Neuropsihologia clinică

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1 Neuropsihologia clinică Prof. Ion V. Moldovanu Catedra de Neurologie Universitatea de Medicină şi Farmacie N.Testemitanu

2 Neuropsihologie: Întrebări majore 1. Afazia. Definiţie. Deosebirea de disartrie 2. Agnozia. Tipurile de agnozie. Prosopagnozia 3. Definiţia apraxiei şi formele ei clinice 4. Sindromul lobului frontal 5. Sensory Neglect Syndrome. Definiţie 6. Alte manifestări clinice în leziunea lobului parietal 7. Leziunea lobului temporal - manifetări clinice 8. Lobul occipital - semnele de leziune 9. Demenţa. Definiţie. 10. Maladia Alzheimer şi demenţa vasculară

3 Predecesorii Neuropsihologiei: Frenologia

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5 Neuropsihologia Disciplină care se ocupă de funcţiile mentale superioare în cadrul raportului lor cu structurile cerebrale* (Hecaen H ) înţelegerea relaţiilor dintre creier şi comportament funcţionarea creierului ce produce o varietete de acţiuni proprii fiinţei umane

6 Paul Pierre Broca ( ) Zona Broca In 1861 Broca descrie cazul unui pacient, care a pierdut capacitatea de vorbire (putea doar să emită zgomote şi sunete neinteligibile) La necropsie s-a constatat o leziune în zona cortexului frontal al emisferei stângi. Actualmente, această deteriorare este referită zonei Broca ce determină afazia Broca: vorbile lentă, înceată cu o structură gramaticală foarte simplă

7 DR. CARL WERNICKE ( ) Celebru prin lucrarea sa despre afazia sensorială (1874) şi poliomielita hemoragică superioară, ambele îi poartă numele Carte despre leziunea capsulei interne Manual de neurologie.

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9 Asimetria funcţională a emisferilor cerebrale

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11 Asimetria funcţională a emisferilor cerebrale Două structuri simetrice = aceleaţi funcţii? (ochi, urechi,rinichi, plămâni) Broca 1861,Wernicke 1874 şi conceptul emisferei dominante Curentul localizator (creierul un mozaic de centre funcţionale) Curentul globalist (creierul o masă omogenă cu excepţia ariilor motorii şi senzoriale primare) A localiza leziunea care duce la pierderea vorbirii şi a localiza vorbirea sunt două lucruri diferite (Jackson,1864)

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14 Asimetria funcţională a emisferilor cerebrale (II) Comisurotomia, creier secţionat (split-brain) Conceptul de asimetrie funcţională

15 Asimetria funcţională a emisferilor cerebrale (II) Comisurotomia, creier secţionat (split-brain) Conceptul de asimetrie funcţională Conflictul interemisferic (intermanual)

16 Neuropsihologia clinică analiza modificărilor capacităţilor intelectuale de percepţie limbaj memorie personalitate apărute în urma unei leziuni cerebrale

17 Paul Pierre Broca ( ) Zona Broca In 1861 Broca descrie cazul unui pacient, care a pierdut capacitatea de vorbire (putea doar să emită zgomote şi sunete neinteligibile) La necropsie s-a constatat o leziune în zona cortexului frontal al emisferei stângi. Actualmente, această deteriorare este referită zonei Broca ce determină afazia Broca: vorbire lentă, înceată cu o structură gramaticală foarte simplă

18 DR. CARL WERNICKE ( ) Celebru prin lucrarea sa despre afazia sensorială (1874) şi poliomielita hemoragică superioară, ambele îi poartă numele Carte despre leziunea capsulei interne Manual de neurologie.

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21 AFAZIA Afazia este o alterare achiziţionată a limbajului în rezultatul unei leziuni cerebrale Nu se consideră afazie: Deficienţele de însuşire ale limbajului leziuni precoce insuf. dezvoltării creierului autizm surditate Tulburări psihice Atingere sensorială Paralizia organelor efectorii disfonie dizartrie

22 Afazia motorie (Broca) Afazia Broca este o varietate a afaziilor non fluente, care se caracterizează prin reducerea discursului. (N =90 c/min) Vorbirea e: rară, constând esenţial din nume, verbe tranzitive şi adjective esenţiale; cuvintele scurte sunt omise, dând limbajului un stil telegrafic, agramat. eforturile bolnavului pentru a vorbi şi mimica sa denotă prezenţa conştiinţei erorilor cu reacţii de enervare sau angoasă frecvente. Discursul e: aspontan încetinit monoton silabisit laconic emis cu efort ( disprozodie )

23 Afazia motorie (Broca) Comprehensiunea orală ( înţelegerea limbajului adresat pacientului ) este relativ păstrată Denumirea la ordin a obiectelor şi imaginilor e corectă şi în absenţa apraxiei pacienţii execută comenzile simple Cauza: consecinţa unei leziuni ischemice, interesând emisfera stângă şi se asociază cu o hemiplegie dreaptă cu sau fără hemianestezie, apraxie bucco-facială, eventual cu apraxie ideomotorie.

24 Fluenţa verbală Fluenţă categorială* : denumiri de animale 2 min Fluenţa fonematică: Cuvinte comune ce încep cu litera m Scorul < 20 pentru denumiri de animale (16) < 15 pentru cuvinte comune (10) Variază în funcţie de nivelul socio-cultural

25 Afazia senzorială (Wernicke) Afazia Wernicke- afazie fluentă (producţie verbală abundentă şi incoerentă). Limbajul este : normal articulat spontan logoreic (incontinuu) parafazii, neologisme asemantice test.cuvintelor decupate: /iepurii/ / vânează/ /vânătorul/

26 Afazia senzorială (Wernicke) Conţinutul discursului este, ca regulă, lipsit de sens neînţeles pentru persoanele înconjurătoare Anosognozia Comprehensiunea pacientului e perturbată Afazia Wernicke se manifestă în absenţa hemiplegiei. O hemianopsie laterală omonimă pe dreapta se asociază frecvent Leziunile responsabile interesează cortexul auditiv asociativ (partea posterioară a primei circumvoluţii temporale) şi lobul parietal inferior ( gyrus supramarginal şi angular ).

27 AGNOZIA Agnozia deficit de recunoaştere a stimulilor externi şi interni Absenţa tulburărilor de percepţie de limbaj psihice

28 AGNOZIA

29 AGNOZIA

30 AGNOZIA Agnozii vizuale Agnozia vizuală pentru obiecte şi imagini este incapacitatea de a identifica vizual un obiect sau reprezentarea sa grafică (în absenţa tulburărilor funcţiilor vizuale elementare sau a capacităţilor intelectuale. Obiectul nu este recunoscut vizual, dar e identificat palpator) Agnozia culorilor - imposibilitatea de a numi culorile atunci, când ele sunt corect aplicate obiectelor. Agnozia facială (prozopagnozia)- imposibilitatea recunoaşterii feţelor persoanelor chiar apropiate. (Identificarea poate deveni posibilă la auzirea vocii). Afectarea lobului occipital e cauza manifestării diferitor forme de agnozii vizuale.

31 Prozopagnozia Agnozii vizuale Agnozia facială (prozopagnozia)- imposibilitatea recunoaşterii feţelor persoanelor chiar apropiate. Identificarea poate deveni posibilă la auzirea vocii.

32 AGNOZIA Agnozii auditive Surditatea corticală sau agnozia auditivă (rară). Pacientul e incapabil de a identifica sunetele, fie că e vorba de zgomote familiare, muzică sau mesaj verbal Leziunile responsabile sunt bilaterale cu afectarea zonei Heschl sau a relaţiilor ei cu corpul geniculat intern Surditatea verbală constituie un deficit selectiv de identificare a conţinutului mesajului verbal. Ea e, ca regulă, asociată cu afazia Wernicke Amuzia desemnează incapacitatea de a identifica melodiile, determinată de afectarea lobului temporal drept

33 AGNOZIA Stereognozia: cunoaşterea tactilă a obiectelor Astereognozia este incapacitatea de a identifica un obiect pe cale tactilă în absenţa oricărei informaţii vizuale sau auditive. Astereognozia e frecventă în leziunile cortexului parietal, fiind, ca regulă, asociată cu tulburări importante ale sensibilităţii de localizare, de pozişie şi discriminare ale stimulilor tactili.

34 AGNOZIA Cunoaşterea spaţiului extra- şi intracorporal Sensory Neglect (Neglijarea spaţială unilaterală -NSU) deficit lateralizat a cunoaşterii spaţiale,condiţionat de leziunea lobului parietal, care se caracterizează prin imposibilitatea de a descrie verbal, de a răspunde şi de a se orienta în raport cu stimulările de partea controlaterală leziunii

35 Sensory Neglect (Neglijarea spaţială unilaterală -NSU) Cunoaşterea spaţiului extra- şi intracorporal Bolnavii ignoră de obicei hemispaţiul stâng: un dirijor ignoră muzicanţii din orchestră plasaţi la stânga sa, pacienţii îşi rad doar hemifaţa dreaptă, etc. tulburări de citire, căci nu cercetează jumătatea stângă a paginii. Pentru a cerceta NSU se utilizează copierea unui desen. Pacientul cu NSU va uita jumătatea stângă a figurii.

36 Şlşldfkdşlkdşlkdfşlkdsşgk,mv.,mv.mv.,mv.m D,..,fv,.vn dfn dd.mds Sensory Neglect (Neglijarea spaţială unilaterală -NSU).msdmsd,.m Şlsdsldmflsdmfsdm Sdms.dmd,mds.m Şsdmsdm.sm.dm Sd,fmas,.mf.d fksşlfkş

37 AGNOZIA Anozognoziile hemiplegiei (sindromul Anton- Babinski) dispariţia mai mult sau mai puţin totală a hemicorpului stâng din câmpul conştiinţei. E o formă majoră de hemiasomatognozie. Pacientul refuză existenţa deficitului său motor. Aparţine preponderent leziunilor vasculare ale lobului parietal în perioada lor iniţială Autotopagnozia - pierderea capacităţii de a indica la comandă orală părţile propriului corp Sindromul Gerstmann (tetradă simptomatică): agnozie digitală, agrafie pură, dezorientare dreapta-stânga acalculie.

38 APRAXIA Apraxia perturbare ale mişcărilor voluntare achiziţionate Nu sunt atribuite: - tulburărilor motorii primare - deficitului de înţelegere leziunii frontale sau parietale

39 ACTIVITĂŢI GESTUALE: APRAXIILE Principalele aspecte ale apraxiei Apraxia dinamică incapacitatea de a supune acţiunea unui plan, evidenţiată prin testele de apraxie: incapacitatea de a reproduce un grafism regulat alternant Ansamblul acestor tulburări indică o perturbare a controlului exercitat de lobul frontal asupra gestului. Apraxia dinamică e severă în cadrul leziunilor frontale bilaterale.

40 ACTIVITĂŢI GESTUALE: APRAXIILE Apraxia ideo-motrice (gestuală şi de mimare)* Pacientul e incapabil de a executa la ordin salutul militar sau de a mima gestul utilizării unui ciocan. Executarea e perfectă atunci, când pacientului i se propune să utilizeze real un obiect (de exemplu, ciocanul) în loc să-i mimeze întrebuinţarea Ca regulă, apraxia ideo-motrice e bilaterală şi rezultă din leziunea lobului parietal stâng. Apraxia ideatorie se manifestă în cadrul utilizării obiectelor în acţiuni simple: utilizarea unui creion, a aprinde un chibrite sau în acţiuni mai complexe: a face un plic, a aprinde o lumânare Apraxia ideatorie e bilaterală, ca regulă asociată cu o importantă apraxie ideomotrice ca consecinţă a unei leziuni vaste a lobului parietal stâng. Apraxia constructivă Perturbări de utilizare a relaţiilor spaţiale. Apraxia constructivă rezultă dintr-o leziune parietală stângă sau dreaptă sau a corpului calos. Ea e facilitată prin asocierea unei leziuni frontale.

41 Examenul apraxiilor Apraxia reflexivă (imitaţie) : Inel dublu Aripi defluture Mânile încrucişate Mânile încrucişate (invers) Ideomotorie(reproducerea gesturilor cunoscute) Salut militar Adio A trimite un sărut A curăţi o banană Constructivitatea grafică Copierea desenelor

42 Stephen Haking

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56 Semiologia clinică neuropsihologică în cadrul leziunilor diverselor structui cerebrale

57 Lobul frontal Lobul frontal Zona prefrontală ( funcţiile cognitive superioare ) planificare organizare soluţionarea problemelor atenţie selectivă personalitatea o varietate de " funcţii cognitive superioare " incluzând comportamentul şi emoţiile. Zona premotorie modificarea mişcărilor

58 Sindromul lobului frontal (fenomene neuropsihologice) Apraxia mersului (aria premotorie) Lipsă se iniţiativă Mersul în foarfece Reacţii de magnet (magnet apraxia Denny Brown) Reflexul de prehensiune şi de tatonare Personalitate frontală (cortexul prefrontal) Apatie şi inerţie motorie Moria -comportament dezinhibat,pueril -schimbari de dispaziţie -tendinţă spre calambururi -megalomanie -hipersexualitate, bulimie Perseveraţii motorii Comportament de utilizare şi imitare Tulburări de atenţie Afazia Broca Sindromul Diogene

59 Sindromul lobului parietal (fenomene neuropsihologice) Epilepsie somato - senzitivă parţială Hemianestezie parietală Amiotrofie parietală Extincţia (neatenşie senzitivă) Asteriognozie Apraxie Hemiasomatognozie sindromul Alice în Ţara minunilor hemi-depersonalizare (parcă n-ar exista jumătate de corp) Sindrom Anton- Babibnski ( anozognozia hemiplegiei) Sindromul Gerstman agnozie digitală agrafie pură dezorientare dreapta stânga acalculie Negligenţă (agnozie) spaţială unilaterală

60 Sindromul lobului temporal (fenomene neuropsihologice) Tulburări de audiţie Sunete nediferenţiate (zgomote simple) Halucinaţii auditive bine organizate (cuvinte,cîntece,clopot) Tulburări olfactive (gyrusul hipocampic) Halucinaţii olfactive (benzină, fum, usturoi) Tulburări gustative Halucinaţii gustative (în cadrul crizelor uncinate ) ¹ Epilepsie temporală somatosenzorială (crize gustative,olfactive,auditive,vertiginoase, vegetative) Tulburări de comportament (sndr. Kluver - Bücy ) (tendinţe orle, placiditate, comp.sexual anormal, tend. de a fi distrat ) Leziuni bilaterale Amnezie globală (afectarea hipocampului bilaterală) Agnozie auditivă Agnozie vizuală sndr. Kluver Bücy

61 Sindromul lobului occipital (fenomene neuropsihologice) Iluzii şi halucinaţii vizuale scotom iiuzii halucinaţii Cecitate corticală (cecitate psihică) [leziune bilaterală+abs. tulb vederii periferice] refl. foto-pupilar N motilitate oculară păstrată reflex de ameninţare absent Amnezie şi dezorientare în spaţiu ( amnezie occipitală ) pierderea memoriei topogrqafice (analogie cu prozopagnozia) Prozopagnozia (nu poate fi explicată printr-o deteriorare intelectuală şi mnezică globală şi nici printr-o tulburare perceptuală ) Sndr Balint¹ paralizia psihică a privirii ataxia optică tulburare atenţională (simultagnozia)

62 MEMORIA Memoria este capacitatea organismelor vii de a obţine, de a reţine şi de a utiliza un ansamblu de cunoştinţe sau de informaţii

63 Procesul mnezic (Memoria) CODIFICAREA Depresie Îmbătrânire STOCAREA (procesul de memorizare) Alzheimer RECUPERAREA Îmbătrânire Depresie

64 SEMIOLOGIA AMNEZIILOR Amnezia anterogradă imposibilitatea sau diminuarea capacităţii de a reţine informaţii actuale, noi, apărute după instalarea tulburărilor mnezice Amnezia retrogradă- corespunde imposibilităţii evocării amintirilor dobândite înainte de instalarea acută sau progresivă a tulburărilor de memorie Amnezia lacunară - desemnează o perioadă de viaţă a subiectului, care n-a lăsat nici o urmă în memoria sa. Confabulaţiile - răspunsuri verbale eronate referitoare la rememorarea amintirilor recente sau din trecut

65 SEMIOLOGIA AMNEZIILOR Sindromul Korsakoff şi amneziile axiale - tulburare severă a memoriei cu confabulaţii şi recunoaşteri false asociate cu polineuropatie consecutivă unei carenţe de tiamină la alcoolici denutriţi. Asemenea tulburări mnezice se mai constată la subiecţi cu afecţiuni bilaterale ale structurilor limbice sau ale regiunii diencefalice. (exemplu clinic) Amneziile lacunare- ca regulă, sunt consecinţa unei pierderi a conştiinţei sau a unei perioade de confuzie mentală: pe parcursul acestei perioade nici o trasă mnezică n-a fost înregistrată. Există o întrerupere în biografia bolnavului Ictusul amnezic- se instalează brusc la subiecţii de de ani fără cauză declanşatoare precisă, durează 6-8 ore şi nu lasă alte sechele decât o amnezie lacunară Amneziile globale se înregistrează în cadrul diferitelor forme de demenţă, atunci când tulburările mnezice nu sunt decât un aspect al unei deteriorări mai vaste a funcţiilor intelectuale.

66 Sindromul demenţial : DSM IV Apariţia diverselor deficite cognitive multiple Altrerea memoriei pe termen scurt Una sau mai multe tulburări cognitive ce urmează: Afazie, apraxie, agnozie, tulb. funcţiilor executive Alterări importante a funcţionării sociale Declin în comparaţie cu nivelul de funcţionare anterior Consecinţe patologice organice Necondiţionate de o stare confuziunală

67 Maladia Alzheimer : definiţie Asocieri : un sindrom demenţial Absenţa altor cauze diagnosticul de prezumţie, de eliminare Maladia Alzheimer probabilă sau posibilă Sunt oare leziuni cerebrale caracteristice: DNF(degenerescenţă neuro-fibrilară), plăci neuritice Caz clinic

68 MMS Orientation : Noter 1 point par réponse exact ; 0 si la réponse est inexacte ou en l absence de réponse. 1) En quelle année sommes-nous? 2) En quelle saison? 3) En quel mois? 4) Quelle est la date? 5) Quel jour de la semaine sommes-nous? 6) Dans quel ville nous trouvons-nous? 7) Quel est le nom du département? 8) Dans quelle région sommes nous? 9) Quel est le nom de l hôpital (ou adresse du médecin)? 10) A quel étage sommes-nous? Mémoire immédiate (apprentissage) : Nommez trois objets, attendez une seconde entre chaque. Demandez au patient de les répéter tous les trois. Compter 1 point par mot correctement répété. 11) Cigare Citron 12) Fleur Clef 13) Porte Ballon Répéter jusqu à ce que les 3 mots soient appris, noter le nombre d essai. Attention et calcul mental : Le patient doit soustraire 7 de 100, arrêter après 5 soustractions. Compter 1 point par soustraction correcte. En cas d erreur, demander êtes-vous sûr? et compter 1 point si la réponse est bonne ; 14) ) ) ) ) 72-7 Pouvez-vous épeler le mot monde à l envers (épreuve obligatoire mais non cotée).

69 MMS Mémoire à court terme : Vous souvenez-vous des trois mots que vous avez répétés tout à l heure? Compter 1 point par mot répété. 19) Cigare Citron 20) Fleur Clef 21) Porte Ballon Langage : 22) Dénommer un crayon en présentant l objet (réponse juste = 1 point) 23) Dénommer une montre en présentant l objet (réponse juste = 1 point) 24) Répétez : Il n y a pas de mais, de si, ni de et. Faire exécuter un ordre triple : 25) Prenez ce papier dans la main droite 26) Pliez-le en 2 27) Jetez-le par terre. Notez 1 point par item souligné correct. 28) Faites ce qui est marqué fermez les yeux (1 point si l ordre est effectué). 29) Copiez ce dessin sur une feuille 30) Ecrivez-moi une phrase, ce que vous voulez, mais une phrase entière. (compter 1 point pour une phrase comprenant au moins un verbe, un sujet, un complément, sémantiquement correcte, grammaire et orthographe indifférentes). Score total sur 30 : Toutes les cases doivent être remplies

70 MMS Probă cognitivă globală Examen de depistare şi supraveghere Facil şi rapid la utilizare De luat în calcul nivelul socio- cultural normal sau MCI sau MA în debut 26/24>MMS>20 demenţă legeră 19>MMS>10 demenţă moderată <10 demenţă severă

71 Neuropsihologie: Întrebări majore 1. Afazia. Definiţie. Deosebirea de disartrie 2. Agnozia. Tipurile de agnozie. Prosopagnozia 3. Definiţia apraxiei şi formele ei clinice 4. Sindromul lobului frontal 5. Sensory Neglect Syndrome. Definiţie 6. Alte manifestări clinice în leziunea lobului parietal 7. Leziunea lobului temporal - manifetări clinice 8. Lobul occipital - semnele de leziune 9. Demenţa. Definiţie. 10. Maladia Alzheimer şi demenţa vasculară

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73 MEMORIA. Memoria (M) este capacitatea organismelor vii de a obţine, de a reţine şi de a utiliza un ansamblu de cunoştinţe sau de informaţii. Memoria pe termen scurt (memoria imediată sau primară) se referă la un sistem, ce menţine informaţii temporar (de ordinul unui minut), înainte ca aceasta să fie transformată sub o formă mai durabilă în memoria pe termen lung (memoria secundară). Memoria imediată are o capacitate limitată la 7 cifre sau fenomene prezentate auditiv sau vizual. Fiind efemeră, memoria imediată nu poate fi suportul memoriei de lucru (a reţine temporar numărul unui telefon), decât ccu preţul unui efort de atenţie. Memoria de lung termen se referă la achiziţii durabile, accesibile la o reamintire conştientă (memoria declarativă sau explicită)sau ce ţin de însuşirea procedurilor tehnice şi cognitive (memoria procedurală sau implicită). Memoria explicită poate fi explorată prin intermediul întrebărilor relativ la cunoştinţe didactice şi evenimente ale trecutului. Printre aceste achiziţii unele se referă la o circumstanţă definită a vieţii subiectului şi evocarea lor se produce în context specific (memoria epizodică). Altele aparţin fondului cultural şi condiţiile însuşirii lor au fost uitate (memoria semantică).

74 DR. CARL WERNICKE ( ) Wernicke was born in Tarnovitz, Poland but his family moved to Germany where he received all his education. Interested in psychiatry, traditionally he studied anatomy initially and neuropathology later. He published a small volume on aphasia which vaulted him into international fame. In it was precise pathoanatomic analysis paralleling the clinical picture. He is best known for his work on sensory aphasia and poliomyelitis hemorrhagia superior. Both of these descriptions bear his name. Further, his books on the disorders of the internal capsule and his textbooks on diseases of the nervous system perpetuate him. Wernicke's drawing of Motor and Sensory Speech areas

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80 Frontal Lobe Damage Cognitive Impairments Following Frontal Lobe Damage. Milner & Petrides (1984) reviewed the effects of frontal lobe damage in humans and concluded that the following behaviours were impaired: Temporal sequencing: i.e the ability to say which of 2 pictures had been presented most recently. Shifting of attention: there is an increased tendency to persevere with an action when it is obviously incorrect (perseveration). Conditional associations: the ability to associate a correct response with a particular stimulus. Working memory: the ability to maintain a response in memory and then act upon it appropriately. Previous slide Next slide Back to first slide View graphic version

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83 Wernicke's area (arrowed) is needed to understand language. Keith Johnson, Harvard University Understanding words When you listen to (or read) words, you are using a part of your brain known as Wernicke's area. It was named after the German doctor Carl Wernicke, who first realised that speaking and understanding words were controlled by different parts of the brain. He described patients who couldn't understand speech. Although they could speak words clearly, they made no sense. They had damage to the left temporal cortex of their brains.

84 DR. CARL WERNICKE ( ) Wernicke was born in Tarnovitz, Poland but his family moved to Germany where he received all his education. Interested in psychiatry, traditionally he studied anatomy initially and neuropathology later. He published a small volume on aphasia which vaulted him into international fame. In it was precise pathoanatomic analysis paralleling the clinical picture. He is best known for his work on sensory aphasia and poliomyelitis hemorrhagia superior. Both of these descriptions bear his name. Further, his books on the disorders of the internal capsule and his textbooks on diseases of the nervous system perpetuate him. Wernicke's drawing of Motor and Sensory Speech areas

85 Petite Biographie : Fils d'un chirurgien des armées impériales, il est né à Sainte-Foy-la- Grande le 28 juin C'est à Paris qu'il fera ses études de médecine. Titulaire du Doctorat en avril 1849, il mènera alors de front deux carrières accomplies au prix d'un travail forcené : Chirurgien, chercheur, il participe à ce grand mouvement scientifique du XIXème Siècle. Reconnu par ses pairs, il cumulera alors les charges, les honneurs. Membre de l'académie de Médecine en 1866, il est le fondateur de l'anthropologie moderne, vaste science évolutive. Il créera en 1868, le Musée et le laboratoire d'anthropologie de l'école des Hautes-Études à Paris. Mettant ses pas dans ceux de Pierre Gratiolet, son aîné ( ) et concitoyen, il prononcera son éloge funèbre très touchant (cf. Archives Municipales de Sainte-Foy) et comme lui ses travaux sur les localisations cérébrales, illustrent le savant (voir croquis). Républicain ardent, il est élu sénateur en Courte vie politique hélas, car il décède le 8 juillet 1880 de façon foudroyante. La science perd alors un Grand Homme. Définition : Zone et Aphasie de Broca, Il existe une zone dans le lobe frontal de l'hémisphère gauche, appelée la zone de Broca. Elle est située à côté de la région qui contrôle le mouvement de certains muscles faciaux: ceux de la langue, des mâchoires et de la gorge. Si cette zone est détruite, des difficultés à émettre des sons spécifiques en résulteront. On est alors dans l'incapacité d'effectuer de façon adéquate, les mouvements de la langue ou des muscles faciaux pour produire des mots. La personne est encore capable de lire et de comprendre les mots mais éprouve de la difficulté à écrire (la formation de lettres ou de mots ne se fait pas sur les lignes). Ce problème est appelé aphasie de Broca.

86 Sainte-Foy-la- Grande : La Place Broca et sa statue avant qu'elle ne soit déboulonnée par les allemands durant la guerre. La ville bastide de Sainte-Foyla-Grande, porte du Périgord, est bâtie en bordure de la Dordogne, aux confins de trois départements: la Gironde, la Dordogne et le Lot-et-Garonne. Elle occupe une plaine verdoyante entourée de coteaux, premiers versants où déjà s'étirent les ceps de vigne...

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88 Paul Pierre Broca ( ) Petite Biographie : Fils d'un chirurgien des armées impériales, il est né à Sainte-Foy-la- Grande le 28 juin C'est à Paris qu'il fera ses études de médecine. Titulaire du Doctorat en avril 1849, il mènera alors de front deux carrières accomplies au prix d'un travail forcené : Chirurgien, chercheur, il participe à ce grand mouvement scientifique du XIXème Siècle. Reconnu par ses pairs, il cumulera alors les charges, les honneurs. Membre de l'académie de Médecine en 1866, il est le fondateur de l'anthropologie moderne, vaste science évolutive. Il créera en 1868, le Musée et le laboratoire d'anthropologie de l'école des Hautes-Études à Paris. Mettant ses pas dans ceux de Pierre Gratiolet, son aîné ( ) et concitoyen, il prononcera son éloge funèbre très touchant (cf. Archives Municipales de Sainte-Foy) et comme lui ses travaux sur les localisations cérébrales, illustrent le savant (voir croquis). Républicain ardent, il est élu sénateur en Courte vie politique hélas, car il décède le 8 juillet 1880 de façon foudroyante. La science perd alors un Grand Homme.

89 The two hemispheres of the cerebral cortex are linked by the corpus callosum, through which they communicate and coordinate. Nevertheless, they appear to have some separate functions. The right hemisphere of the cortex excels at nonverbal and spatial tasks, whereas the left hemisphere is usually more dominant in verbal tasks such as speaking and writing. The right hemisphere controls the left side of the body, and the left hemisphere controls the right side. When split-brain patients stare at the "X" in the center of the screen, visual information projected on the right side of the screen goes to the patient's left hemisphere, which controls language. When asked what they see, patients can reply correctly. When split-brain patients stare at the "X" in the center of the screen, visual information projected on the left side of the screen goes to the patient's right hemisphere, which does not control language. When asked what they see, patients cannot name the object but can pick it out by touch with the left hand.

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91 The left frontal lobe (colored regions at left) supports our ability to retrieve the meaning of words and objects. (Courtesy of Prof. Anthony Wagner.) Highlights of this Course This course features selected lecture notes associated with lecture content and readings. The assignments give students the opportunitiy to delve into the course's subject matter by writing research proposals and delivering class presentations. Course Description Surveys the literature on the cognitive and neural organization of human memory and learning. Includes consideration of working memory and executive control, episodic and semantic memory, and implicit forms of memory. Emphasizes integration of cognitive theory with recent insights from functional neuroimaging (e.g., fmri and PET). Staff Instructor: Prof. Anthony Wagner Course Meeting Times

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98 The Forebrain. The forebrain consists of the two cerebral hemispheres. Each hemisphere receives sensory information from the opposite (contralateral) side of the body, and controls the muscles on the contralateral side of the body. The outer cellular layer of the hemispheres is called 'cortex' and consists of gray matter, axons descend from the cortex to form 'white matter'. Hubel & Wiesel (1979): the cortex contains around billion neurons, unfolded it would occupy an area of 2000cm² Neurons in one hemisphere communicate with corresponding areas of the other hemisphere via two fibre pathways: the corpus callosum, and the anterior commissure.

99 Key Features of the Forebrain. White matter Grey matter Corpus callosum Lateral ventricle Anterior commissure Central sulcus Longitudinal fissure

100 Key Features of the Forebrain. White matter Grey matter Corpus callosum Lateral ventricle Anterior commissure Central sulcus Longitudinal fissure

101 Examples of Laminar Differences. Layer IV contains small cells that receive sensory information and this layer is prominent in cortical regions which process sensory information. Layer IV is absent in brain regions that control movement. It is thicker in the visual cortex of people with photographic memories, and in the auditory cortex of musicians (Scheibel, 1984). Layer V contains large pyramidal cells which are responsible for motor control. Such cells predominate in areas of motor cortex.

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103 Mapping the Cortex Maps have been developed of cortical subregions based upon differences in cell density, cell shape, size, and connectivity. Divisions based upon structural criteria define functional zones such as specialised areas for touch, perception and even distinct cognitive processes.

104 Columnar Organisation. Cells that perform similar functions are organised into collumns each around 3mm deep, arranged perpendicular to the laminae. E.g. if a single cell within a column responds to touch on the palm of the left hand, then other cells within the same column will also respond to that stimulus. Mountcastle (1979) referred to these columns as 'macrocolumns' and estimated that around a million of them existed in human cerebral cortex. These can be further subdivided into 'minicolumns' and there are an estimated half a billion of them.

105 1. Frontal Lobes. These extend from the central sulcus to cover the anterior portion of the brain. They contain: Primary motor cortex (area 4). Premotor cortex (area 6). Broca's area (area 44). Prefrontal cortex. Each receives input from the thalamic nuclei, limbic system, hypothalamus, and the other lobes, making it a 'control centre'. Damage to the frontal part of the brain is thus likely to affect behaviour

106 Motor Cortex Damage to the motor areas (4 and 6) produce a range of impairments to the motor system including: Loss of fine motor control. Reduction in strength. Interruption of open-loop motor programmes (sequences of fast muscle actions (e.g typing, piano playing, speech). This area also controls fine movements of the facial muscles, patients with frontal lobe damage show relatively little spontaneous facial expression (Kolb & Whishaw, 1990).

107 Broca's Area. In 1861 Broca reported the case of a man who had lost the power of speech (though he could could still make speech noises and understand speech). At autopsy the damage was found to be localised to a specific region on the left hemisphere of frontal cortex. This impairment is now referred to as Broca's aphasia and is characterised by slow, deliberate speech with a very simple grammatical structure.

108 Role of Prefrontal Cortex. A key role of prefrontal cortex concerns working memory - the ability to retain pieces of information for short periods of time (Goldman-Rakic, 1984). Brain imaging studies, case studies of brain-damaged humans, single-cell recordings confirm that this region is extremely active during delayed response tasks. Prefrontal cortex is also involved in higher-order cognitive behaviours: Planning. Organisation. Monitoring events, their outcomes, and the emotional value of such actions (Tucker et al., 1995).

109 Cognitive Impairments Following Frontal Lobe Damage. Milner & Petrides (1984) reviewed the effects of frontal lobe damage in humans and concluded that the following behaviours were impaired: Temporal sequencing: i.e the ability to say which of 2 pictures had been presented most recently. Shifting of attention: there is an increased tendency to persevere with an action when it is obviously incorrect (perseveration). Conditional associations: the ability to associate a correct response with a particular stimulus. Working memory: the ability to maintain a response in memory and then act upon it appropriately.

110 Parietal Lobes Damage to the Parietal Lobes. Damage here produces deficits in tactile function, disorders of body image, rightleft confusion, and disorders of spatial ability (Kolb & Whishaw, 1990). A common feature is sensory neglect, the tendency to ignore one side of the body or features of the outside world. target Patient s response

111 The Binding Problem. We perceive an integrated world despite the fact that neural processing is conducted by distinct (but interconnected) modules. How are separate functions integrated? As yet this remains a mystery but Robertson et al., (1997) proposed that regions of parietal cortex may serve to combine different aspects of information to form a coherent whole. This theory is based upon individuals with brain damage to parietal cortex who can no longer bind together different aspects of perception.

112 Frontal Lobe - Front part of the brain; involved in planning, organizing, problem solving, selective attention, personality and a variety of "higher cognitive functions" including behavior and emotions. The anterior (front) portion of the frontal lobe is called the prefrontal cortex. It is very important for the "higher cognitive functions" and the determination of the personality. The posterior (back) of the frontal lobe consists of the premotor and motor areas. Nerve cells that produce movement are located in the motor areas. The premotor areas serve to modify movements. The frontal lobe is divided from the parietal lobe by the central culcus

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119 Parietal Lobes Damage to the Parietal Lobes. Damage here produces deficits in tactile function, disorders of body image, rightleft confusion, and disorders of spatial ability (Kolb & Whishaw, 1990). A common feature is sensory neglect, the tendency to ignore one side of the body or features of the outside world. target Patient s response

120 The Binding Problem. We perceive an integrated world despite the fact that neural processing is conducted by distinct (but interconnected) modules. How are separate functions integrated? As yet this remains a mystery but Robertson et al., (1997) proposed that regions of parietal cortex may serve to combine different aspects of information to form a coherent whole. This theory is based upon individuals with brain damage to parietal cortex who can no longer bind together different aspects of perception.

121 Neuropsihologia clinică Prof. Ion V. Moldovanu Catedra de Neurologie Universitatea de Medicină şi Farmacie N.Testemitanu

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Copy these 2 verbs into your book:

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