement of scenes of blood, delivery of babies, and bodies covered in blood. Caricature and comedy were also avoided. The art form took liberation in its own hands. Defying the shackles of a closedwall theatre within a temple (Koothampalam), Kathakali was performed to masses devoid of boundaries. Performances were made on locale stages, surrounded by walls only built by the art s illusion. As it grew in popularity and artistic spirit, the art s form of expression took on new shape by absorbing new genres. The folk ritual genres Thira and Theyyam 3 which were famous in Northern Malabar were taken on by Kathakali. Kathakali was now becoming theatre itself by establishing individuality where there was already a firm theatre foundation. Its individuality boasted of innovative infrastructure, new and conceptual designs in clothing and styles of make-up, differential patterns in songs, and a whole personality of crafted ritual and folk art to suit its individual style. 3: It is a ritual and folk form, a pattern of hero worship performed in Kannur dist, Kerala 18

6 Serving a devotional purpose by applying Mahabharath stories in its form and meeting a devotional purpose, soon became a thing of the past in Kathakali. Maintaining revolution as its main focus, the art adopted an analytical approach in its demonstration, therein prioritizing subtleties. Part of the act included paying homage to rituals and deities at the start. This devotional act later became a ritual to call on the spirits and powers of the theatre thus losing its religious significance. Kathakali conceptualized freedom. Ancient characters that have gone down in history as villains or anti-heroes were given fresh images. Ravana, Duryodhana or Narakasura of mythology were placed under the same category. Though stories of heroism and gallantry were portrayed, the villains won the show. The anti-heroes were given dramatic superiority. This change put fresh light on the styles and concepts of drama. Kings and rulers remained patrons of Katahakali while the villainous characters of history that mythology so carefully created, took on new shape and form. Thus, drifting away from what was conceptualized of them and gaining new significance. Aattam was now safely embedded between common man folk rituals and Brahmanical bhakthi art. Revolution, rebellion, aesthetic and socio-political factors were key elements of this breakthrough. Passion for innovation drove Kathakali to new heights. By combining styles from various ritual performances, the art created for itself a design of fusion. This fusion style aggregated styles, forms and patterns from various genres of dance, thus making Kathakali the best example of fusion style dance among the performing arts of India. This desire for fusion arose from the need for Kathakali to detach other dance rituals from their originality so as to take on a distinctive Kathakali style while contributing to Kathakali s individuality. While turning independent of any one style or tradition, this fusion act also required balance. A balance that required detachment from originality while retaining familiarity. This balance was crucial to Kathakali s relationship with its sources. The success 19

7 of the fusion of dance rituals led Kathakali to seek fresh combinations. Music, musical instruments, and elements of drama were also incorporated. One of the famous stylized rituals Kathakali absorbed is, the Kalarippayat 4 martial art the heart of Kathakali s technique. This style gave the art form its required suppleness and body rigor. Kalari created common ground for martial arts and Kathakali, thus creating a balance between the two. While Kalarippayat provided body movement a structure over which other ritual dances were framed, both Kathakali and Kalarippayat required body movements that were motivated by inner rhythm. Kathakali choreography was also influenced by Velakali another branch of martial arts that emphasized on dance. Padayani a martial dance yet again also contributed a great extent to Kathakali. Make-up color and designs, Thaalam - rhythmic patterns and various syllables of dance were some of Patayani s contributions. The jewellery patterns and costume designs together with the essential units of dance- kalaasams, were contributed by Mutiyet, a Kali, a cult based ritual. Styles and modes of music used by Kathakali could also be traced back to Mutiyet. The significant combinations of Mutiyet, the Chenta a highly pure and resilient Dravidiandrum and the use of it effectively, gave Kathakali a bounce in its step to further revolution. Credit for some of the designs and patterns of jewelry and costumes were also owed to Thira and Theyyam. 4 Kalarippayat -One of the oldest martial art systems survived in the state of Kerala 20

8 To pacify the fertility goddess, a ritual called Theeyaatt was adapted alongside its styles of make-up colors (green), the stereotyped expanded skirt, and its need for headgear and crowns. While Mohiniyattam was utilized to give feminine movements their softness and grace, Gandharvan Paatt known to be a fertility ritual was also utilized to embody its facial make-up details, and certain definitive motifs for the characters that depicted violence. Garudan Thookkam s styles were adapted for individual characters like swans or birds that required special definition. This adaptation provided these characters with appropriated movements and costumes. B) Kathakali -Acting Traditions and rituals. It is said that Kathakali s inner soul experienced rebirth with the influence of Kootiyaattam. Essential elements of aesthetic profoundness, formed structures, and attributes of extrinsic and intrinsic value, gave Kathakali renewed height. Kootiyaattam contributed 18 essential elements to Kathakali. Some of them included the integration of meaningful hand gestures- Mudras. Added to the list was the technique of elaborately demonstrating a staged or sung portion of the performance. Detailed stylization of costumes and acting were also part of the influence. Pakarnnaattam the method of a single actor transitioning characters was also applied after elaborate modification. The 1800s proved to be an ultimate synthesizing period with the application of Kaplingaa T Nampoothiri s mastermind to Kathakali. Being a famous choreographer, Kaplingaa further revolutionized Kathakali by adding elaboration to Kathakali s dramatic and mimetic elements of dance. To focus on the element of music, Kathakali enhanced the progression of its music and musical instruments thus making itself an independent music genius. Maddalam and Chenta, two important instruments of music, were prioritized to 21

9 provide accentuation to rhythmic syllables, subtlety to the sound effects and operate in unison with the Mudras. To add the ever-prevalent element of fusion to the music as well, Kathakali used a blend of the native Karnatic and Sopanam styles. All these areas of revolution only enhanced Kathakali s image as a modernized performing art. The community of Brahmins denial was no longer a matter of importance. Kathakali continued to freely incorporate elements from classical and ethnic art. Kathakali s unbound; free-spirited form added sovereignty and liberty to its style, leading it to focus on dramaturgy as its next experiment. Unlike conventional movies and theatre, the rule of the actor becoming the character was not enforced in Kathakali. On the contrary, the dramatics enforced a separation between the actor and the character he played thus enabling the audience to understand the moods of the character and maintain an emotional distance. A segment of dance is often included in the act to further enable the actor to shed the role of his character and transform into a pure dancer. This involved the transformation of the actor into the character only momentarily. This alienation concept was later adopted by modern theatre in the 1930s with Berthold Brecht used it in his plays. His open stage theory was another concept that Kathakali had already employed in its form centuries before. Brecht 5 attempted to destroy the boundaries between the audience and stage so the story surpasses the spectator s physical self. This concept was already a successful element in Kathakali and was utilized in two effective ways. The characters were given use of a live, mobile curtain that would enable them to break the barrier of time and space and enter the spectator s world. 5 Brecht - German theatre director and play wright. 20th century s one of the most influential figure in theatre. 22

10 The second way was the application of the ancient folk style of an open stage, where the audience and the performers were at the same level physically. This enabled the characters to come across as near to the spectators. Most of Kathakali drama does not involve boundaries or a wall-surrounded stage. The climatic scenes usually transgress into the physical world. To stay true to the illusion created, realism is totally banished right from the start. This maintains the illusory impression from getting away while reiterating the verity of the perceived illusion. C). Characteristics in Kathakali Acting Kathakali shared evolution with another form of theatre called Kudiyattam. This theatre form originated in Kerala during the ninth and tenth centuries and is considered to be the vital link of the techniques used in Sanskrit plays. It was also one of the innovators of important and new styles in the Indian theatre. Spanning across bygone eras of Kulashekar, to famous performers like Mani Madhava Chakyar and Ammnur Madhava Chakyar from the twentieth century, Kathakali has been sustained as a family tradition. Vidushaka evolved as a prime character from Kudiayattam in Sanskrit Theatre. Unlike other characters Vidushaka used Malayalam, the local language while the hero and heroine chanted Verses and also communicated in Sanskrit. It was Vidushaka s role to make the connection between the past and present along with arching that gap between classical Sanskrit that was spoken by the hero and the regional dialect understood by the audience. Like other theatrical forms, the movement of the body sometimes preceded the lines spoken, sometimes paced and sometimes followed. 23

11 Like a Veda 6 chant, the pronunciations of words were systemized and slow and priority was given to intonation. Angika abhinaya was performed to the phrase, line or word by the actor. The Vachika, the verbal, was sometimes elaborated or interpreted. The actor was given total freedom to interpret basic poetic lines into any number of interpretations and this led to performances being carried out for more than a day. The actor also had the freedom to move freely between his incarnations, thereby enabling him to switch to a past performed reference or indicate the future. In evolutionary terms, this meant the art had developed a revolutionized language for itself which focused on gestures. The difference between the act and the gesture was sometimes mistaken for the act. One of the examples of this technique was a depiction of the famous character Chakyar who was portrayed throwing a rock at his opponents. It has been said that the audience present at this display fled in fright. The Kudiyattam traditions were highly effective in influencing Kathakali s application of gestures. The use of masks and face paints were incorporated from Teyyam and Tirayattam rituals. These forms used paint and masks to depict goddesses and was most famously found on Mudiyettu and the Kolum rituals. These adoptions only added to the list of influential elements that Kathakali individualized from these art forms. Another important source was martial arts. Kerala till this day has remained famous for its Kalaris (gymnasium) and its innumerous martial dances. They are famous because of the excellent physical skill, acrobatics, the massaging system and the leg projections that involved jumps and leaps displayed and many of these elements were greatly used in Kathakali. 6-Veda in Sanskrit means "knowledge" is a large body of texts originating in ancient India 24

12 Although Kathakali had revolutionized theatre and became evolution in itself, the main emergence of Kathakali as a formal, stylized dance-drama was only during the 17 th century and due to the influence of two kings. The Zamorin of Calicut was famously known for the plays he wrote as devotion to Krishna. These plays were patterned on the lyrics of Gita Govinda by Jayaveda and were named Krishnattam. The plays were designed to be played on 8 consecutive nights and each day was known to depict a different day in Krishna s life. Legend has it that the King of Kottarakara sent a request to the Zamorin of Calicut requesting him to go down to Travancore and perform Krishnattam. This request was refused by the Zamorin causing the King of Kottarakara to begin writing a similar 8-day inclusive play about the in devotion to Rama. These plays were then named Ramanattam. These plays were performed at the court for the King during the latter half of the17 th century. This episode added seed to the growth of Ramanattam into Kathakali. While Krishnattam made profuse use of Sanskrit, Ramanattam used Malayalam. The Malayalam however, was highly sanskritized. Manipravala was used and the mixture was well-credited. It has been speculated that the actors of Ramanattam initially spoke their lines together with singing them like their counterparts of Kudiyattam. It is also of scholarly belief that the actors wore wooden masks, spoke their lines and the actions were in gesture form like the performers from Krishnattam. These theories however were contradicted when the actors were later restricted to miming (angika abhinaya) and the musicians sang the lyrics. This technique was further refined to become the Kathakali we see today. A special libretto was included in the music and was further accompanied by percussion and instrumental music. This vocal and instrumental combination later became the defining elements of the music. Unlike the Bharatnatyam style where 25

13 music determined the drama and passages of dance were introduced in full measure, the Attakathas or the dramas determined the dramatic structure of a performance in Kathakali. This unique concept was further revolutionized by writers like Iryaman Tampi who wrote individual dance dramas that is now contained by Kathakali. The themes of these dance dramas were no longer depictions of Krishna or Rama s life. They were chosen from the Puranas therein the Bhagavata Purana, the Siva Purana and from the Mahabharata. Basically, the themes did not adhere to one devotion or scripture but took on the forms of various characters and stories that mythology had provided in special Kerala versions. The collection amassed by Kathakali also included writings by various other writers and not just the King of Kottarakara or Kottayam. Some of these notable writings were by Ashvati Tirunal of Travancore, the Unnayi warrior, Vidvan Koel Tampuran and Kartik Tirunal. Iryaman Tampi s play Kichak Vadham, Sita Swayamavaram and Daksh yagna are some famous written works that are danced to even today. Two distinctive Kathakali schools were built with the patronization contributed by Rama Varma, Swati Tirunal and the Maharajas of Travancore. These schools were divided to serve the north and south. This new theatre form had now evolved from being a dance drama performed within temple walls to being a strong stage performance. D). Aesthetics of Kathakali. The Kathakali gestures form a complex system of signs with attributed meanings, not symbols of incarnated meanings. By first folding the hand and then slowly spreading out the fingers, it is possible to indicate an opening flower. Each gesture stands for several things. 26

14 The distinction between the opera and Kathakali is the identification of the singer or the performer. In the opera, the performance is given more priority while the character that is performing the act takes a back seat, whereas in Kathakali the act, the character and the performance are all equally important. This makes Kathakali unique in its approach and gives it a diversified and evolved outlook which sets it apart from other styles of similar dramas. For the opera or ballet, this aesthetic quality is not considered a defect and nothing is said to be lacking from the performance unless the aesthetic qualities are compared the difference is noted. Imagery and diction are conventionalized in Kathakali. The erotic appeal of the hero through his speech, song or dance is therefore similar to the appeal of the villain when he makes an urgent impact. The make-up is thus what creates the distinction in characters alongside the story and its enactment. While the dialogue does help in the differentiation, the differences made visible are subtle in nature and these subtleties do not aim at disclosing much in relation to the character. Though instrumental music is used to arouse moods and feelings and this does not necessarily require dialogue or speech, Kathakali prefers to include text. The language used becomes an instrument of artistic communication only to the extent that it relies less on the strong concreteness of denotation and more on the indefinable power of connotation which Ananda Vardhana and Abhinava Gupta from India called dhvani or resonance and Mallarme and French symbolists called suggestion. The study of Charles Darwin on the physiology and history of behavioral expressions made known the fact that acts of trembling, blushing, etc, are based on the endocrine system s chemistry which the nervous system triggers and this in turn triggers discharge from the glandular system and this increases the respiratory rate and the circulation of blood which finally amounts to the changed in 27

15 expression. The mere thought of these changes in another person can induce the same on the thinker due to sympathy. Unlike the above, gestures are not linked to the body s chemistry although there are some that have a good intelligent significance. The Kathakali gestures are not symbols of incarnated meaning and are on the contrary a system of complex signs with credited meanings. When the actor folds his hand and slowly releases his fingers, the meaning of the gesture is invisible to the audience. This therefore is the reason Kathakali employs gestures that are not mimetic in this manner and each gesture are made to signify something different. The Pataka Mudra is therefore formed by the actor holding his hand up with the ring finger bent inward and the rest of the fingers stretched outward. When this gesture is shown, the meaning could be perceived in various ways. The average number of ways has been known to be 36. This tells us that the relation between the denotation of a word and the word itself is not inherent. The word is therefore not a symbol but a sign. Kathakali has therefore reversed the aesthetic transformation direction and enabled the growth of an extensive gesture language. This process therein includes the actor s skill in transforming the verbal text into a code for gesture and the audience is relied upon to decode this code. This gesture language therefore hinders smooth and swift poetic stimulation. The metaphor and the simile of poetic figures has the former being swifter in evocation because of its capacity to blend images in the mind just like film when doubly exposed blends images visually. The simile on the contrary, starts with pure separation and goes on to a comparison which has never been known to turn into a blended identity. The difference between classical drama and Kathakali therefore is its aesthetic organization. Classical drama employs an organization that is pyramidal by nature. The dominant flavor of the play is the apex and this is one of the nine rasas of 28

16 classical aesthetics. This embodies a system of doctrine that is strongly based on psychology. The rest of the feelings generated through various phases of the episodic stream evolution is ancillary to the dominant feeling and will eventually serve to highlight and nourish it. To state it in simple terms, it can be concluded that Kathakali plays are dominated by heroic sentiment (raudra rasa or vira). Classical drama s fine orchestration is not in existence here. The grosser action of the play s overall pattern creates an impression of focal organization. The emotional tonality that prevails in each episode is usually autonomous. It is therefore not the Sanchari bhava of classical drama which has been known to correspond to McDougall s derived emotion. This derived emotion gains color from the sentiment and always reveals an abiding persistence of the latter and is in fact a modification of the sentiment in a new episodic nexus. A romantic situation in classical drama involves a distinction in the reactions of the libidinous type and the heroic type although the reactions will have a basic romantic essence to suit the situation. This difference is however unavailable in Kathakali. The literalism of the mimetic transcription of the text and a text loaded with conceits that are conventional has the actor involved in plenty expressive sallies which are segmented and forging no stable links with the prevalent emotional temper of the pay as a whole, though brilliant. For classical drama the transformation of the actor into the character is a victory that is celebrated. For Kathakali however, the actor solves the issues of complicated mimesis which is set before him by the liberalist and remains the genius virtuoso. Reading through the libretto one can see that this is the perfect solution to the problem as the liberalist is constantly creating piquant problems which the actor embraces as a challenge. An example of this is the work of Irayimman Tampy. In his work, homage is paid to the beautiful and moon-like 29

17 heroine in a conceited way. This chakaraka bird pair is supposed to come together only during the day and separate during the night. The passage of text states Mistaking your face for the moon, and in anguish at the imminence of separation, the female Chakravaka looks with one eye filled with wistful longing at her mate and with the other flaming with anger at you This is conceit in its purest form because the whole performance is unreal. The actor however has to master the mimesis which will have him controlling one eye and one half of his face to look sorrowful and the other half will have to display anger. This is control unbeknownst to most actors and dramas. In yet another spectacle of this concept, Ravana is displayed portraying ten different emotions on his face simultaneously. This originally will include serial expressions but the audience will only see them as one because of the swift change in expressions and the radical transformation employed. Kathakali therefore not only includes the detailed gesture languages we have analyzed but a whole lot of other techniques and tactics without which it would not have reached its level of supremacy. In Kalidasa's Shakuntala we see the heroine being bothered by a bee and Dushyanta using it as an excuse to reveal himself and chase the bee away. In Kathakali we see the same with Dushyanta turning into a demon at the end. This principle of Kathakali to involve combat on stage is unlike any other form known. Mortal combat is one of the presentations usually kept away from the stage but Kathakali cannot do without it. Romance and beauty are given the stage as well but the overall atmosphere kathakali creates is one of violence and disturbance. Even the dances include violence as its tempo. While the actors use no words and only movements dominate the dance, villainous characters are always a part of it and are seen bursting in at the scene with demonic cries. Their appearance is also violent and extremely dramatic in nature. They have been known to tear away the 30

18 curtain held by the stage hands and throw it away so they can be seen. Fire is also another common characteristic. The demonic characters use a lamp or resin dust and whip up flames that cast an eerie glow over the stage. These turbulent performances end with demons mutilated and fallen with blood all over them and exposed entrails. These scenes are given extra tending to in the make-up department so even the most professional spectator will find the scene terrifying. Sometimes these ghastly characters chase the good ones off the stage and through the audience. These conventions and innovations kathakali embodies take the normal responses of approval from the audience to a whole different level and leave them in a wideeyed, semi-religious, semi-magical state. E). Artistic transmission- Actor preparation. Kathakali actors begin their training at a very early stage in life. They start off young when they leave home as children to dedicate their lives to the art. Training for these young aspirers begins at 4 am in the mornings starting with facial and eye exercises and followed by play learning. The monsoons bring on a whole different set of difficulties that include exercises for the body and a special oil massage called Urachil. This makes them agile and physically fit to portray the characters required. Many years of quality training and experience is required to create a Kathakali artist. Each one is respected for the specialized skills that they bring to the stage to present some of the most moving and unforgettable experiences of all. 31

19 F). Types of Acting in Kathakali There are four types of acting also called Chaturvidha Abhinaya. Angika Abhinaya: This includes an elaborate combination of mime, gestures, appropriate movements, poses, attitudes, facial expressions and basically the whole body of the actor. Kalasams are dance passages that have an important significance on the performances of Kathakali. While retaining a pure dance it attempts to enhance and utilize appropriate bhavas. Hand gestures are another significant involvement in Angika. This is because the interpretation of text is conveyed through the gestures. The regional text on the Hastas (hand gestures) mainly used in Kathakali is the Hastalakshna Deepika. Vachika Abhinaya: One of the many distinguishing elements of Kathakali is the lack of speech and the text in the form of songs and verses (Vachika) is sung and recited by vocalists. These texts are interpreted and performed by actors by the use of an innovative method called Angikabhinaya. Sopanasangeetham, a regional style of music has been developed by Kathakali although most of the vocal music employed in it is based on the Carnatic system. The main ambition of this style is the establishment of the appropriate moods and sentiments. Satvika Abhinaya: The Rasabhinava, a highly stylized technique to invoke Bhava has been developed by Kathakali. Natya Sastra lists out another 8 moods called Satvika 32

20 Bhavas. These are more subtle in comparison to Angikabhinaya. The actor maintains a strong internal discipline which helps him go deeper into the characterization of the role and enables him to master the action technique. Aharya Abhinaya Aharya is the name given to the make-up, stage props and costumes used. These are the most important elements that facilitate the transformation of the actor into the most beautiful characters ever seen in the world of theatre. The Aniraya is the dressing room. It is the place where the artists prepare themselves for the performance. It is given divine importance and to show reverence to the divine presence, the actors prepare themselves in silence. A brass lamp called Vilaku is lit and a prayer is said before the actors begin any make-up procedures. The same is done before they go out to the stage and also at the end of the performance once their make-up has been removed. These acts only prove the divine respect Kathakali holds for the Gods. It is called an act of devotion and an offering to the Gods and hence requires sincerity and focus before the actor can embark in his psychological journey on stage. G). Form in Kathakali Acting The three stages of the Acting (Abhinaya) presentation are: 1. Word to word synchronization 2. Full-line interpretation and 3. Abhinaya of the dancer following the singer. 33

21 Another aspect of Abhinaya in Kathakali is the dancer using the words of the line as a starting point and improvising a full movement sequence. The elaboration of the word relies on hand gestures in this aspect. This is called Choliyattam and is the most imaginative degree to which an actor can extend to through his own improvisation. To state an example, the actor while presenting the line ' Bhima went through the forest' can improvise on it to display a lush, scenic display of the forest, thereby accentuating the effect of the line. Kalyana Sougandhikam is a good example of this creative display by the actor. The act basically includes a scene where Draupadi sends Bhima to get her flower. This scene is enacted in Abhinaya to include a fight between a cobra and a panther, swift running of deer, peacocks dancing, and herds of elephants moving while Bhima is still in pursuit of the flower. Abhinaya uses the Ekaharya principle which is one of the main characteristics of Bharatanatyam and Kathak as only one of the many strong characteristics it employs. The portrayal of Vyabhichari or Sancaribhava is also modified by Kathakali to bring out a dominant mood called Sthayibhava. This again is portrayed by the actor with his own variations. The portions of Abhinaya in Kathakali set the hatas with the highest priority. This is again contrary to other dance forms which do not give hastas as much importance. The 24 basic hastas that are used are accumulated after breaking down the Hastalakshana Dipika. 34

22 Alphabet representing the 24 mudras of Hasthalakshanadipika. 1.Pathaka 8.Hamsapaksha 15.Suchimukha 2.Mudrakhya 9. Sikhara 16. Pallava 3.kadaka 10. Hamsasya 17.Tripathaka 4.Mushti 11.Anjali 18.Mrigasirsha 5.Kartharimukh 12. Arthachandra 19.Sarpasiras 6.Shukatun 13. Mukura 20.Vardhamanaka 7.kapitha 14.Bhramara 21.Arala. 22.Urnanabha 23.Mukula. 24.Katakamukha 35

23 36

24 Hand Gestures. Alphabet representing the twenty four basic mudras 37

25 H). Dominant Features of Kathakali and Kathakali Character Types. Unlike other dance forms Kathakali is again unique in its style of portraying characters. The actors are given a type and that type is used to represent that actor in the drama so he does not only play the role of a narrator. Although Kathakali incorporates various genres and traditions, the theme is purely Hindu. The existence of Buddhism in Kerala at the time also influenced Kathakali to a minor extent. While most dance dramas following the Hindu tradition portray the heroes and the villains as results of the performed nataka, Kathakali took heroes and villains from the puranas and the epics and enacted their characters. After various studies were done on the existent folk rituals and similar dance dramas of the time, Kathakali was estimated to have had 6 types of characters while the others did not go beyond 3 or 4 characters. The first type is the heroes or the demi-gods who were identified as sattvika characters of the Ramayana and Mahabharata or the dhirodatta heroes of Sanskrit drama. The Gods also fell under the category of 'good characters' and Rama and Krishna were categorized as good heroes and Gods. These characters are usually seen devoid of disgust or fear and only as calm, heroic, good-humored people. Moods of anger are only portrayed when the characters are portray.ing the Raudra rupa tradition which usually results with the death of the enemy. The second type are the villains and anti-heroes both demon and human. They are made to depict negativity and usually portray anger, treachery and aggressiveness. Their methodology is adopted mostly from the Mahabharata and puranic stories and not too much from Sanskrit drama. This type is further divided into subdivisions because the villains could be female demons, gods or kings. The evil they portray could be simple or of the higher degree that includes treachery or cruelty. 38

26 Vidushaka, a character from Kudiyattam of Kerala was surprisingly removed from Kathakali. The scenes that included Hanuman were known to be portrayed with humor. While Vidushaka portrayed the drama Kalyana Soungandhikam which basically depicted the meeting of Bhima and Hanuman and the capture of the royal horse by Kusa and Lava, ironically and with satirical undertones, Kathakali portrayed the scene with humor. The monkey deity Hanuman, the half man-half bird in Hamsa and the half lion-half man in Narasimha (Prahlada Charitam) characters are also included in Kathakali. Characters that live in the woods and forests are also portrayed as tribal people and aborigines. Siva disguised as Kirata is one such example. Tadi Types. The beard (Tadi) is used for villains and anti-heroes or demons in conventional Kathakali. The red, black and white beards are traditionally used. Red is used to signify evil and destructive deeds. With a red base, the upper portion of the face is painted black and the lower portion red. Instead of giving the eyes the elongated lotus look, a black collyrium is used to give the eyes a frightening look. The white paste or Chutti is also not applied along the jaw line and the paper cut-outs are attached to the nose horizontally to cover either sides of the face. The chin is elongated with a false flat beard to add to the ominous appearance of the character. Two fangs are also used as protrusions from the lips. These characters typically scream and utter curses or cries so the choice of appearance if made to perfection. To represent the aborigines or the tribal people, a black base and a black beard is used alongside various designs in white and red colors. The Kari characters are also known to use the black beard. 39

27 Veluppu tadi or the white beard is the third type of half-human gods like Hanuman. White is used as the basic make-up. These characters are usually docile by nature although they can take ferocious forms occasionally. Yellow is used to represent a different category of characters like Narasimha- The lion God. Yellow is used because it represents wonder or adhbuta. These are the most significant types of make-up used for significant characters. The other characters are not given much decoration and simple pink make-up is used with no attempt at masking. These are typically women, Brahmins, rishis or messengers and are known as Minukku. Mudis Headgear is what highlights the make-up. The headgear used in Kathakali is made out of wood, papier-mache or fiber from cane and are called Mudis. Krishna, kusa, lava and other princes and children of the Sattvika types use a different crown-shaped headgear made out of cane. The good characters use a low conical crown with a small disc. The common characteristic of these mudis are inset mirrors. The characters with the red beards wear head dresses similar to that worn by noble characters, the crown is however higher and the disc is larger while the demons and the villains use headgears of huge sizes. Narasimha, Hanuman and hunter-disguised Siva use different types of headgear. The costumes follow the same symbolism as the colors, the facial make-up and the headgears. The good characters usually wear purple, yellow or blue jackets. The white beards wear white jackets and the red beards wear red jackets. Scarves are also used to hang on either side of the shoulders and they take the color of the make-up combination. The lower torso is usually adorned with the same kind of attire excluding the Minukku characters. Heavily plaited skirts are used with the 40

28 aim to enlarge the actor s proportionate size. Underneath all this make-up, headgear and costume is a slim, lithe and well-trained figure. I). Classification of Kathakali Characters: Set apart from all the other dance forms of India, Kathakali rules as the classical-dance drama of Kerala. The unique styles it embodies are distinctive and pleasing to the eye. To mention some, the mudras or the hands signs which are eloquent and dramatic in nature, expressive and impressive by way of gestures, lithe and graceful in movement, perfect in choreography and highly imaginative. These are some of the qualities that Kathakali has been described by. For thematic glory, Kathakali acquires its themes from the ancient Puranas which is like a box of treasures that once opened, brings to us the beautiful lives of the Gods and goddesses, and the conflicts and disputes that good had over evil and its mastery in the end. Though Kathakali stands apart not only for its revolutionary demeanor but also for its uniqueness in style which has been described by some as weird or unreal, this uniqueness is not something Kathakali is ashamed of. It has in fact been acquired through hard work and tireless effort. Being completely from a mythological background, the characters of Kathakali and the basis of their make-up cannot be logically explained. Based on their real characters or qualities the make-up and attire and adornment are classified into five main types. Based on the principal color applied to the face forms the classification criteria: 41

29 These classifications are pacha or the color green, kathi meaning a knife, thadi meaning a beard, kari the color black and minukku meaning polished to shine. Righteous and dignified characters are in pacha or green. Proud belligerent and unrighteous characters belong to the kathi type. The bearded type known as thadi are of three varieties. -The most violent and demoniac are known as chuvanna thadi (red beard), -Mythical and marvelous beings like the monkey-gods are known as vellathadi (white beard); The lowest types of beings like the assailant are classed as kari (black). The gentle and spiritually leaning character (like women, sages, Brahmins etc) comes under the type known as minukku (polished). The elaborately designed costuming and ornamentation are intended to intensify the superhuman effects. Creation of enlarged figures that are well suitable to produce tremendously impressive impersonations is achieved with the hefty overcoats, the elegant scarves, the spherical skirts, the antique ornaments, the outstandingly opulent head dresses with streaming hair flowing down to the waist and covering the back. J). The Kathakali Performance Thodayam This is a dance ritual that is performed at the front of the stage, behind a satin curtain called tereshiela that is held up by two men. Two junior actors perform a composition of pure dance accompanied by the Suddha Madalam which is drumsolo Madalam. 42

30 The Vandana Slokam is a prayer and follows Thodayam to bless the stage and to evoke the Gods. Before the first actors make their way to the stage, they will visit all their senior artists and touch their feet. This evokes their blessings. They will also pray to the lamp-valaka which is situated in a green room. They finally go on to the stage-which has now been transformed into a holy place. The actors then travel from this world into a Godly world and are embodied with dignity and humility. Purappad This means starting point and represents the beginning of the Kathakali performance. This performance is traditionally performed by students to develop their skills. The actors represent the main characters of the story-krishna or Balarama. They perform a piece of pure dance and are sometimes accompanied by their female partners. Melappadam This is a musical masterpiece. Senior singers and drummers are given an opportunity to perform and showcase their outstanding skills. These singers express dedication and devotion to Jaya Deva who wrote the Geetha Govindham poems in the 11 th century. The performance of these poems creates a beautiful harmony. People from all over the country travel to these destinations to witness the exquisite performances of Melappadam. It is a piece of melodious music by itself. 43

31 Actor on stage The Kathakali play begins at the conclusion of the Melappadam. This is done to accentuate the effects that Melappadam created on the minds of the audience. The audience had by then been bathed in a surreal illusion by the spectacular drumming, and the harmonious singing. This prepares the stage for Kathakali to begin its depiction of great Hindu mythology. On a normal basis, two to three plays are performed through the night. They usually start with a love story or a family drama so the last play is the most influential. The last play is usually a violent enactment of a battle that has good conquering evil. This again is done so the effect of the battle still remains on the audience s mind while the sun rises to signify a new beginning of a new day. While the temples conduct annual festivities and encourage the communities to participate so that love and concern for each other is shared, the Kathakali plays contribute their own shares by taking the audience on journeys throughout the universe where only goodness prevails because it has conquered evil. Danasi This is a dance ritual performed usually by Lord Krishna or Lord Siva or one of the other good characters in the story. This ritual is performed at the end of the plays that have been performed throughout the night. The character prays for God s blessings and gives thanks to the Gods for the night just passed. For the audience it is a time to socialize. They bathe themselves in the nearby river or tank, eat breakfast and move onto the nest temple performance. 44

32 The Eyes: A small seed from the Chundapoo flower is used to make the dye for the eye. The color red is thus attained and this makes the character look like he is from a different world. An hour post the performance the seed is removed so the eye of the actor returns to normal color. K). Performance texts of Kathakali. Textual evidence found proves the existence of various regional styles that had departed from the Bharata tradition. The commentaries on the Silappadikaram and Sangitaratnakara also indicate reforms in dramatic forms. Another conclusion that was drawn from this evidence was the maintenance of a clear difference between the pure dance forms and the natya forms. Various dance texts written in South Indian languages during the 13 th to the 17 th centuries included words like desi lasyanga, desi karana, desi nritya and Koottu. While these contribute to evidence on Kathakali s origination, various texts like Balarama Bharatam by Balarama Varma 1 and the Sangita Saramritam by Tanjore s Maharashtrian ruler Tulaja, contribute no evidence on Kathakali technique. The text that proved most beneficial in this context was the Hastalakshana Dipika which shows considerable departure from both the Sangitaratnakara and Natyasastra traditions. To add proof to conviction, it has been proved that the positions employed in Kathakali were taken from the Mattancheri temple, the basic temple structures of Kerala and the Padmanabhaswami frescoes. The usual combination of cymbals and drums, the extended lata arms and the kshipta position of the knees are styles prevalent in Tamil Nadu and have been proven to be akin to the prevalent style in Kerala. 1. Ruler of Travancore ( ) 45

33 It was only later during the 16 th century that the rectangular positions-mandala sthana, the sari and headgears appeared especially in the Mattancheri frescoes. The period between the 17 th century and the 19 th century experienced a lot of change and dramatic evolution in Kerala. While stylized performances were performed in temple courtyards and sophisticated theatres like Kuttamabalam, age-old tribal and folk rituals continued to be performed in lush vegetation and forest areas. A variety of forms ranging from the Ottanthulal martial displays to annual festival related performances for Onam with the Christians, Portuguese and other settlers were performed on streets and processions. The writings of the period reflect this complex mixture of tradition in the performances. With the dawn of the 20 th century rituals of Kudiyattam, Kathakali, Ramanattam and Krishnattam shrunk and became of lesser significance while ritual drama traditions like the Teyyams and the Bhagavati cult dances continued. In the 30s of this century, Poet Vallathol from Kerala once again gave Kathakali a new identity. He created Kerala Kala Manadalam in 1932 which was established formally in He gave Kathakali its current form by gathering the great gurus, Kunju Kurup, Ramamuni Menon and others and renewed the existence of poetry and literature in Kathakali. The once ancient art was given a modern outlook by the employment of scripts of plays by Unnai warrior and Irayumman Thampi and the use of a brand new format. 46