India: Music VEDIC ORIGINS CELESTIAL BEINGS AND VERNACULAR FOLK DANCING MILKMAIDS AND THE CODIFICATION OF PRINCIPLES OCEAN OF MUSIC

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1 India: Music The history of Indian music is entwined with the different religious and cultural influences that have swept throughout the Indian subcontinent over the ages. Music has always been highly revered in India, its origins attributed to divine figures like Naradamuni, Shankar, Brahma, and Saraswati. The traceable history starts with the Indus Valley Civilization ( BCE): terracotta and bronze sculptures of musical instruments and dancing figures point to a developed musical culture, although, so far, nothing is known about the type of prevalent music. VEDIC ORIGINS The religious rituals of the Vedic civilization ( BCE) incorporated shloka (verse) chanting from the four Vedas Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda, and Atharvaveda and the samaganhymns from the Samaveda have particular musical significance as they first utilized the sapta swar(seven notes scale) that form the basis of Indian music. String instruments like the veena andgargar, wind instruments like the venu, bakur, nali, and tunav, and percussion instruments like the dundubhi and talav (the name of which is a form of the word tala rhythm ) accompanied the singing. Correct intonation was emphasized, given the religious significance of the music, but, along with thisnibaddh (fixed) music was the anibaddh (free) music, where improvisation was allowed, leading to rich and varied musical interpretations. The Vedic hymns were imparted by pathya shiksha (oral learning) from guru to shishya (student), and, later on, the guru-shishya parampara (tradition) led to the development of the gharana system of musical families, with each musical dynasty following a particular style. CELESTIAL BEINGS AND VERNACULAR FOLK In the post-vedic age ( BCE), there were two main music traditions, the classical known in Sanskrit variously as maarg (path), gandharva (celestial beings proficient in music), shastriya(classical), and abhijatya (innate) and the desi (folk), performed in vernacular languages. Musical styles, techniques, instruments, and performances are mentioned in the Ramayana andmahabharata epics, the Buddhist Jataka tales, and the Jain texts Sthanangsootra andrayappasenaijja, and artistic depictions of musicians occur in temples, caves, and palm-leaf manuscripts. DANCING MILKMAIDS AND THE CODIFICATION OF PRINCIPLES The Harivamsha (Life of Krishna) treatise (200 BCE 500 CE) describes Krishna and the gopis(milkmaids) performing chhalikya music and hallisaka circle dances. Bharatmuni snatyashastra (200 BCE 300 CE) defines music principles, particularly the tala (rhythms), rasa(aesthetics of emotional responses), and bhava (aesthetics of moods) theories, and classifies instruments, expounding on playing techniques. During the Gupta period ( CE), the technical and aesthetic merits of music are frequently alluded to in the works of Kalidasa and Vatsyayana, and also in the Puranas, the Panchatantra, and the Dattilam. Jati-gayan was the prevalent musical style, and the jatis (classes), although not open to improvisation, facilitated raga development later. OCEAN OF MUSIC The Chinese travelers Fa-Hsien and Hieun-Tsang both mention musical performances held in the temple courtyards and in the royal court, and musical descriptions occur in the literary works ofharshavardhana ( CE). Matanga s Brihaddeshi discusses the concepts of raga,sargam, shruti, and desi music. Locanakavi s Ragatarini (1160) describes 12 basic ragas and 86 derivatives, and the verses in Jayadeva s Gita Govinda have specific talas. Sarangadeva ( ) and his contemporary Parsvadeva wrote, respectively, the Sangeet-Ratnakara (Ocean of Music) and the Sangeet- Samayasara (Soul-Essence Music); the former detailed 264 ragas and outlined a notational system.

2 CHANTS OF DEVOTION The advent of Islam introduced Persian, Arabic, and Afghan elements into Indian music. The Sufi poetamir Khusro ( ) was particularly influential, and is credited with developing the qawwali,ghazal, naqsh, and tarana styles. The dhrupad and dhamar styles, the bhajans of the Bhakti(Hindu Revivalist) movement, the Ashtachap Sangeet of the Rudra Samparadaya sect, and thehaveli Sangeet of the Pushti Margi Sampradaya sect used regional languages like Brajbhasha and Avadhi, and became popular across different social strata. PRINCELY PATRONAGE Sophisticated darbar music developed in the Rajput, Bijapuri, Moghul, and other princely courts of North India beginning in the 15th century, integrating influences from the Persian (Timurid) origins of the Moghuls. The prowess of the incomparable Tansen (1506? 1589) with Raga Deepak and Raga Malhar was said to bring about illumination and rain. On a more mundane level, Tansen is credited with improving the Central Asian rubab, which eventually developed into the sarod, as well as composing foundational ragas and systematizing much of the music. Sadarang (Niyamat Khan), a musician in Muhammad Shah Rangile s court, invented the khayal, and Nawab Wajid Ali Shah of Awadh was a renowned patron of the thumri. Musical patronage declined in British India, and thegharana system strengthened. THROUGH THE AGES Modern Indian music owes a debt to Pandit Vishnu Narayana Bhatkhande and Pandit Vishnu Digambar Paluskar, who, separately and systematically, organized the different strands of regional music, wrote extensively on musical theories, invented notational systems, and established musical colleges. Classical and folk music to a large extent influenced film and theater music in the earlier years and, later, Western musical influences began to make their mark. Adivasi The Adivasis (original inhabitants) of India include over 200 tribes like the Santhals, Gonds, Bhils,Chakmas, and others. The Adivasi culture predates the Hindu and Muslim cultures, and has continued to exist parallel to them, interacting often but not integrating. Adivasi music is, for most part, lively and vigorous, accompanied by dhol, tumdak, and tamak drums and bansuri and tiriaoflutes, and based on Adivasi folktales, religious beliefs, and customs. Traditionally, the music is performed with communal dances at religious and seasonal festivals, and during courtship and marriage rituals. Traditional Forms Bhajan The devotional bhajans praise or describe deities like Ram and Krishna, extol lines from the scriptures, and impart the teachings and compositions of Mirabai, Tulsidas, Guru Nanak, Kabir, and Surdas; regional bhajan styles and languages vary, but they all have a sthai (first section) and an antara (following sections), with the composer/poet s name mentioned in the last antara. The songs are sung solo or in a group, with or without instrumental backing, and may be performed at any time, during leisure, social events, religious gatherings, or work. If instrumentation is used, theektar, dotar, sitar, manjira, kartal, dholak, and tabla are traditionally popular, and, since its introduction in the mid- 19th century, the harmonium has been used with great regularity. Some well-known bhajan singers are Anoop Jalota, Manna Dey, Lata Mageshkar, Bhimsen Joshi, andparveen Sultana. Classical Indian classical music is divided into Hindustani (North Indian) and Carnatic (South Indian). In both cases, though instrumental performance is both an ancient and a significant component of shastriya, vocal performance is considered primary; therefore the concepts are described in terms of the voice, and instruments are revered according to their capacity to emulate vocal qualities (such as meend slides).

3 CONCEPTS AND ELEMENTS Notes and Scales Dhwani is any sound, and nada is a pleasing sound. A nada of a specific, melodious character is aswar (note). The basic seven swars (sargam, collectively) Shadja (Sa), Rishabh (Re; Ri in Carnatic), Gandhar (Ga), Madhyam (Ma), Pancham (Pa), Dhaivat (Dha), and Nishad (Ni) are, in their pure forms, called shuddh swars. Sa and Pa are achala (fixed)swars, never deviating, while the rest are chala (movable) swars; Re, Ga, Dha, and Ni have komal (soft/flat) forms, while Ma becomestivra (sharp). So there are 12 swars seven shuddh, four komal, and one tivra and a group of any seven swars is a saptak. There are three saptaks (scales/octaves) mandra (low), madhya(middle), and tar (high). Classes of Raga Raga is a melodious arrangement of five or more swars that are rendered in an aaroha (ascending) and avaroha (descending) order. The number of swars in a raga determines the jati; an Audhav jati raga has five swars, a Shadhav jati raga has six swars, and a Sampoora (complete) jati ragahas sevenswars. These basic jatis combine to form more complex jatis; for instance, a raga with fiveaaroha swars and seven avaroha swars is of the Audhav-Sampoorna jati. Building the Raga Each raga belongs to a parent scale called thaat (mela in Carnatic), and has a vadi (main) swarand a samavadi (supporting) swar; the remaining are called anuvadi swars. Certain swars, not occurring in the raga, but introduced for effect, are called vivadiswar. A raga must contain either the Ma or the Pa swars, and two forms of the same swar (shuddh and komal or shuddh and tivra) cannot follow each other although there are exceptions like the shuddha Ma and tivra Ma in Raga Lalit.Pakad is the swar arrangement introducing a raga, and alankars are swar variations and ornamentations like meend, which is sliding from one swar to the next, and sparsh, where a swar is lightly touched upon used in rendering the raga. The perceptible space between two swars is called ashruti; traditionally there are 22 shrutis. Performing the Raga A raga performance begins with an improvised alap/vistar in vilambit laya (slow tempo), elaborating the swars in the raga, sometimes to the accompaniment of the tanpura drone or jivari(sustained resonant tone to guide the vocalist). The tabla comes on with the bandish/gat(fixed composition), which may be in madhya laya (medium tempo) or drut laya (fast tempo), and continues to keep time with the bol (beat literally word or syllable ) and the tan (phrase), both of which improvise on the bandish and are sung in aakar (without pronouncing words by extending the vowel aa ) in drut laya. Rhythm of the Raga Tala, the rhythmic pattern of the raga, is denoted by a cycle of beats called avartan. Each beat is called bol, theka, or akshara; a tala is distinguished by the number of thekas and the vibhaag(division) of these thekas; dhamar tala, for instance, has 14 thekas divided into four vibhaags, as Sam is the first theka of any tala denoted with a handclap or an emphasis on the tabla,mridang, or pakhwaj and the first theka of the second or third vibhaag is usually the khali(empty), indicated without a percussion beat or by waving the hand to the side. The tala pattern remains the same even when the pace of the laya changes. The performance of a section or set of phrases is usually rounded up with a tihai a triple repetition of a phrase in which the third repetition ends neatly on sam. Raga Mood and Seasons Each raga is associated with a specific rasa (mood/emotion) shanta (peace/calmness), karun(sad/compassion), shringar (romance/beauty/art), veer (pride/courage), rudra(anger/ destruction), hasya (laughter/joy), adbhuta (wonder/mystery), bhayanaka (fear/worry),and vibhatsa (disgust/self-pity) and, in Hindustani classical music, each raga is assigned a specificsamay (time), either of the day or a particular season. A raga performed in its particular time is considered more effective in evoking its specified rasa Raga Malhar in the monsoon season, for instance. The midnight-to-noon portion of the day forms the Poorvanga (first), and the ragas sung in this period are called Poorvaragas; noon to midnight forms the Uttaranga (second), whenuttarragas are sung. The 24 hours are also divided into 8 prahars (time units) of 3 hours each, starting from

4 4a.m. This system became codified during the Mughul Period, when the courts of the North Indian rajas supported Hindustani master musicians; Carnatic music is not usually so time-bound. Apart from purely classical performances, ragas are utilized in Natyasangeet (musical dramas),kajris (rainy season folk songs), thumris(romantic songs about Krishna), and other semi-classical genres. GHARANA SYSTEM AND THE GURU-SHISHYA PARAMPARA Within the traditional guru-shishya system of musical training, the shishya (student) lived, studied, traveled, and performed with the guru for many years, imbibing his or her technique and ideology and subsequently carrying it on farther. It was the guru who determined the student s readiness for public, and later solo, performance. In the modern era the guru-shishya system is still upheld, more or less, though with some modifications: for example, it is less typical for students to live with their teachers (unless, as is not unusual, they are the actual children of their teachers rather than ceremonial adoptees ); and demands for constant practicing as much as 18 hours a day in previous generations are more likely to be reduced to a mere 6 or 8 hours per day. Alongside the formalized guru-student relationship of intensive one-on-one devotion and training, it is today common, whether through group classes or private sessions, for teachers to train students more along the lines of other forms of study. This follows the tendency in modern India, as elsewhere, for outside activities (for example jobs or university study) to compete with the musical training, which was formerly regarded as the sole appropriate pursuit, once entered into. This development actually has the benefit of allowing a wider population to partake in serious musical study, even if their aim is not necessarily to perform professionally. And, though the masters of earlier generations are still legendary for their wizardry, it would be difficult to argue that the quality of playing among modern performers has dropped in any discernible way (except, perhaps, to the now-unattainable ears of those departed wizards). Each gharana maintained its distinct musical style, and in earlier times there were few interactions between different gharanas; musicians were discouraged from playing or even listening to music from another gharana. With the advent of All India Radio in the 1930s (through which, from the early days, top musicians were contracted to perform for daily broadcasts) and much moreso when recordings and film music became widely available, this began to change, to the point where by the 1960s collaborations between musicians of different gharanas became less unusual. In recent decades, of course, Hindustani musicians of all gharanas have collaborated frequently with each other, as well as with Carnatic musicians, and with Western musicians and performers from other major world traditions (Persian, for example). Even so, the gharana tradition continues, with distinctions maintained and transmitted by their lineage holders. An Exemplary Lineage Ustad Allaudin Khan (a.k.a. Baba) of the Maihar Gharana who studied under many gurus, notably Wazir Khan Baenkar, a descendant of Tansen and of his Senia Gharana annoyed the purists when he incorporated diverse musical elements in his style and encouraged his students to listen to a wide range of music and to innovate. A tough taskmaster and a multi-instrumentalist, in the 1920s Baba formed the Maihar Band, which played both Indian and Western instruments on his arrangements and compositions of Indian music; in 1955 he established the Maihar College of Music. In between (beginning in the 1930s) he trained students who went on to become some of the most prominent musicians of India among them Nikhil Banerjee and Pandit Ravi Shankar (sitar);pannalal Ghosh (flute); his daughter Annapurna Devi (surbahar); and his nephew Ustad Bahadur Khan and son Ustad Ali Akbar Khan (sarod). The latter (known to his students as Khansahib) would in turn become the lineage holder of the gharana, eventually training literally thousands of musicians many through the Ali Akbar College of Music, which he established first in Calcutta, and later in San Rafael, California and achieving international renown for his compositions, recordings, and concerts. Since his passing in 2009, Khansahib s youngest son, sarodist Alam Khan, has assumed the mantle of the Maihar lineage, while older son Ustad Aashish Khan (also an acclaimed sarodist) similarly continues performing and teaching within the traditions of the gharana.

5 Hindustani Forms DHRUPAD The ancientdhrupad vocal form (Dhruv is the Pole Star, and pada means words ) is associated with the veer rasa (courage/heroic) and is devotional in nature, glorifying Hindu deities. The vistar section in dhrupad begins with the syllables om, nom, thom rendered with slow elaboration, and the performance then accelerates to the jor (steady rhythmic section) and jhala/nomtom (fast rhythmic section). Commonly employed talas are shultal (10 beats), jhaptal (10 beats composition called sadra), chautal (14 beats), dhamartal (14 beats composition called dhamar), and other talas of the pakhwaj tradition. Instruments like pakhwaj, mridang, rudra veena, and tanpuraaccompany the singers. Dhrupad was very popular in the Moghul court, but the khayal overshadowed it in the 18th century. The Dagar Brothers of the Dagar Gharana revived public interest in the genre after a series of foreign concerts in the 1960s. The Gundecha Brothers and Ritwik Sanyalare also well known as dhrupad performers. GHAZAL A ghazal consists of rhythmic couplets, with a refrain, utilizing the same meter for all the lines. The poetic form arose from the Persian qasida in the 6th century, and the Islamic incursions of the 12th century brought it to the Indian subcontinent, where, along with Persian and Urdu, compositions in regional languages became popular. The themes are often melancholic, written from the perspective of a lover yearning after an unattainable ideal which can be interpreted as a longing for God. The sophistication of ghazals made them the preserve of the educated elites of the royal courts; the genre did not gain widespread popularity until the lyrics became more accessible in modern times. Famousghazal composers include Rumi, Hafiz, Iqbal, Mirza Ghalib (by a tradition known as takhallus, the poet s name is mentioned in the last verse) and well-known performers include Pankaj Udhas,Jagjit Singh, Mohammad Rafi, and Hariharan. KHAYAL Khayal means imagination, and, while the text and raga of this vocal form remain the same as in other forms, the short bandishes (compositions) can be rendered in a free, flexible manner, with plenty of improvisation in the way the words, swars, syllables, and melodies are performed. A khayalperformance usually begins with a short alap, followed by a bada khayal in vilambit laya (slow tempo) and then the chhota khayal in drut laya (fast tempo), with a thumri or a tarana at the end. The harmonium, tabla, or violin provide musical continuity each time the singer pauses. The themes include seasons, romance, spirituality, antics of Krishna, and other aspects of life. Kishori Amonkar,Pandit Bhimsen Joshi, Pandit Omkarnath Thakur, Girija Devi, and Ustad Bade Ghulam Ali Khan are renowned vocalists in the khayal style. TARANA In Persian, tarana (tillana in Carnatic) means song. An invention of Amir Khusro, the tarana uses meaningless syllables and words known as nom tom in short bandishes that can be rendered in various styles and layas, and with flourishing tihais, to the accompaniment of the tabla, pakhwaj, andsitar. Ustad Amir Khan, Kumar Gandharva, Pandit Krishnarao, and Ustad Rashid Khan are some leading tarana singers. KIRTAN The devotional kirtans are made up of mantras and hymns set to the rhythms of mridang, pakhwaj,kartala, harmonium, and tabla. Kirtankari is popular in Maharashtra, Punjab, and in many other parts of India. Carnatic Music In Carnatic music, the melakarta system classifies 72 janaka (parent) ragas Todi, Kalyani, andmayamalavagowla, for example and various derivative janya (child) ragas Bhairavi,Hindolam, Abhogi, and many others. Carnatic raga compositions are typically short and fixed, with faster tempos than in Hindustani music; though romance is among the lyrical subjects, themes are often elevated invocation of deities, religious devotion, descriptions of gods

6 and temples, for example. The recital usually begins with varnam, a short, fast-paced, and vocally complicated piece that describes the raga. The different varnam sections are pallavi (lyrical first section detailing main theme),anupallavi(second section detailing a related theme), mukthaayi swaram (syllables or swars), several charanams (lyrical end sections related to the pallavi or anupallavi themes), and chittai swarams (improvised swars), and these are sung in order and usually set to aditala (8 beats) oratatala (14 beats). The varnam may be followed by an aalapanai (improvisation usingswars from the raga), niraval (a song line or portion sung in different tunes within the given raga and tala), orkalpanaaswaram (improvised swaras of the raga). Kritis/keerthanams, devotional songs with fixed compositions, are sung next in different ragas andtalams. Each kriti has pallavi, anupallavi, and charanam sections. A swarajathi may also be sung; here, different swars are used in the charanam. The ragam thanam pallavi is usually present in most recitals, where the ragam elaborates on the raga, the thanam is the rhythmic rendition of the syllables tan, na, and nom, and the pallavi lyrics are tala-based and rendered according to the performer s sense of rhythm. The recital ends with slokas, bhajans, guru vandana (praise), and thillanas. The mridangam, pakhwaj, ghatam, morsing, kanjira, veena, tanbura, violin, and flute are the most usual instruments used (though others occur as well for example, the renowned Kadri Gopalnath has successfully adapted the alto saxophone, and U. Srinivas the mandolin, to this extremely rigorous music). Tyaagaraaja, Muttuswami Diikshitar, and Shyaamaa Shastri were the foremost Carnatic composers, and renowned Carnatic musicians include M. S. Subbulakshmi (vocal), N. Ravikiran (gottuvadyam), L. Subramaniam (violin), G. Harishankar (kanjira), and E. Gayathri(veena). Folk Forms LAVANI The lavani style arose during the Peshwa rule in Maharashtra. A mix of song, dance, and theatrics on the themes of sex, politics, social customs, and religious beliefs, often presented in an arch or satirical manner, lavanis are traditionally performed by women in navwari (nine-yard) saris andgunghroos (anklet bells), with male singers providing a chorus, and to the instrumental accompaniment of tabla, harmonium, dhol, and daf. Honaji Bala and Ram Joshi well-known lavanicomposers, and performers include Yamunabai Waikar and Surekha Punekar. BHAVAGEET The light, expressive, and poetic bhavageets cover a wide range of themes romantic, philosophical, devotional and the songs are typically set to the dadra, kerwa, and roopaktalas. Some well-known bhavageet performers are Manik Verma, Suman Kalyanpurkar, Malti Pande, Kunda Bokil, Sudhir Phadke, R. N. Paradkar, Arun Date, and Gajanan Watve. PANDAVANI Pandavani songs (the name refers to the Pandavas, the heroes of the Mahabharata) narrate incidents from the Mahabharata in a vigorous, rousing style, performed with dances and theatrical enactments. The principle singer plays the ektara, using it as an acting prop when needed as Bhima s gada(mace) or Arjun s dhanush (bow), for example and the backing singers help move the story along. The kartal, manjira, harmonium, tabla, and dholak provide additional music. There is a lot of improvisation, with the singers sometimes weaving current events into the narrative. Though traditionally a male preserve, there are female Pandavani performers like Teejan Bai and Ritu Verma. RABINDRA SANGEET Rabindranath Tagore s musical compositions over 2,000, on varied themes form the basis of Rabindra Sangeet. Collected in the four-volume Gitabitan (Garden of Songs), the works owe their inspiration to Hindustani classical, folk songs, and Baul music. Mita Kunda, Suchitra Mitra,Kamalini Mukherji, and Saunak Chattopadhyay are some prominent Rabindra Sangeetperformers.

7 TEMPLE AND FESTIVAL MUSIC Social and religious festivals happen year-round in India, celebrating the changing seasons, the harvest, religious days, mythological incidents, and the lives of saints and gurus. The Pooram temple festivals of Kerala two of the famous ones being Thrissur Pooram at the Vadakkumnathan Temple in Thrissur and Arattupuzha Pooram at the Sree Sastha Temple (also in Thrissur) feature performances of melam ensembles (which include chendu, madhalam, idakka, and timila drums, long curved kombu horns, and kuzhal double-reed pipes). These include Pandi Melam, in the temple courtyard, and Panchari Melam inside the temple, with vocal performances, dances, and processions of elaborately decorated elephants among the attractions. Other festivals in Kerala include the Chembai Music Festival at the Guruvayoor Temple, andonam. The Konark Festival at the Konark Sun Temple and the Rajarani Festival at the Rajarani Temple in Orissa; the Khajuraho Festival at the Khajuraho Temples in Madhya Pradesh; thejaisalmer Desert Festival and the Gangaur Festival in Rajasthan; and the Sawai Gandharva Festival in Maharashtra are all important musical events. WEDDING (BRASS) BANDS The military bands of British India inspired the formation of wedding brass bands. The uniformed band musicians play a repertoire of popular film, pop, and folk songs on clarinets, horns, trumpets, trombones, tubas, saxophones, and snare drums. Instrumentation STRINGS Veena, Rudra Veena, Chitra Veena (Gottuvadyam) Saraswati veena often known simply as veena is an ancient stringed instrument (Goddess Saraswati s favorite) with a rounded wood resonator, a long neck with 24 frets (which may have a smaller resonator at the top end for balance), four playing strings, three drone strings, no sympathetic strings, and a slightly curved bridge. The veena is held at a sideways angle for playing, with the (main) resonator resting on the ground. Rudra veena, also known as been, has two rounded gourd resonators, a long, hollow neck, and steel strings that are plucked with a plectrum. The comparatively new gottuvadyam has six main strings, three drone strings, and a series of sympathetic strings that pass under the main strings. It is played with a slide, and features as a solo instrument in Carnatic music. Renowned instrumentalists includesundaram Balachander and E. Gayathri (veena); Ustad Zia Mohiuddin Dagar (rudra veena); and Seetha Doraiswamy and N. Ravikiran (gottuvadyam). Sarod, Sitar, Santoor The fretless sarod, developed from the rubab (originally from Afghanistan), has playing, drone, and sympathetic strings, and is played with a plectrum in the right hand, using the left-hand fingernails to stop the metal strings. The sitar has a rounded gourd resonator, with a badaa goraa (large bridge) and a chota goraa (small bridge), and a long, hollow neck, with curved, movable metal frets, six or seven playing strings that run over the frets, and about 16 sympathetic strings that run under the frets. The instrument is rested at an angle between the player s knee and foot, and played with a mizrab (plectrum). The Kashmiri santoor is a box-like hammered dulcimer with 24 to 100 strings (usually in triple or quadruple courses) that are played by striking with a pair of light mezrabs (mallets). Renowned instrumentalists of these chordophones include Ustad Ali Akbar Khan, Ustad Amjad Ali Khan,Pandit Vasant Rai, Pandit Tejendra Majumdar (sarod); Ustad Vilayat Khan, Pandit Nikhil Banerjee, and Ustad Shujaat Khan (sitar); and Pandit Shiv Kumar Sharma (santoor). Bowed Strings: Sarangi, Esraj, Dilruba, Violin The short-necked, fretless, and box-like sarangi has 3 or 4 playing strings and many sympathetic strings; it is played with a bow. Esraj is a string instrument with a membrane-covered gourd resonator, a long neck with 20 metal frets, 4

8 main metal strings over the frets, and about 15 sympathetic metal strings under the frets. The instrument is rested on the knee and played with a gaz(bow). The esraj is used in Rabindra Sangeet and Hindustani classical music. The very similar dilrubais used mostly by the Sikhs in Punjab. The behala (violin) may be played in Western style, or while seated on the floor, with the scroll resting on the ankle or on the ground. Renowned players include Murad Ali and Sultan Khan(sarangi), Vinayaka Bora (esraj), and Kala Ramnath (violin). Slide Guitar The steel-string slide guitar, introduced to India in the 1950s, is usually modified, adding chikari(drone) strings and adjusting string height, to suit the requirements of the classical ragas and the individual musician s technique. The four main types of Indian slide guitars are Devangui, Gandharvi, Anandi, and Chaturangui. Renowned slide guitarists include Brijbhushan Kabra, Pandit Debashish Bhattacharya, Pandit Vishwa Mohan Bhatt, and Manish Pingle. WIND Bansuri, Shehnai, Nadaswaram The bansuri flute, famous for its sensitive, melodious sounds, is a transverse bamboo instrument, with seven playing holes. It is an ancient instrument associated with cowherds Lord Krishna s favorite instrument and is used in classical music, folk songs, pop music, and rock music. Usually played in temple festivals and at weddings, the shehnai has a conical wooden bore with eight finger holes and a brass bell. It is related to the nadaswaram, a longer, hardwood, double-reed wind instrument, also with a conical bore, and a metal or wood bell. The nadaswaram, which has seven finger holes and five intonation holes, is played in pairs at weddings and festivals, and in South Indian temple ensembles, often along with the tavil (though both instruments are used separately as well). Renowned instrumentalists include Pandit Hariprasad Chaurasia and Ronu Majumdar (bansuri),ustad Bismillah Khan (shehnai), and Subramania Pillai (nadaswaram). PERCUSSION Pakhwaj, Mridangam, Tabla, Kanjira, Tavil, Ghatam Pakhwaj and mridangam (or mridang) are double-faced, cylindrical drums with tapering ends, and are hand-played; the drums are held horizontally, hung on straps or placed on the ground. Lord Shiva s Tandav Nritya (dance of destruction) was performed to the thundering beats of themridangam. Amir Khusro created the tabla by cutting the pakhwaj into two sections, the smallerdayan/tabla and the larger bayan/dagga. Kanjira, a small frame drum with metal jingles, is played with the mridangam. The double-headed, barrel-shaped, and very loud tavil is played seated or standing, using the right hand on the right side and a stick on the left. It is used as a temple instrument in South India.Ghatam is a clay pot played with the palm and fingers; it features an open hole that can be covered (with the player s abdomen) to alter the pitch and tone. Renowned instrumentalists include Pandit Ravishankar Upadhyay (pakhwaj), Karaikudi R. Mani (mridangam); Ustad Zakir Husain,Pandit Swapan Chaudhuri, and Pandit Anindo Chatterjee (tabla); Govinda Harishankar(kanjira); Karunamoorthy (tavil); and T.V. Vaasan and Vikku Vinayakram (ghatam). LAMELLOPHONE Morsing Morsing, a jaw harp, has an elliptical metal frame with extended, parallel arms and a thin metal strip in between. The long part is held against the teeth and the metal strip is hand-manipulated to produce the sound, with the mouth acting as the resonating chamber. Srirangam Kannan is a renownedmorsing player.

9 DRONES Tambura and Harmonium The tambura/tanpura has a large pear-shaped resonator, a long, fret-less neck, and four strings. There are three styles, Miraj, Tanjore, and the smaller tamburi. Tuned to the root notes of the raga (usually Sa tonic and Pa dominant), its role in the music is to provide a background drone that constantly resonates to remind the performers of the basic tonality. The hand-pumped, box-like harmonium (baja) pump-organ originated in France, but is now quite ubiquitous in Indian classical music and many other genres. Regional and Ethnic Forms Rajasthan The vibrant, full-throated songs of Rajasthan, which evoke its vast desert landscapes and colorful history, have a classical base, often beginning with an alap, and making use of Bilawal, Desh, Kafi,Khamaj, Peelu, Maaru, and Gond Malhar ragas. Prominent among the different traditional musical castes are the Sunni-Muslim Manganiars, who, historically, played in the Rajput courts in Jaisalmer, Ajmer, and Udaipur, and during social events and festivals like Holi and Diwali for the Bhati and Rathore communities, Sindhi Muslim merchants, and other jajmans/patrons. The songs are rousing affairs about battles, chivalry, Rajput heroes, folklore, and folktales. They also sing of the seasons, sowing and harvesting, Krishna and Gorakhnath bhajans, and everyday events. The Langas from the Barmer District sing on Sufi themes for mainly Muslim patrons, and are renowned for their haunting tunes on the Sindhi sarangi (four-stringed, with 20 sympathetic strings, and played with a ghungrooembellished bow) and the algoza flute. Rajasthani songs use nagara, daf, dhol, tabla, mridang, and pakhwaj for keeping the tala. Panihari, Indoni, Gorbuns, andkurjanv are famous Rajasthani folk songs; some well-known singers are Siddique Manganiar,Samandar Manganiar, and Rukhmaanbai Manganiar. Baul Hindu Vaishnavites, Buddhist Tantrikas, and Persian Sufis contributed to the development of the spiritual, devotional Baul music in pre-partition Bengal. Traditionally, the wandering Baul minstrels accompanied themselves on the ektara, dutar, duggi drum, manjira, and bansuri, and received alms for their performances. The annual Joydeb and Poush fairs in West Bengal feature Baul singers from around the world. Parvathy Baul, Anando Gopal Das, and Manju Das Baul are some of the leading Baul performers. Kerala Kerala is renowned for its sopana sangeetam, a music form influenced by Carnatic, Bhakti, folk, and tribal traditions; sopanam means steps, and the devotional songs (usually dedicated to Baghavathi Devi, Krishna, Shiva, and Vishnu) are traditionally sung from the temple steps and also inside the temple sanctum by hereditary male singers of the Marar and Pothuval castes. Desakshi,Puraneera, Indalam, Ghantaram, and other Carnatic ragas are employed the performancesamay (time of day or season) is specified in sopanam ragas and chendu, madhalam, and idakkadrums provide accompaniment. Kathakali, kalam pattu, Krishnanattam, and mudiyettu are some music forms that developed from the sopanam style. Ottamthullal and the poetic Mappila are other popular Kerali styles. Assam Assam has a rich folk culture with a variety of ethnic music forms like Jhumur and Bharigaan; regional geet like Baramahi, Tokari, Kamrupiya, and Malita, Bihugeet and Husori; Bhakti geetlike Borgeet and Hiranaani; and the classical Ojapali. Instruments commonly used

10 are dhol, dotar,mridanga, nagera, and baanhi flute; and well-known singers include Mahapurush SrimantaShankardev, Madhabdev, and Dr. Bhupen Hazarika. Uttarakhand Uttarakhand folk music forms include khuded, thadya, jhoda,panwaras, mandals; popular themes cover legends and folktales, Himalayan scenery, religion, and social life. The dhol, turri,ransingha, dholki, thali, masakbhaja, tabla, and harmonium provide musical accompaniment.narendra Singh Negi, Girish Chandra Tewari, and Heera Singh Rana are famous singers from Uttarakhand. Contemporary Currents FILMI AND POP Beginning with the film Alam Ara (1931), Indian film music has developed an extensive reach, with film sangeet utilizing classical ragas, semi-classical tunes, folk music, and various world music genres. In the early years, performers like Bal Gandharva, Kundan Lal Saigal, Suraiya, andnoorjehan sang the songs themselves; playback singing (that is, a separate vocal track recorded usually by a specialized playback singer and overdubbed) came later. The film songs highlight a scene, take the story further, or are simply a formulaic device; some films work only on account of their songs, while others, like Satyajit Ray s films (such as Jalsaghar and Charulata), are primarily cinematic with the additional benefit of beautiful music. Lata Mangeshkar, Asha Bhosle, Geeta Dutt, Shamshad Begum, Mohammad Rafi, Manna Dey, Hemant Kumar, Kishore Kumar,Sonu Nigam, and Shreya Ghoshal are some notable singers, and Naushad, Shankar-Jaikishen,Vasant Desai, C. Ramchandra, and A.R. Rahman are some wellknown film composers and music directors. Indian pop music takes elements from classical, semi-classical, folk, and Western genres like jazz, rock, disco, pop, reggae, and hip-hop. Fusion music came into fashion after Ustad Ali Akbar Khan and Pandit Ravi Shankar s musical collaborations with Western artists. Non-filmi pop began in the 1970s with the catchy songs of Nazia Hassan, Remo Fernandes, and Usha Utthup, and really caught on in the 1990s, with singers like Alisha Chinai, Daler Mehndi, and Ila Arun finding a wider audience. TV music programs further sparked an interest in popular music. BANGLA ROCK, HIP-HOP, AND INDO-TRANCE Bangla rock takes its inspiration from diverse sources Western rock, metal, blues, jazz, Baul and Batiali songs, Bangla and Assamese folk, Carnatic and Hindustani classical and is performed in Bengali to the accompaniment of electric guitars, keyboards, violin, flute, and drums. The first rock band, Moheener Ghoraguli, formed in the 1970s, but the rock scene evolved in the 1990s. Calcutta pubs began to feature live rock music, rock music festivals and events mushroomed, and computer technology facilitated music production. Some of the leading bands are Bhoomi, Krosswindz,Cactus, Fossils, and Lakkhichhara. A.R. Rahman s use of rap in film scores and the songs of Baba Sehgal (the first Indian rapper) and foreign-based Indian rappers like Bally Sagoo, Hard Kaur, Blaaze, and VOOFA popularized hip-hop in India. Indian hip-hop utilizes English, Hindi, and other Indian languages, and, apart from the commercial party rap, tackles social issues like religion, politics, and corruption. Indo-trance music is infused with Indian spiritualism, using various mantras and chants, and mixing Indian percussive elements with techno beats. A well-known style is Goa trance. Writer: Sonal Panse Copyright AtoZtheWorld.com by World Trade Press. All rights reserved.