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1 Florida State University Libraries Electronic Theses, Treatises and Dissertations The Graduate School 2007 A History of the Japan Choral Association Mihoko Tsutsumi Follow this and additional works at the FSU Digital Library. For more information, please contact lib-ir@fsu.edu

2 THEFLORIDASTATEUNIVERISTY COLLEGEOFMUSIC AHISTORYOFTHEJAPANCHORALASSOCIATION By MIHOKOTSUTSUMI ADissertationsubmittedtothe CollegeofMusic Inpartialfulfillmentofthe Requirementsforthedegreeof DoctorofPhilosophy DegreeAwarded: SummerSemester,2007 Copyright2007 MihokoTsutsumi AllRightsReserved

3 The members of the Committee approve the Dissertation of Mihoko Tsutsumi defendedonapril18,2007. AndréJ.Thomas ProfessorDirectingDissertation MatthewShaftel OutsideCommitteeMember KevinFenton CommitteeMember Alice8AnnDarrow CommitteeMember The Office of Graduate Studies has verified and approved the above named committeemembers. ii

4 ACKNOWLEGEMENTS Iwouldliketoexpressmyappreciationtothefollowingpersonsfortheir assistantinthisproject: Dr.AndréJ.Thomas,mymajorprofessor,forhisperceptiveguidance,his continuing patience, and his musical passion all of which have inspired and motivatedme; Dr. Charlotte Pfeiffer, my editor, for offering her time, patience, and encouragementandforbeingmyfriend,teacher,andamericansistersinceicameto theunitedstatesin2000; Yoshihiro Egawa and Masayuki Tanabe, Deputy Secretary8General and SecretaryGeneraloftheJapanChoralAssociation,fortheirkindresponsetomeand their willingness to assist me with this project through interviews and correspondence; Dr. Kevin Fenton, Dr. Alice8Ann Darrow, and Dr. Mathew Shaftel, my committeemembers,fortheirgracioussupportandtheirwillingnesstogiveoftheir time; My family for their emotional and economical support and their abundant affection; Finally,allofmyteachersandfriendswhomIhavemetinmylife,forwithout themiwouldnothavecometothisstageinmylife. iii

5 TABLEOFCONTENTS ListofTables...vii Abstract...viii CHAPTER Page 1.INTRODUCTION...1 ProblemStatement...3 ResearchQuestions...4 Delimitation...4 NeedfortheStudy...4 SourcesofInformation...4 OrganizationoftheStudy REVIEWOFRELATEDLITERATURE...6 TheFirstWesternMusicinJapan...6 TraditionalJapaneseMusic...6 IntroductionofMusicEducationinJapan...7 TheDawnofMen sgleeclubs...8 TheFoundationoftheNationalMusicAssociation...9 OtherCompetitions...11 ChoralActivityduringWorldWarII THEFOUNDATIONOFTHEALLJAPANCHORUSLEAGUE FoundationoftheBranchandRegionalAssociations TheHokkaidoBranch...17 TheTohokuBranch...17 TheKantoBranch...18 TheTokyoBranch...18 TheChubuBranch...18 TheKansaiBranch...19 TheChugokuBranch...19 TheShikokuBranch...19 TheKyushuBranch...19 TheFoundationoftheJapanChoralDirectorsAssociation. 20 TheUtagoeUndo(SingingMovement)...21 TheFoundationofProfessionalChoirs...22 JapaneseChoralCompositions...23 Spirituals...25 TheFoundationoftheJapanBoy schorusleague...25 TheFirstChoralConductorandIncreaseofCompany Choirs THEALLJAPANCHORALCOMPETITION: THEFIRSTTWENTYYEARS...29 iv

6 5.THEALLJAPANCHORALCOMPETITION: THENEXTTHIRTYYEARS THEALLJAPANCHORALCOMEPTITION: THEFIFTIETHANNIVERSARYTOTHEPRESENT THECHORALWORKSHOP THEMOTHERS CHORALFESTIVAL OTHERFESTIVALSFORMOTHERS CHORUSES THECHORALMUSICCENTERANDLIBRARY THEINTERNATIONALFEDERATIONFORCHORALMUSIC (IFCM)ANDTHEJAPANCHORALASSOCIATION(JCA) TheAsianCantatinNagano, TheAsianChoralFederation(ACF) The7 th WorldSymposiumonChoralMusicinKyoto, THEJUNIORCHORALFESTIVAL PUBLICATIONS TheChoralMagazineHarmony ThePopularSongSeries AnniversaryBooks COMMITTEESTRUCTURE,MEMBERSHIP,AND FINANCIALSTRUCTURE Finance OTHERCHORALORGANIZATIONS TheJapanChoralDirectorsAssociation TheMaleChorusAssociation TheOngakuju TheUtagoe TheJapanJuniorChoralSocietyandAllJapanBoysand GirlsChoralAssociation TheUniversityChoralAssociations CONCLUSION v

7 APPENDIX AThePresidentsoftheJCA BConstitution CRegulationsoftheJCANationalChoralCompetition DRegulationsoftheJCA smothers ChoralFestival EApprovalMemorandum FAgreementofCopyright REFERENCES BIOGRAPHICALSKETECH vi

8 LISTOFTABLES Table Page 1 TheJCA scommittees TransitionofMembership MembershipinNineBranches TheTopPrefecturalAssociationsofMembership StatementofAccountsfromApril1,2004,toMarch31, vii

9 ABSTRACT TheJapanChoralAssociationconsistsof150,000memberswhobelong to fifty8four regional associations. It plays an important role in the International FederationofChoralMusicandhasplayedaleadingroleinchoralactivitiesinthe AsianPacificregions.Thepurposeofthisstudywastocollect historicaldatafrom newspapers, journals, and interviews of the organization s secretary generals in ordertoanalyzethedevelopmentoftheorganizationanditsprojects. ThisstudyfoundthattheJapanChoralAssociationhashadalongandactive history. The organization began in 1927, when Kosuke Komatsu created the National Music Association. After World War II, four regional choral associations wereorganizedinthekanto,kansai,chubu,andseiburegions.thoseassociations establishedthealljapanchorusleague(ajcl)in1947withkosukekomatsuas itspresident.in1999,thenamewaschangedtothejapanchoralassociation(jca). The study found that the Japan Choral Association has raised the performance level of Japanese choral society through the national competitions, festivals, and workshops which it conducts. The organization has supported competitionssinceitsbeginning.choralworkshopsorganizedbythejapanchoral Associationhaveprovidedvariousclassesaccordingtotheneedsandtrendsofthe timesince1960.theorganizationintroducedthemothers ChoralFestivalduringits twentiethanniversaryyear;thepopulationofthemothers choruseshascontinuedto grow,with30percentoftheorganization smembershipcomingfromthesegroups.in 1987,theJuniorChoralFestivalwasorganizedasapartofthefortiethanniversary celebration;thisfestivalhasbeensuccessfulinnurturingchildren,whointurnwill bethebasisandsupportoffuturechoralactivitiesinjapan.theeventssponsored by the JCA are conducted with the support of regional associations. This arrangementhasstrengthenedthestructureoftheorganization. Thisstudyconcludeswiththesummaryoftheprojectaswellasadiscussionof presentconcernsandplansforthefuture. viii

10 CHAPTER1 INTRODUCTION The7 th WorldSymposiumonChoralMusicinKyoto,heldfromJuly27to August 3, 2005, in Japan, was the biggest event for the Japan Choral Association (JCA)sinceitsfoundingin1948.Around6,000peoplefrom49countriesparticipated, with28,000peopleenjoyingperformancesby1,109singersfrom31countries. 1 Theastoundinggrowthofthissocietywasaresultinpartoftheinfluence oflutherwhitingmason.hewasanamericanmusiceducatorwhowasinvitedby theministryofeducationtojapan.masonhelpedtointroducewesternmusicinto thejapanesemusiceducationprogramattheendofthenineteenthcentury.heused American and European folk songs such as Steven Foster s SwaneeRiver and the Scottish folk songs Annie Laurie and Auld Lang Syne because these folk songs utilizethepentatonicscaleinmuchthesamewayasdidjapanesefolkmusic. 2 Atthebeginningofthetwentiethcentury,Japanesecomposers,RentaroTaki and Kousaku Yamada, who went to Europe to study Western music, began composingjapanesechoralmusic.afemalevocalduetwithapianoaccompaniment, CherryBlossoms(Hana) composed by Rentaro Taki,was the first Japanese choral piecewritten. Itspopularitycontinuestoday. In 1899, Kwansei Gakuin University founded the first glee club. Keio University followed in 1901, and Doshisha Universality in These university gleeclubsstillperformatthehighlevelamonguniversitychoirsandhaveanannual concerttogether. Inthefirstdecadeofthe20 th C,foreignmusiciansperformedinJapan,andthe 1 KyokoFukagawa, TheDataonTheWorldChoralSymposiuminKyoto, Harmony134 (October,2005), IkumaDan,MyJapaneseMusicHistory.(Tokyo:NHK,1999),

11 JapanesewereencouragednotonlytolistentoWesternmusicbutalsotoorganize amateurchoirs;theirrepertoirewasmostlycomprisedofwesternchoralmusic. 3 In1927,KosukeKomatsufoundedtheNationalMusicAssociation(NMA)and organized the first choral competition. Thirteen groups participated. In the next decade,manychoirs wereformed.in1941,theonsetofthepacificwarandworld War II ended the trend, and the NMA discontinued the competition. Singing, however,continuedtobeimportant.yamamotostates, Duringthewar,thefighting spirit was elevated and singing war songs was encouraged at home and at work regardless of age or sex. The importance of singing was recognized not only by militantsbutbysocietyasawhole.thisrecognitioncontinuedafterthewar. 4 In 1945, the war ended. In 1946 and 1947, several choral associations were founded in the Kanto, Kyushu, Kansai, and Tokai areas. The All Japan Chorus League(AJCL)wasestablishedin1948tocombinethelocalassociations.TheAJCL, with the support of the Asahi Shinbun Company, sponsored the first All Japan ChorusCompetition. 5 To understand the Japanese choral society tradition, one must realize that banks, car makers such as Toyota, and electrical appliance companies such as PanasonicandHitachiprovidefinancialsupporttocompanychoirs,whichconsistof theirworkers.inadditiontothecompanychoirs,therearemothers choruses,which consistofprimarilyhousewives.themothers chorusesmakeup30%ofthejapan Choral Association (JCA.) 6 Maria Guinand, the former president of the InternationalFederationforChoralMusic(IFCA),,attendedthenationalfestivalof mothers choruses held in Kyoto in She was surprised at seeing so many femalessinginghappilyandwearingbeautifuldressesandcommented, Thatisthe modelfortheworld!thosearethechoralactivitiesrootedinthecommunities. 7 3 KaneoYamamoto, JapaneseChoralPieces, The20 th AnniversaryBook.(Kyoto:Saikodo, 1968),16. 4Yamamoto,The20 th AnniversaryBook,17. 5Yamamoto,The20 th AnniversaryBook,3. 6 MasayukiTanabe, TheJCAleaguersandFinance,Harmony129(July,2004), MariaGuinand, WonderfulChoralCountry,Japan:InterviewwithMariaGuinand, interviewbykyokofukagawa,harmony134(october,2005),12. 2

12 In the last sixty years, a large number of Japanese choral compositions have been written by Japanese composers. According to Mizushima, 41% of the pieces sung bythetoptengroupsinthenationalcompetitionduringthelastthreeyears werecompositionsinjapanese,withlatinpiecesbeingthenextmostpopular(34%), followed by German compositions (6%) and Italian compositions(6%). 8 Nobuaki Tanaka, who is the founder of the Tokyo Philharmonic Chorus and a pioneer as a choral conductor, has encouraged Japanese composers to write Japanese choral musicandhasbeenamajorforceinintroducingtheseworkstotheworld. InApril1999,theAllJapanChorusLeague(AJCA)becametheJapanChoral Association(JCA). By January 2004, the JCA consisted of over 5,000 groups and 140,000members. 9 Thepurposeoftheassociationistopromotechoralmusic,to trainchoirs,andtocontributetothedevelopmentofmusicculture. 10 TheJCAwas oneofthefounderswhentheifcmwasestablishedin1982.itsponsoredtheworld Choral Symposium in Kyoto in The JCA is and promises to continue to be oneoftheleadingchoralassociationsintheworld. ProblemStatement AlthoughWesterncountriesareseparatedfromJapanbothgeographicallyand culturally,westernmusichasgreatlyinfluencedthedevelopmentofjapanesechoral music,,andjapanesechoralmusicisnowperformedinthewesternworld.astudyof the history of the JCA can offer Western choral conductors a more thorough understanding of Japanese choral works and choral activities in Japan and can provide the Western world with an effective model for the development of choral societies. 8 YoshioMizushima, ChorusandLatin,Harmony134,(October,2005),49. 9 Tanabe,Harmony129,52. 10JapanChoralAssociation,ThePurposeandactivities(Tokyo,2000). 3

13 ResearchQuestions 1. UnderwhatcircumstanceswastheJCAestablished? 2. HowhastheJCAdeveloped? 2a.WhatisthehistoryoftheJCA? 2b.Whohavebeenthekeypeopleinitsdevelopment? 2c.WhatfactorshavecontributedtothesuccessoftheJCA? 3.WhatistheorganizationalstructureoftheJCA? 4.WhattypesofchoirscomprisetheJCA? 5. WhatisthepurposeandactivitiesoftheJCA? 6. WhathasbeentheinfluenceoftheJCAonchoralgroupsinJapan andinthewesternworld? Delimitation TheJCAcoversnineregionsandhasabranchorganizationineachofthe fifty8four prefectures. This study will not attempt to document the activities and structuresofthebranchorganizationsorindividualchoirs. NeedfortheStudy AsafounderoftheInternationalFederationforChoralMusic(IFCM),the Japan Choral Association(JCA) has played an active part in the growth of choral musicandchoralgroupsinjapan.astudyofitshistoryandstructurewillprovide the Western world, as well as the other Asian countries, with a more thorough understanding of Japanese choral works and with a successful model for the structure and development of choral groups. This study will be the first historical researchoftheorganization. SourcesofInformation TheJCAhasnorecordbeforetheywereincorporatedin1970sincetheAsahi ShinbunCompanyhadorganizedtheireventsuptothattime;therefore,muchofthe 4

14 information for this study is collected from musical journals and the JCA s choral magazines. Since their incorporation, the minutes have been preserved; however, onlyofficersoftheorganizationareallowedtoexaminethem.therefore,theauthor interviewed the secretary general and deputy secretary general of the JCA, who providedinformationfromtheminutes. OrganizationoftheStudy Chapter2ofthisstudyisareviewofrelatedliteraturediscussingmusical activitiesinjapanbeforeworldwarii.chapter3isahistoryofthefoundationof the JCA(former AJCL) and their branches. Chapters 4, 5, and 6 examine the national choral competition. Chapter 7 contains workshops. Chapter 8 AND 9 introduce the activities of the mothers choruses, an important part of Japanese choralactivities.mothers chorusgroupsoccupy30%ofthejca.chapter10givesa history of the Japan Choral Center, which was established through donations of members of the JCA. Chapter 11 explains the relationship of the JCA with the International Federation of Choral Music. Chapter 12 examines the junior chorus division of the JCA. The material within Chapters 3 through 12 is organized chronologically. Chapters13and14provideinformationontheJCA spublicationsandonthe membership and structure of the organization. Chapter 15 introduces other choral organizations in Japan. The study concludes with Chapter 16, which contains a summary of the report, the conclusion, and a discussion of the JCA s future. The constitution and regulations for the national competition and mothers choral festivalareincludedintheappendices. 5

15 6 CHAPTER2 REVIEWOFRELATEDLITERATURE AlthoughJapanislocatedintheFarEastandhasdevelopeditsindigenous music, Western music has greatly influenced the development of Japanese choral music and activities. Therefore, to understand the history of the Japan Choral Association,itisnecessarytoreviewtheinfluenceofWesternMusiconJapanbefore theorganizationwasfounded.thejcahasdevelopedintooneofthebiggestchoral organizationsintheworldandhasarichhistoryandhashadamajorinfluenceon musicinjapanandtheworld. However,itisimportanttoexaminetheroleofother music associations in the country when studying the JCA. Thus, this chapter is categorized into four sections on the following topics:(1) the history of Western music in Japan, (2) the foundation of the National Music Association, (3) the foundation of music organizations and competitions other than the JCA and its competitions,and(4)choralactivitiesduringworldwarii. TheFirstWesternMusicinJapan Established opinion dates the first choral performance by Japanese in 1557 when Portuguese missionaries and a Japanese choir sang a mass together in Oita cityonkyushuisland. 11 TheTokugawaShogunate,however,bannedChristianityin 1639 on the basis of national isolation. Therefore Western music, which was introducedbytheportuguesemissionariesinthesixteenthcentury,didnotflourish. TraditionalJapaneseMusic During the Edo (Tokugawa Shogunate) period ( ), traditional Japanese music, especially song, became popular among the general population. 11Dan,MyJapaneseMusicHistory,52.

16 AboutninetypercentofthemusicinthisperiodwasaccompaniedbytheShamisen (three8stringed Japanese instrument). These songs were divided into three genres: Shomyo(Buddhistchant),Katarimono(storytelling),andUtaimono(melodictunes). ShomyowasoriginallychantedinSanskritinIndiaandlaterintroducedinChina, wherechineseshomyowascreatedaccordingtochinesearticulation.whenshomyo wasintroducedtojapan,itwastranslatedintojapanesewasadaptedtojapanese intonation. 12 ThemusicinfluencedJapanesemusicandledtothedevelopmentof KatarimonoandUtaimono.Allofthesongsinthethreegenresaresungeitherbya soloistorinunison. 13 AccordingtoDan,thechoruswasnotdevelopedinJapan because the architectural structures were built with wood and grass and, as a consequence,hadno reverberation. 14 Also Japanese music wasdeveloped asa techniquetodescribeascene withmusicalaccompaniment,unlikewestern music, whichwasconnectedwithchristianityanddevelopedasmusicitself. 15 TheIntroductionofMusicEducationinJapan In July 1853, the American commander8in8chief, Matthew Calbraith Perry, urged Japan to open trade with the world. The next year, the United States and Japan signed a peace treaty. As a result, Japanese isolation of more than two hundredyearsended.themeijierabeganin1868.accordingtonakano,emperor Meiji and his government intended to modernize and internationalize Japan by placing strong emphasis on education. In 1879, the government established the InstituteofMusicinTokyoforthepurposeof(1)studyingthe traditionalmusicof Japan and other countries,(2) selecting and compiling as many suitable songs as possible into textbooks, and(3) training more music teachers so that they might somedaycreatea NationalMusicofJapan SoichiIwata, Shomyo, acceccedonseptember25, Dan,MyJapanese, Dan,MyJapanese, Dan,MyJapanese, IchiroNakano,101FavoriteSongsTaughtinJapaneseSchools(Tokyo:JapanTimes, 1991),244. 7

17 WhenShujiIzawa( )studiedmusicintheUnitedStates,hemet Luther Whiting Mason( ), who was a music educator. After Izawa went backtojapan,thejapaneseministryofeducationinvitedmasontocometojapan. HehelpedIzawatoorganizesongbooksforchildren.Thesongsinthebooksusedat elementary schools were mostly Scottish and German folk songs translated into Japanese since they utilize the pentatonic scale in much the same way as did Japanese folk music. In 1887, Izawa founded the Tokyo Music School(the present Tokyo National University of Fine Arts and Music) to train musicians and music instructors for the music programs in the schools and to produce professional musicians. 17 TheDawnofMen'sGleesClubs After the Meiji Restoration, the Japanese government urged national modernization. In 1873, the prohibition against Christianity was withdrawn and American Protestantism was propagated. In 1889, the Methodist founded the KwanseiGakuinUniversityinNishinomiya8city,Hyogo.Thewifeofaforeignpastor taught the students hymns for the services. In 1899, the school president s sister8in8lawstartedteachingnotonlyenglishhymnsbutalsojapanesehymnsand some other songs, and in 1900, the choir was officially named Glee Club by the president. 18 A Glee Club called the Wagner Society was founded at the Keio University notamissionschool intokyoin1901.itwasthefirstmusicalgroup consisting of non8music major students. In 1904, the Doshisha Glee Club was foundedinamissionschoolinkyotoestablishedbyajapanesechristian,jonijima. NagakicommentsthatthegleeclubsplayedanimportantroleinJapanesemusical society.hestatesthatpeoplewhoweresinginginthegroupsbecamethedirectorsof choirsandthuspromotedandwidenedthechoralcircle Nakano,101, YuichiroHayashi, TheHistoryofKwanseiGakuinGleeClub, Gasshoaki1,no.4(1957), SeijiNagaki, JapaneseChoralMovement, availablefrom 8

18 TheFoundationoftheNationalMusicAssociation KosukeKomatsu( )graduatedfromtheTokyoMusicSchoolin1906 andwassentbythejapan sministryofeducationandthedepartmentofinteriorto Germany, France, Italy, and the United States to research social music in these countries from 1920 to Komatsu was impressed with the competitions for chorus and brass band supported by citizen organizations in these countries. He realized that not only schools and churches but also the public supported the developmentofsocialmusicinwesterncountries. 20 Atthetimeonlychildren s songssunginunisonweretaughtatpublicelementaryschoolsinjapan,andthere was no music education at junior high8schools or high8schools, though chorus was taughtatsomechristianschoolsandthetokyomusicschool. 21 Komatsu was confident of the importance of popularizing music among the public and having choral competition to develop the level of musical performance. Immediately after he returned to Japan,Komatsu started writing articles in news papersandjournalsandlecturingaboutthevalueofmusicalcompetition.although his views met with a negative reaction from some musicians who believed competition would desecrate music, Komatsu nevertheless founded the National MusicAssociationin1927.Thepurposeoftheorganization,whichderiveditsname from French music organization Société National de Musique founded by Saint8Saënesin1871,wastopromotesocialmusic.Thisorganizationisthecurrent Japan Choral Association. Komatsu was the president and other eleven board members were Aira Oowada, Nagae Kato, Taro Kakinuma, Tadashi Yoshida, Mitsuru Ushiyama, Tatsumi Masuzawa, Heigoro Kamatsu, Kiyoshi Komatsu, Tadayuki Sawazaki, Kiichiro Saito, Suematsu Miura, and Toshikazu Shirai. Komatsu wrote the following message on the program for the organization s first choralcompetition. 20 KosukeKomatsu, ChoralMovementandCompetition, Gasshokai1,no.7(1957),54. 21KosukeKomatsu, TheDawnofChorus, Gasshokai9,no.4(1965),27. 9

19 Music has been developed day by day. Prominent musicians have been coming to Japan from western countries and musical promotion has been remarkable the last couple of years. Only a part of society, however, appreciates the musicians and audiences and music has not been closely related to the public. The promotion of social music in JapandoesnotcomparetoitpromotioninWesterncountries. Inthearts,theMinistryofEducationorganizedexhibitionsatthe National Museum a couple of years ago, and in gymnastics, competitions were held at Meiji Shrine. These areas are encouraged appropriately whereas there is no national support or facilities for music. InWesterncountries,thereisamusicschooltotrainmusiciansin eachcityandtherearechoirsandorchestrasorganizedbythepublic. Competitions and concerts are held. In our country, the social conditions are bloody, our thoughts are ominous, and our lives are insipid.inatimesuchasthis,itisveryimportanttoharmonizepublic spirit and to smooth our lives. In order to achieve this situation, the National Music Association was founded by people who have some common goals. First of all, we would like to socialize music, then cultivate Japanese composition, introduce fresh musicians, and hold exhibitions,concerts,andlectures. Thereupon,asourfirstprojectwehaveorganizedachoralmusic festival, which immediately join people immediately, to promote and develop music. We truly appreciate that outstanding choirs are participatinginthefestivalandsupportingourproject. 22 ThefirstchoralcompetitionorganizedbytheNationalMusicAssociationwas heldonnovember28 th,1927,innihonseishonenkaikan(japanyouthhall)in Tokyo. It was supported by the city of Tokyo. Eleven choirs participated: six men s gleesclubs,twowomen sgleeclubs,andthreemixedvoicechoirs.komatsuconfesses thathepracticallyforcedthreeofthechoralgroupstojointhefestivalinorderfor the festival to be successful. 23 The choirs in each section female, male, and mixed weregivenanassignedpieceselectedbythenma.thepieceswereforeign songstranslatedintojapanese.thechoirsalsosangaforeigncompositionoftheir choice,suchashalleluiahfrommessiahbyhändel,thespinningchorusfromder FliegendeHollanderbyWagner,andBeethoven sdieehregottes.thenmahada policy that choirs should sing a Japanese piece. Since, however, there were few 22 KosukeKomatsu, TheDawnofChorus, Gasshokai9,no.4(1965), KosukeKomatsu, ChoralMovementandChorus, Gasshokai1,no.7(1957),55. 10

20 Japanese pieces arranged for men s glee clubs, out of the necessity, foreign pieces suchasmendelssohn sorschütz scompositionsweresubstituted. The winner, selected by thirty8four judges, was a group that consisted of German missionary s wives and pastors, and Japanese singers. As an award they receivedanup8rightpianodonatedbyapianomaker,kiichirosaitowhowasoneof thedirectorsofthenationalmusicassociation.theotherprizeswereasymphonic Marvel gramophone, a Japanese gramophone, a Yamaha organ, and some music scores. 24 Thesecondandthirdcompetitionhadaboutthesamenumberofparticipating groups as the first. The fourth competition had seventeen groups. In the sixth competition, fourteen men s glee clubs participated, and the total participants increased to twenty8two groups. The Kwansei Gakuin Glee Club won the seventh, eighth,andninethcompetitions,amixedvoicedchorusfromtamagawaschoolwon thetenthtothetwelfthcompetitions,andthetokyoliedertafelvereinmen sglee wonthethirteenthtothefifteenthcompetitions. 25 In 1937, the name of the competition changed to the All Japan Choral Competition,andthenumberoftheparticipatinggroupsincreasedtotwenty8six.In 1939,thecompetitionforwomen sjuniorhigh8schoolchoruswasheldindependently, and in 1942 men s school chorus section was also separated from the All Japan Choral Competition. Then the plunge into World War II in 1942 caused the competitiontobediscontinued. 26 Unfortunately,thereisnorecordofthedetailsof thecompetitionsfrom1928to1942. OtherCompetitions In 1932, the Children s Song Competition was founded by Kajo Norisugi, who was a principal of the Tokyo Music School and a president of the Japanese Association of Music Education. The competition, in which elementary school 24 HideoAkiyama, ChoralHeaven, Gasshokai5,no.5(1961), Akiyama,Gasshokai9. 26Kamatsu,Gasshokai1. 11

21 children sang in unison, was held in local cities. Judges would visit elementary schoolsinanareaandselectthebestelementaryschoolchoirineachoftheareas. Theresultsofthecompetitionandtheconcertswerebroadcastedbyradio.Nagaki points out that the competition and the concerts promoted choral music. 27 Eighty8twoboys schoolsandonehundredandtwentygirls schoolsfromtwenty8two prefectures participated in the first competition. Beginning with the third competition, in 1934, the National Music Association joined in the organization of thecompetition.thenhk(nipponhosokyokai JapanBroadcastingCorporation) sponsored the competition, which included a performance sung by one thousand people. In 1935, the year of the fourth competition, the Asahi Shinbun Company joinedinthesupportofthecompetition.intheeighthcompetition,whichtookplace in1939,fourhundredschoolsparticipatedfrommanchuria,korea,andtaiwansince those countries had been colonized by Japan. From 1942 to 1946, the competition wassuspendedbecauseofthewar,butthecompetitionwasresumedin1947bythe NHK.Todaymorethantwothousandthreehundredschoolsfromtheelementaryto thehigh8schoollevelparticipateinthenationwidechoralcompetition. The Music Competition sponsored by Jijishinpo8sha(currently The Mainichi Newspapers) was first held in The name was changed to the Mainichi Competitionin1938.Since1949,theNHKhassponsoredthecompetitionwithThe MainichiNewspapers.The75 th competitionwasheldin2006.thiscompetitionis consideredtobeagatewayforsuccessforyoungclassicalmusicians. 28 In 1935, the first Brass Band Competition was organized by the Japan AssociationofMusicEducation.TheAllJapanBandAssociation(AJBA)foundedin 1939,hassponsoredthecompetitionsince1940.TheAJBAconsistsofapproximately 14,000 elementary, junior8high, and high8schools; universities; companies; and the generalpublic Nagaki, JapaneseChoralMovement. 28NHK,ServiceCenteronlineshop.Availablefrom 7, TheAllJapanBandAssociation,Availablefromhttp:// 12

22 ChoralActivityDuringWorldWarII In1941,therewasagrowingtendencytoencouragewar.UsingWestern languages was strictly forbidden, and all the foreign names were forced to be Japanesenames.Forexample,achoirorchoruswascalledgasshodan;anensemble wascalledgakudan;andarecordwascalledonban.musicfromgermanyanditaly, whichwereamongtheaxiscountries,continuedtobeplayedontheradio.english, American,andPolishmusic,however,wasnotallowedtobebroadcasted. 30 Jazzwas alsobannedasunhealthy music.horiuchireportsthattheconductorsofjapanese orchestra had to be Japanese. Although outstanding foreign musicians were respected as teaches, he states, they were allowed to perform only as guest conductors. 31 The NHK and the Dai8Nippon Sangyo Houkoku8kai(Japan Industrial Labor Party), which was a labor organization committed to war, established company music groups. Japanese composers were encouraged to write patriotic songs to increase the morale of the people. The Ensouka Kyoukai (Players Association) foundedthegroupongakuteishintai(troupeswhichdevotethemselvestomusic)to comfortworkersandsoldiersbyperformingpatrioticmusic.accordingtoyamamoto, during an air attack, musicians could not interrupt a performance before the audienceleft. 32 In 1943, the Music Department of the Broadcasting Corporation established thenationalchorus.thegroupssangtwo8partchoralpiecesontheradiofortento fifteen minutes before eight o clock in the evening. 33 The Taisei8Yokusan8kai (Political Association) enlarged this project and developed the National Singing Movement. Its goal was to raise the morale of the Japanese people through the Internet;accessedonSeptember7, AisakuKada, RemarkonMusicBroadcastDuringWar, OngakunoTomo2,no.6(1942), KeizoHoriuchi, CurrentTopic, OngakunoTomo2,no.5(1942), NaotadaYamamoto, ThePrincipleofPerformer sactivitiesduringwar, OngakuKouron 2,no.1(1942), RyutaroHirota, NationalChorus, OngakuKoron3,no.1(1943),

23 singingofpatrioticsongs. Agroupconsistingofonetotwoprofessionalsingerswith an accompanist was sent to eight regions to teach songs selected by the political association. 34 ThechoirsinTokyoalsovisitedfactoriesandfarmvillagesinlocal areasandsangjapanesechoralpiecesandpopularsongs.asaresult,thenational Singing Movement prompted social music. 35 Brass bands, harmonica bands, accordionbands,andchoirswereestablishedtoincreaseproductivity. In the same year, the Nihon Ongaku Bunka Kyokai(Japan Association of Culture on Music) and the Asahi Shinbun Company supported a nationwide performance by the Tokyo Symphony Orchestra to improve productivity. Aijima reports that the productivity in the Hitachi Company increased 30% after the workerslistenedtoaconcert. 36 War affected the education of children. In an article in the Asahi Shinbun Company on May 26, 1943, Yamaguchi reports that elementary school children listened to recordings of different types of combat planes Boeing, Lockheed, Curtiss,andBuffalo everymorningtolearnhowtodifferentiatethetypeofplanes atthesamealtitudeandthedifferentaltitudesofthesameplane.thisexercisewas heldaseartraininginmusic. 37 During the war, the competitions were discontinued; however, a new singing movement occurred. To increase fighting spirit, many patriotic songs were written andsungandtoincreaseproductivity,manycompanychoirswereorganized.social music was spread nationwide by singing groups. Singing became customary; Yamamotostates,sincepeoplewereforcedtosingwarsongs.Thiswar8timemusical activitywasthebaseonwhichregionalchoralassociationsformedimmediatelyafter thewar.chorus groups,yamamotopointsout,penetratedintosocietythroughthe 34 KenjiTakahashi, PracticeofNationalSingingMovement, OngakunoTomo3,no.3 (1943), HideoAkiyama, MusictoFactoriesandFarmVillages, OngakunoTomo2,no.6(1942), ToshioAijima, TheReinforcementofMilitaryPowerandMusic, OngakuKouron3,no.7 (1943), YasuharuYamaguchi, AReportofEarTrainingatNationalSchoolAccordingtothe RoaringSoundofEnemyAircraft, OngakuKouron3,no.8(1943),

24 15 backyard Yamamoto,The20 th AnniversaryBook,17.

25 CHAPTER3 THEFOUNDATIONOFTHEALLJAPANCHORUSLEAGUE Copyright 2007 by Kids Web Japan Figure 1. RegionsofJapan All rights reserved 16

26 Japan consists of forty8seven prefectures. Tokyo is the capital and contains twelvemillionpeople,10%ofthecountry spopulation.theforty8sevenprefectures aredividedintonineregions:hokkaido,tohoku,kanto,chubu,kinki(orkansai), Chugoku,Shikoku,Kyushu,andOkinawa. TheFoundationoftheAllJapanChorusLeague In 1945, atomic bombs were dropped in Hiroshima on August 6 and in NagasakionAugust9.Tokyowasdestroyedbyfire.AccordingtoYamamoto,atthe endofworldwarii(august15),allofjapanwasdevastated.afterthewar,japan hastened to reconstruct politically, economically, and culturally although it was underthecontroloftheamericanoccupationforces. 39 In these circumstances, the choral associations sponsored by the Asahi Shimbun Company were founded in 1946 in the Kanto(the regions surrounded Tokyo), Kansai (the regions surround Osaka in Kinki), and Seibu (currently Kyushu). 40 TheKantoChoralAssociation,foundedbychoralgroupsinTokyo,held itsfirstconcertonnovember TheKansaiChoralAssociationfoundedin1931, wasformedfromthekansaistudentchoralassociation. 42 Itpresenteditsfirst concertonapril29andhelditsfirstcompetitiononnovember3 rd in1946.theseibu (currentkyushu)choralassociationhaditsfirstconcertinfebruaryandsponsored its first competition in December. In February, 1947, the Tokai(currently Chubu) Choral Association was founded. It was also sponsored by the Asahi Shimbun Company. 43 In 1948, these regional associations united to form the All Japan Chorus League. Kosuke Komatsu was inducted as the president of the association. The followingisthememorandum: 39 Yamamoto,The20 th Anniversary,3. 40TakaoTomioka.,AkiraNakano.,SadaoIshizu.,andMasaruSekiguchi. Liveupwiththe AsahiShinbunfor50Years, InterviewbyNobuyoshiYoshimura.Harmony98(1996): Yamamoto.The20 th Anniversary,3. 42 HitoshiNagai, TheMemoryoftheKansaiChoralAssociation sfoundation, The20 th Anniversary.(Kyoto:Saikodo,1968): TheChronology, The50 th Anniversary.(Kyoto:Saikodo,1997):

27 ThepurposeoftheAllJapanChorusLeague(AJCL)istopromoteanddevelop choral music. The following are the activities(as revised in 1966) to achieve the group spurpose: 1) Theorganizationofchoralcompetition; 2) The solicitation to the public for original choral compositions and the commissiontocomposersfortheselectedpieces 3) Thepublicationofchoralmusic; 4) Theorganizationofworkshops,lessons,andchoralconcerts; 5) Thecultivationofchoraldirectors; 6) Allotherprojectswhicharerecognizedtobenecessary. 44 FoundationoftheBranchandRegionalAssociations TheHokkaidoBranch The Otaru Choral Association was established in 1947, the Sapporo Choral Association and the Asahikawa Choral Association in In 1950, those three regional associations were united by Yoshio Kamimoto, the director of the Otaru Choral Association, and the Hokkaido Choral Association was founded in In 1952, the Muroran and Sorachi Choral Associations were organized in 1961, the TomakomaiChoralAssociation,in1962,theObihiroChoralAssociation,in1963,the Kitami and Kita Sorachi Choral Associations, in 1966, the Yubari and Numata ChoralAssociations, andin1968,thehakodatechoralassociation.thedeclineof thecoalmining,whichwasthemainindustryinhokkaido,however,decreasedthe choral population. Besides the AJCL was incorporated in 1968; therefore, the Sapporo, Otaru, Asahikawa, Muroran, Obihiro, Hakodate Choral Associations remained.in1980,thekushirochoralassociationbecamealeaguer.asaresult,the HokkaidoBranchconsistsofsevencitiesandtheiradjacentarea. TheTohokuBranch In1947,theFukushimaPrefecture ChoralAssociationwasorganized.Intwo years, the Miyagi Prefecture Choral Association was organized and the Tohoku 44Yamamoto.The20 th Anniversary,5. 18

28 BranchwasestablishedwiththeFukushimaPrefectureChoralAssociation.In1950, the Yamagata Prefecture Choral Association was founded, the Aomori Prefecture ChoralAssociationin1960,andtheAkitaPrefectureChoralAssociationin1965and they joined the Tohoku Branch. The Tohoku Branch consists of six prefecture associations. TheKantoBranch ChoirsintheKantoareamostlylocatedinandaroundTokyoorganizedthe Kanto Choral Association in The Ibaragi Prefecture Choral Association was foundedin1949,thegunmaandshizuokaprefecturechoralassociationsin1956, and the Saitama Prefecture Choral Association in The Tokyo Choral AssociationbecameindependentfromtheKantoChoralAssociationin1958.Inthe sameyear,thechibaandkanagawaprefecturechoralassociationswereorganized. The Yamanashi and Niigata Prefecture Choral Associations were founded in 1960 andthetochigiprefecturechoralassociationwasestablishedin1964.in1970,the regionalassociationswerestructuredasbranchessincetheajclwasincorporated. TheKantoBranchconsistsofnineprefecturechoralassociations. TheTokyoBranch The Kanto Choral association is the predecessor of the Tokyo Choral Association founded in In 1970, the regional associations were structured as branches since the AJCL was incorporated. Then the Tokyo Choral Association becamethetokyobranchasaresultofthisrestructuring. TheChubuBranch In1947, thecurrent Chubu BranchwasestablishedastheTokaiChoral Association.In1950,theToyamaPrefectureChoralAssociationwasorganized.The TokaiChoralAssociationwasreorganizedastheChubuChoralAssociationin1952. TheFukuiPrefectureChoralAssociationwasformedin1955,theNaganoPrefecture ChoralAssociationin1959,andtheIshikawaPrefectureChoralAssociationin1960. TheAichi,Gifu,andMiePrefectureChoralAssociationswerefoundedin1961.The ChubuBranchconsistsofsevenprefecturechoralassociations. 19

29 TheKansaiBranch The current Kansai Branch was founded in 1946 as the Kansai Choral Association.TheKansaiChoralAssociationwasoneofthebasicassociationswhen theajclwasestablishedin1948.in1962,theshigaprefecturechoralassociation wasorganized.thekyoto,osaka, Nara, Hyogo,andWakayamaPrefecture Choral Associations were formed in The Kansai Branch consists of six prefecture choralassociations. TheChugokuBranch The Yamaguchi Prefecture Choral Association was founded in 1946 and the OkayamaPrefectureAssociationwasestablishedthenextyear,1947.TheShimane Prefecture Choral Association was organized in 1960, and the Hiroshima, and the TottoriPrefectureChoralAssociationin1962.Sincethereisnobranchofficeofthe Asahi Newspaper in Chugoku region, choirs from the region were sent to the competitions in Kansai or Seibu Choral Association. In 1962, Osamu Shimizu, Hitoshi Nagai, and Chuji Kondo helped to form the regional association. The Chugoku Choral Association was organized with Tottori, Shimane, Okayama, and HiroshimaPrefectureChoralAssociationinthesameyear.Thenextyear,1963,the Yamaguchi Prefecture Choral Association joined the membership. The Chugoku Branchconsistsoffiveprefecturechoralassociations. TheShikokuBranch In 1960, the Kagawa, Kochi, and Tokushima Prefecture Choral Associations were established. The Shikoku Choral Association became independent from the Kansai Choral Association. In 1961, the Ehime Prefecture Choral Association was formed.theshikokubranchconsistsoffourprefectureassociations. TheKyushuBranch ThecurrentKyushuBranchwasestablishedbeforethefoundationoftheAJCL in1946astheseibuchoralassociation.inthesameyear,thefukuokachapterand Kita8Kyushu Chapters were formed. The Nagasaki Prefecture Choral Association was organized in 1947, the Ooita Prefecture Choral Association in 1948, the KagoshimaPrefectureChoralAssociation in1949,themiyazakiprefecturechoral 20

30 Association in 1950, and the Kumamoto Prefecture Choral Association in In 1961,theOkinawaChapterwasformedunderthereignoftheUnitedStates.Since the Okinawa was returned to Japan in 1972, the Okinawa Chapter became the OkinawaPrefectureChoralAssociation.In1982,theNameoftheSeibuBranchwas changed to the Kyushu Branch. The Kyushu Branch consists of eight prefecture associations. 45 TheFoundationoftheJapanChoralDirectorsAssociation Withtheincreaseinamateurchoirs,thenumbersofchoralconductorsgrew.In 1960,theJapanChoralDirectorsAssociationwasfoundedbyaboutseventypeople who lived in Tokyo and nearby areas. Osamu Shimizu was appointed to be the director of the organization. The purpose of the foundation was to cultivate friendship among choral conductors, to study choral technique, and to secure financial protection for conductors. In 1962, however, the association disbanded becausethegroupwasunabletoestablishaunionwhichcouldprovidesecurityfor conductors. 46 In 1963, the Japan Choral Directors Association was reorganized and on October27 th in1964atthetokyobunkakaikan(culturehall),ageneralmeeting washeld.thefollowingsaregoalslistedintheminutes: 1. Todrawupacontractforchoirs; 2. Toprovidejobsformembers; 3. Toassistmembersduringillnessandinjuries; 4. Tocultivatefriendshipamongmembers; 5. Toprovideopportunitiesfortechnicalexchangeandforstudy; 6. Toexpandtheorganization; 7. Todootherthingstheorganizationdeemednecessary. Membership cost five8hundred yen (four and a half dollars). Kinji Sassa was 45 HistoryofAllBranches, The40 th AnniversaryBook(Kyoto:Saiko8do,1987), OsamuShimizu, AbouttheChoralDirectorsAssociation, Gasshokai5,no.5(1961),

31 inducted as the director, and twelve board members were appointed to lead the forty8onemembers.thegrouppassedthefollowingresolution: We, as choral conductors, banded together and established this association to promote wholesome choral music, to improve our social status,andtoprotectourlives.hereafter,wewilltriumphoveradversity andproceedtooperatemusicalactivitiessmoothly. 47 Asof2006,theyhaveonehundredninety8sixmemberswhoarealsomembersofthe JapanChoralAssociation. TheUtagoeUndo(SingingMovement) In 1945, right after the war, Akiko Seki founded the Minna no Utau Kai (SingingCircleforEveryone)andlaunchedtheSingingMovementasapartofthe labormovement.in1947,sekiorganizedthechuogasshodan(thecentralchoir) andtrainedtheleaders.thegoalofthemovementwastoprotectthelivesoflabors, farmers,youngpeople,andwomenandtosupportdemocracyandpeace.thechoir sang labor and revolutionary songs primarily in unison. The song book which containedthesongsthechoirused,seinen8ka8shu(songsforyouth),becameabest seller in In 1950, the trained leaders organized five hundred singing circles nationwide, and in 1951 the singing circles built a music center. In 1955, Seki organized the Japan Singing Festival at the Tokyo International Stadium and mobilized forty thousand people. In December, Seki received the Stalin Peace Prize. 48 In 1957, the Singing Movement organized a choral festival, and it continuestobeheld. The Singing Movement attracted people who were not able to read music or who lacked of confidence about their singing voices. Through the choirs musically untrainedpeoplecouldsingandmakefriends.thesingingmovementspreadacross 47 TheFoundationoftheJapanChoralDirectorsAssocation, Gasshokai7,no.12(1963): KureoIwasaki, AkikoSeki, Gasshokai7,no.8(1962),

32 thenation.isobecommentsthatitopenedthegateforpeoplewhowantedtosing. 49 KimurastatesthattheincreaseofcompanychoirsintheAllJapanChoralLeague wastheresultofthesingingmovement sinfluence.shimizuclaimsthatthesinging Movement and the All Japan Choral League were two important streams for the amateurchoralmovementafterthewar. 50 Theysharecomposersandconductors andhavecontinuedtodeveloptogetheryethavemaintainedtheirownidentity. 23 TheFoundationofProfessionalChoirs The firstprofessional choir, the JOBK Song Group(later Osaka Radio Choir) wasfoundedin1938.itwasafemalechoir.in1944,duringthewar,thenhk(japan BroadcastingCorporation)foundedtheTokyoRadioChoir.Kusakabestatesthatthe mostchoralactivities,however,startedinamateurchoirsafterthewarandthatthe gleeclubsandcompanychoirsstoodoutmorethanprofessionalchoirs. 51 In1945,a women choral group was founded by the Nagoya branch of the NHK. Their performances were broadcast on the radio every Sunday morning. The repertoire consistedoffolksongsfrom allovertheworld,andthebroadcastspopularizedthe chorus sound. In 1952, a male choir, the Tokyo Choraliers, and Nikikai Opera Chorus were founded. In 1953, a women choir, the Ferris Women s Chorus was established. In 1956, Nobuaki Tanaka founded the Tokyo Philharmonic Chorus, whichconsistsofvoicemajoralumniofthetokyonationaluniversityoffinearts and Music. Their foundation created a sensation since they were the first private professionalchoirwithoutasponsor.in1963,anumberofsingersleftthechoirasa resultofinternaltroubleandfoundedanewchoir,thenisshoacademychorus.both choirs have continued to be active as outstanding professional choirs. 52 Their activitiesservenotonlytointroducechoralmusicbutalsotoencouragedeveloping thelevelofamateurchoirs.miyoshiprovidesthreereasonswhychorusesflourished 49ToshiIsobe, ToLoveChoralMusic, Gasshokai3,no.11(1959),20. 50OsamuShimizu, TheAllJapanChorusLeagueandSingingMovement, Gasshokai9,no. 4(1965), YoshihikoKusakabe, TheTransitionofProfessionalChoirs, Gasshokai9,no.4(1965): OsamuShimizu, ProfessionalChoirs, Gasshokai9,no.4(1965):32833.

33 after the war: 1. The foundation of professional choirs; 2. The appearance of outstanding composers; and 3. The organization of festivals and competitions. He notesthatitbecameeasierforthecomposerstowritepiecesforprofessionalchoirs whosesingershadtheabilitytosingwideranges,andthattheprofessionalchoirs became a model for amateur choirs. Tanaka adds that professional choirs commissioned pieces for their original repertoire and that amateur choir then learnedthepiecesandperformedthem. 53 Therefore,theappearanceofprofessional choirsmadeagreatimpactonamateurchoirsandtheirdevelopment. 24 JapaneseChoralCompositions In the beginning of the twentieth century, Rentaro Taki( ) went to Germany to study piano and composition. The female vocal duet with a piano accompaniment,cherryblossoms(hana)composedbytaki,wasthefirstjapanese choralpiecewritten. Itspopularitycontinuestoday.Althoughhediedattheageof twenty8four,heleftmanysongswhicharestillpopular. After the war, more choral groups were organized and thus more Japanese choral pieces were in demand. The All Japan Choral League has commissioned pieces for their competitions since they were founded in Since around 1950, some amateur choirs have started to commission pieces for their concerts. The composers have been encouraged to write Japanese choral pieces. One of the most notable composers is Osamu Shimizu( ), who was one of the founders of theajclin1948andthefourthpresidentoftheorganizationfrom1964to1970.he wrotemorethanfivehundredchoralpieces. 54 Hiscompositionsaredividedinto three genres:(1) original pieces,(2) pieces based on traditional folk songs and lullabies,and(3)songsforpraisingbuddha.shimizualsocomposedoperasbasedon thematerialsofkabuki(atraditionalplayactedbymales). 55 Hiscompositional 53KiyotatsuMiyoshi,andNobuakiTanaka. SearchingforOurOwnCompositions, Harmony18(1976), Yamamoto,The20 th AnniversaryBook, KoichiroSeki, ShimizuOsamu:ChoralWorks ;availablefrom

34 style, which combines modern Western and traditional Japanese music, has influenced many other composers. Shimizu became a president of the KAWAI publishing company in 1963 and actively published Japanese choral compositions. TheKAWAIpublishedeighty8fourchoralpiecesin1964.Japanesecomposed95%of thesepieces. 56 NobuakiTanakahasbeenresponsibleforsignificantcontributionsinJapanese choral compositions. He founded the professional choir, the Tokyo Philharmonic Chorus in 1956, and has asked composers to write Japanese choral pieces for his choir. The first assigned piece was A Song of Native Taiwanese by Shimizu in Tanaka organized the concert Commissioned Works by Japanese Composers in The pieces Michio Mamiya s Composition for Chorus and Hikaru Hayashi Give Me Water from Scenes from Hiroshima resulted from his project.tanakaalsoheldaseriesofconcertstitled JapaneseChoralCompositions by Japanese Folk Music on October 26, on November 11 and 21 in Tanaka asked thirty8one Japanese composers to write Japanese folk choral pieces for the concerts. The purpose of the series was to stimulate composers production and to find a new and/or better way for them to write. Bartók, Kodály, and Poulenc, who had collected their own countries folk music and created choral compositions from the music, influenced the design of the project. The theme was How should we arrange Japanese folk tune to Japanese choral music which would be recognized internationally? 58 Ishimaru claims that the level of Japanese choral society advancedremarkablyasaresultofthejapanesechoralcompositionsforwhichthe TokyoPhilharmonicChoruswasresponsible. 59 AccordingtoShimizu,theincreaseof demanding choral compositions based on Japanese folk music encouraged the Japanese people to understand and appreciate their culture. The works used the language and music of Japan and, as a result, he notes, were pleasing to the 56KaneoYamamoto, HistoryofJapaneseChoralCompositions, Gasshokai9,no.4(1965), Tanaka,Harmony18,4. 58 ChoralCompositionsbyFolkMusicforThreeNights, Gasshokai4,no.11(1960), KanIshimaru, JapaneseProfessionalChoirsandTheirAccomplishment, Gasshokai8, no.11(1964),37. 25

35 Japanesepeople. 60 Spirituals Along with Japanese folk music, amateur choirs favored spirituals and sang them in their concerts after the war. The glee clubs of American mission schools, especially the Kwansei Gakuin Glee Club, had performed spirituals such as Steel Away, Swing Low Swing Chariot, Look Away to Heaven, and Oh Mary, Don t You Weepsincebeforethewar.Duringthewar,althoughsinginginEnglishwasbanned, BattleofJerichoandKeepintheMiddleoftheRoadweretranslatedintoJapanese and sung under the titles of Kakashi(scarecrow) and Momotaro(the name of a boy in a fairy tale). While Japan was occupied by American forces right after the war,americanculturewasintroduced.in1953,thewingsoverjordanchoircame tojapanandmadeastrongimpactonjapaneseaudience.soonafter,in1954,the De Paur Chorus coming to Japan; their visit also contributed to the popularity of spirituals. Many university men s glee clubs began to sing spirituals even two Buddhist university choirs in Kyoto, although they sang the songs as labor songs because of their religious beliefs. Spiritual songs were incorporated into the repertoire of men s glee clubs, and the songs, arranged by De Paur, are still sung today. 61 TheFoundationoftheJapanBoys ChorusLeague After the war, the Ministry of Education decided that children should be trainedtosingusingtheheadvoiceinsteadofthenaturalvoice.in1951,shinichi HasegawafoundedtheBoysChoirofTokyo.Hestatesthatheorganizedthechoirto singchurchmusicandhisgoalwastotraintheboystomaketechnicallycorrectpure soundusingheadvoice. 62 Thechoirwasoutstanding,andtheiractivitiessuchas recording,performingonradioandtv,andholdingnationwideconcertsencouraged 60OsamuShimizu, ChoralCompositionsofJapaneseFolkMusic, Gasshokai8,no.2 (1964), NegroSpiritual:TheMysteriousAttraction, Gasshokai7,no.4(1963), ShinichiHasegawa, Boys ChoirsinJapan, Gasshokai3,no.4(1959),23. 26