The Pennsylvania State University. The Graduate School. School of Music GENDER ASSOCIATION OF MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS: AN INVESTIGATION OF THE GRADE

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1 The Pennsylvania State University The Graduate School School of Music GENDER ASSOCIATION OF MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS: AN INVESTIGATION OF THE GRADE STUDENTS HAVE DEVELOPED MUSICAL INSTRUMENT GENDER ASSOCIATIONS A Master s Paper By Angelique M. Knecht 2009 Angelique M. Knecht Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Music in Music Education August 2009

2 ii I grant The Pennsylvania State University the nonexclusive right to use this work for the University s own purposes and to make single copies of the work available to the public on a not-for-profit basis if copies are not otherwise available. Angelique M. Knecht

3 iii We approve the master s paper of Angelique M. Knecht Linda Thornton, Ph.D. Associate Professor of Music Education Master s Paper Adviser Joanne Rutkowski, Ph.D. Professor of Music Education Second Reader

4 iv The Master s paper of Angelique M. Knecht was review and approved * by the following: Linda Thornton, Ph. D. Associate Professor of Music Education Master s Paper Adviser Joanne Rutkowski, Ph. D. Professor of Music Education Second Reader * Signatures are on file in the School of Music

5 v ABSTRACT It is possible that a young boy likes the sound of the flute, is excited at the possibility of learning to play it, but will not choose the instrument because the flute is gender-stereotyped as feminine. Further, the young girl who is excited by the prospect of playing drums will not choose the instrument because drums are gender-stereotyped as masculine. Past research has shown musical instruments are gender-stereotyped as masculine or feminine which can directly affect a student s choice of instrument to study. This association seems to have been made before fourth grade, a common age to select instruments and begin instrumental study. Appropriate instrument selection can be a significant factor in a student s decision to continue participation in band or orchestra programs. Research outside the area of music has shown that students begin to develop ideas about gender roles as early as age five, but it has not been determined if gender associations toward musical instruments begins at that same time. The purpose of this research was to examine at what age students begin to develop gender associations, or gender-stereotypes, toward musical instruments. Participants in this research included Kindergarten through third grade students from a moderately sized school district in Lancaster County, PA. The procedure consisted of the subjects viewing a short Power Point video presenting a series of eight basic beginning band instruments, in both a visual-only condition and an aural-only condition, and completing a survey. In general, significant differences were found in this study between Kindergarten and third grade students, as well as first and third grade students suggesting that the older the students (grade level), the more gender-neutral their views of the musical instruments. Additionally, the results of this study provided evidence that presentation mode (visual or aural) has an effect on young students gender associations of musical instruments. In this study, the

6 vi subjects had more gender-association of the instruments when they heard an audio example versus when seeing a visual example of the instruments. Finally, Kindergarten and first grade students at the Title I elementary school demonstrated significantly stronger gender associations toward instruments than the students in the same grades at the higher-socio-economic school. Further research is warranted to examine gender associations of instruments of young children more thoroughly.

7 vii TABLE OF CONTENTS SIGNATORY PAGE... iii ABSTRACT... iv TABLE OF CONTENTS... vi LIST OF TABLES... viii LIST OF FIGURES... ix ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS... x Chapter I INTRODUCTION... 1 Research Questions... 4 Limitations... 4 Definitions... 5 Chapter II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE... 6 Introduction... 6 Gender Stereotying of Musical Instruments... 6 Influences, Models, and Demonstration Methods Gender Stereotypes, Psychological Sex Type and Social Role Theory Conclusion Chapter III METHODOLOGY Participants Study Description Power Point Presentation Survey Instrument Procedures Data Collection Data Analysis Chapter IV RESULTS Introduction Percentages Tests of Significance Conclusion Chapter V SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION Summary Research Question Research Question

8 viii Research Question Research Question Discussion of Results Implications for Teaching Implications for Future Research Conclusions REFERENCES APPENDICES Appendix A: Visual Survey Appendix B: Aural Survey Appendix C: Permission Request Letter to School District Appendix D: Parent/Guardian Informed Consent Letter Appendix E: Assent and Power Point Presentation Script... 85

9 ix LIST OF TABLES Table 3.1 Distribution of Sample from Elementary School A Table 3.2 Distribution of Sample from Elementary School B Table 4.1 Overall Percentages Visual and Aural Presentations Table 4.2 Overall Percentages Males Table 4.3 Overall Percentages Females Table 4.4 Overall Percentages by Grade Visual Table 4.5 Overall Percentages by Grade Aural Table 4.6 Elementary School A Percentages Table 4.7 Elementary School B Percentages Table 4.8 Elementary School A Percentages Males Table 4.9 Elementary School A Percentages Females Table 4.10 Elementary School B Percentages Males Table 4.11 Elementary School B Percentages Females Table 4.12 Descriptive Statistics Table 4.13 Test of Within-Subjects Effects Table 4.14 Test of Between-Subjects Effects Table 4.15 Multiple Comparisons... 59

10 x LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. Interaction between School and Grade for Presentation A (Visual) Figure 2. Interaction Between School and Grade for Presentation B (Aural)... 61

11 xi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First I would like to thank my husband for his continuous support throughout this education process. Although I was already well into the Master s degree program at Penn State University by the time Ray and I met and then married, he was here for the long process of completing this research paper. We both knew this was the final requirement for my degree and would require a large amount of my free time in order to complete it. His patience and encouragement were invaluable throughout the endeavor. Next I must thank my parents, Alfred and FayAnn Knecht, for their constant encouragement, support, and guidance throughout this process and really my entire life. I was the first person on my mother s side of the family to graduate college, and now I will be the first person on both sides to obtain a Master s degree. I could never have achieved these goals without their support and encouragement. They ALWAYS believe in me and my career as a music teacher and they have ALWAYS seen my potential. My undergraduate years at Penn State were full of a lot of life challenges. Many things a person should never have to deal with let alone at such a young age and while attending college. These challenges made me a better person the person I am today. But it was also the encouragement from some of the music education faculty during this trying time that helped me succeed. One of those faculty members was Dr. Joanne Rutkowski. It was also because of her that I entered into the Master s program at Penn State. She pushed me to strive for more with my education, and when my classes were complete and my oral exams passed, she kept me on task to complete this research paper. Dr. Rutkowski continues to persuade me to strive for more with my education and now I hope to continue on for a Doctoral degree. Thanks Dr. R! Finally, and perhaps most of all, I would like to thank Dr. Linda Thornton. Throughout the entire process of the Master s program and this research paper, she has proven to be such an inspiration, source of encouragement and support, and a friend. I met Dr. Thornton during my first semester as a graduate student in a research class. It is because of her that I have found the joy that research can bring. She helped to make me believe in myself, believe that I could complete this paper, believe that my opinions and thoughts about gender in the world of music education are legitimate, and that continuing study for a Doctoral degree is certainly something I am capable of. Her support while completing this research paper has truly been invaluable. Dr. Thornton has been so patient throughout this entire process, answering every question I had or I sent. Her knowledge about research is astounding and inspiring. I honestly consider Dr. Thornton my professional idol. My most sincere gratitude and appreciation to you Dr. T!

12 1 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION It is possible that a young boy likes the sound of the flute, is excited at the possibility of learning to play it, but will not choose the instrument because the flute is gender-stereotyped as feminine. On the opposite end of the spectrum, the young girl who is excited by the prospect of playing drums of will not choose the instrument because drums are gender-stereotyped as masculine. Research has shown musical instruments are gender-stereotyped as masculine or feminine and those stereotypes can influence a students choice of instrument to study (Boulton & O Neill, 1996). Instrument selection can directly affect longevity of participation; therefore it is worthy to look at how gender stereotyping may influence initial instrument selection. In many school district instrumental band programs, students are initially approached during fourth or fifth grade about choosing to play the band instrument most appealing to them. Research has shown several factors that impact a student s decision of which instrument to learn to play. Fourtney, Boyle, and DeCarbo (1993) investigated what middle school band students report to be influences on their instrument choice. Their instrument survey included the following as potential influences: parents, friends, elementary/middle school music teachers, other classroom teachers, timbre of the instrument, television, cost, size, and availability of the instrument. The results revealed that 51% of the participants reported sound (timbre) of the instrument to be the most influential factor. Boulton and O Neill (1996) conducted similar research using factors that can affect students decisions such as timbre of the instrument, family involvement,

13 2 peer influence, social context, teacher influence, and even images on television. They found one of the most influential factors on a student s decision is actually the genderstereotype of an instrument. The first study to look at gender association, or gender stereotyping, of instruments was conducted by Abeles and Porter (1978). They investigated the musical instrument preferences of elementary through college-aged students. The results suggested that musical instrument gender associations are widespread throughout all age groups. Generally woodwind instruments were regarded as feminine and brass and percussion instruments were regarded as masculine. When Cramer, Million, and Perreault (2002) conducted research similar to the Abeles and Porter study, they found that, 24 years later, this trend had remained consistent. As a child matures, society imposes the ideas of their psychological sex type on them through media, education, parental influence, etc. (Lips, 2005). These ideas are often based on the physical sex type the child exhibits, in other words, being categorized as male or female. Once the child is categorized, or labeled, s/he feels obligated to live by social roles of that gender. Social roles are roles a person is expected to play in a society that highlight the expectations for different [gender]. Gender stereotypes are shaped by the unequal distribution of men and women into the different social roles (Cramer, Million, & Perreault, 2002, p ). Social roles may carry over to a student s decision of which instrument to study. There are children who psychologically do not think gender-typed but rather think gender-neutral, or often referred to as gender-androgynous children. These children seem to allow themselves to freely choose any instrument they prefer, regardless of the gender

14 3 label attached to it. Sinsel, Dixon, and Blades-Zeller (1997) suggested that exposure to a variety of models of instrumental performers on gender-opposite or gender-neutral instruments will encourage the androgynous idea towards musical instruments, possibly changing the perceptions of traditional instrument stereotypes. Researchers have indicated that students do indeed have instrument gender associations when approached to start an instrument in fourth or fifth grade, but have not identified the exact age or grade that gender association towards musical, specifically band, instruments begins to appear. Ideally music teachers would want to target children before the gender categories are understood, exposing them to the musical instruments when students have no gender association to attach to them. A majority of the research completed about instrument selection clusters around ideas for music teachers to deter/change gender-stereotyping and the influences that contribute to it. Perhaps music teachers can encourage genderneutral instrument associations by providing a variety of musical performer models to children prior to the development of gender associations. However, Maccoby (1988) found once children understand gender categories in general, they are extremely resistant to change (Boulton & O Neill, 1996). Research outside the area of music has shown that students begin to develop ideas about gender roles as early as age five. It has not been determined if gender associations towards musical instruments begins at the same time. Therefore, the purpose of this research was to examine at what specific grade students begin to develop gender associations, or gender-stereotypes, towards musical instruments. The investigation was guided by the following research questions:

15 4 1) At what specific grade do students begin to develop gender associations, or gender-stereotypes, towards musical instruments? 2) Is there a difference between the grade when girls begin to develop gender associations compared to when boys begin to develop gender associations? 3) Does timbre play a role in gender associations toward musical instruments? 4) Is there a difference between elementary schools that differ socioeconomically? Limitations This study was limited to children in two elementary schools within the chosen school district, due to the availability of the researcher, general music teachers at each school, and scheduling. The maturation of the students may pose a limitation, as the younger students (Kindergarten & first grade) may not understand the directions for completing the survey. Additionally, the participating students may not have been equally familiar with all of the band instruments presented in the study. Although the general music curriculum is consistent throughout the district, the implementation of the material may have varied between the two elementary schools, as each building has their own general music teacher. Finally, it is possible that the participants may not have been completely honest with their responses on the survey, or they may have copied answers from their neighbor s survey paper.

16 5 Definitions The following definitions clarify how terms were used throughout this paper: Gender association/gender-stereotype/sex-stereotype these terms are used interchangeably throughout this study. All refer to a specific gender (male or female) being assigned to or associated with something. Same/Opposite-gendered Instruments these terms refer to the gender of the musician in relation to the gender assigned to the musical instrument. An example of a same-gendered instrument would be: a male playing the tuba. The tuba is generally gender-stereotyped as masculine and the musician playing it is male. An example of an opposite-gendered instrument would be: a female playing the drums. The drums are generally gender-stereotyped as masculine and the musician playing them is female. Gender-neutral this term refers to instruments regarded as able to be played by either females or males. It can also refer to the psychological sex-type of someone meaning they do not view anything as being specifically for females or males solely.

17 6 CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE Research has shown that gender-stereotyping, or gender association, of instruments is evident among children and that it can influence their choice of instrument to study. The research discussed below describes theories about how students, elementary through college age, view the gender of various instruments. In addition, the research examines these attitudes and determines if there has been a change in students views since the first study completed by Abeles and Porter (1978). Recreations of their study, along with new types of research studies, determine what instruments are considered most feminine/masculine, whether boys or girls should play certain instruments, if the player is regarded as masculine/feminine based on the instrument they choose to play, and if the gender of the presenter of instruments plays a role in the students decision. Gender Stereotyping of Musical Instruments Harold Abeles and Susan Yank Porter conducted the initial study that looked at gender stereotyping of musical instruments. The series of four studies examined sex stereotyping in both adults and children and the possible causes for that type of behavior. Most studies examining gender issues towards musical instruments reference the Abeles and Porter study for their research. This review explores the studies conducted by Abeles and Porter, as well as articles that have replicated that study in more recent years. Abeles & Porter (1978). The design of this series of four studies was to investigate the parameters of instrumental sex-stereotyping in adults and children, as well as attempting to identify possible causes for musical instrument sex-stereotyping

18 7 behavior. Study One investigated adult musical instrument preferences for children. Participants were 149 adults, ages 19-52, chosen from public school and church-related activities. Each person was given a survey to indicate sex, age, and pervious instrumental music training. The survey continued by presenting the hypothetical situation that the participant s son/daughter expressed interest in learning to play a musical instrument. The survey stated the eight instruments offered in the school were: cello, clarinet, drums, flute, saxophone, trombone, trumpet, and violin. Participants were asked to rank in order of preference three instruments for their child to learn. The results indicated that respondents preferred clarinet, flute, and violin for their daughters, and drums, trombone, and trumpet for their sons (p. 67). Study Two used a paired-comparison strategy to place the eight instruments under investigation on a masculine-feminine continuum. Participants included 32 college music majors and 26 college non-music majors. Using the eight instruments from Study One, the form given to these participants listed all possible pairs. For each of the pairs, participants were to circle which they considered to be the most masculine. The results indicated the flute, violin, and clarinet rated as being the most feminine and the drums, trombone and trumpet the most masculine. These results are in agreement with those found in Study One. Study Three investigated the musical instrument gender associations of Kindergarten through fifth grade students. A total 598 students from three schools completed a survey of instrumental preferences. The same eight instruments from the aforementioned studies were used. In order to ensure each student was familiar with those instruments, both visual and aural material was prepared. The visual elements were

19 8 large, cardboard pictures of the instruments with only a number to identify them. The aural element was a recording of each instrument playing an excerpt from the same composition, in both the normal playing range of the instrument and a range centering around C. As the aural example played, an administrator walked around the room holding the picture. After all eight instruments were heard, students were asked to circle the instrument (name and picture were provided) they would most like to play if given the opportunity. The results of this study showed significant differences in the sexstereotyping of instruments. This was due to the main effects of sex and grade, and sex by grade interaction. The significant grade effect occurs between the average of the primary (K, 1, 2) grades and the average of the intermediate (3, 4, 5) grades, suggesting sex-stereotyping is more pronounced in children beyond third grade. Study Four examined three procedures for presenting the instruments to preschool children in order to find one possible cause for the increase in sex-stereotyping behavior in musical instrument preference. Forty-seven children ages three through five were randomly assigned to groups. Group I was presented with the eight instruments from the RCA record Instruments of the Orchestra while being shown the pictures described in Study Three. Group II was shown the eight instruments using the method described in Study Three. Group III heard recorded excerpts from the Bowmar Meet the Instruments and saw the pictures included with this kit, showing children playing several of the instruments. As each instrument was presented, the children were asked to point to it on their answer sheets. At the conclusion of the presentation of instruments, the children were asked to circle the instrument they preferred. The results are not significant due to the main effects of group and sex, but this study did find that girls were generally not

20 9 affected by the mode of presentation, however boys responded differently in the control group versus the experimental groups. Griswold & Chroback (1981). This investigation was designed to extend the scope of the Abeles and Porter (1978) study by including more instruments, an instrumental and choral conductor category, and to further explore sex-stereotyping as a function of gender and college major. Participants included both music majors and nonmusic majors for a total of 50 female and 39 male undergraduate college-aged students. Of the females, 25 were music majors and 25 non-majors, and of the males, 15 were music majors and 24 non-majors. The test instrument was a 10-point Lykert-type scale anchored on the words masculine and feminine. Each participant was asked to circle the number that represented the degree to which the instrument, or occupation, was associated with masculine or feminine attributes. Undergraduates, regardless of their sex, associated gender with the names of certain music instruments and occupations, in a manner consistent with the Abeles and Porter (1978) study. The harp was rated as having the most feminine connotations followed by flute, piccolo, glockenspiel, cello, choral conductor, clarinet, piano, French horn, and oboe. The names guitar, cymbals, instrumental conductor, saxophone, bass drum, trumpet, string bass, and tuba were rated as having masculine connotations (p. 58). However, music majors and non-majors associated gender differently with the names of the instruments tested. Researchers found that music majors tend to sexstereotype in the masculine direction. They offer the explanation that music majors have a closer exposure to music occupations, and therefore have a better vantage point to see

21 10 sex-role distinctions among musicians and music educators and adopt these as social norms. Delzell & Leppla (1992). This research involved two studies. Study I was conducted to measure changes in gender associations of music instruments. A group of college music majors enrolled in a music history course and a group of college non-music majors enrolled in an Introduction to Music course completed a survey of musical instruments. The survey consisted of paired comparisons of eight instruments including: flute, clarinet, saxophone, trumpet, trombone, drums, violin, and cello. These instruments were used because they are commonly played by beginning band students, and the results could be directly compared with that of the Abeles and Porter (1978) study. Participants were asked to consider each pairing of instrument names and decide which one they considered more masculine. The results showed that the rank order of the instruments on the continuum remains the same as was found in the Abeles and Porter study. Study II was conducted: a) to estimate current preferences for selected instruments; b) to investigate the reasons expresses by students for preferring or not preferring instruments; and c) to allow comparisons between students perceptions of their peers preferences to the actual choices their peers made (p. 97). Participants were 254 female and 272 male fourth grade students from 13 elementary schools in six school districts. The study consisted of a survey in four parts. Part 1 was an instrument familiarity quiz; Part 2 students answered questions related to demographics and musical background; Part 3 students indicated which of the eight instruments would be their first, second, and last choice to play along with the reasons for their choices; and Part 4 students considered 28 pairs of instruments and indicated which of each pair would be

22 11 more preferred. The results for Part 1 show that drums were identified correctly by the most students, followed by violin, flute, saxophone, trumpet, trombone, clarinet, and cello. The results for Part 2 show that preferences in comparison to the Abeles and Porter (1978) study have changed significantly. The highest preferences of boys were towards drums or saxophone and of girls were towards flute, drums, saxophone and clarinet. Contrary to perceived gender associations, flute was the fourth most popular choice for boys and drums the second most popular choice for girls (p. 98). Part 3 results exhibit participants highest reasons for wanting to play a certain instrument were It s awesome or I like it. The highest reasons for not wanting to play a certain instrument were The instrument is too difficult to play or not fun to play. Finally looking at Part 4, the results show that perceptions regarding the preferred instrument of boys had a moderately strong relationship to the actual choices boys made. However, the girls were less accurate stating they thought the flute would be the least popular for boys (actually placed fourth) and the drums would be least popular for girls (actually placed second). The researchers found that the magnitude of gender associations appears to have lessened since the 1978 Abeles and Porter study; however, such associations are still noticeably present (p. 100). Zervoudakes & Tanur (1994). The purpose of this study was to gather and report some nationwide data on who actually plays which instruments. The researchers asked, whether gender segregation (the tendency of young people of different genders to play different instruments) differs over educational levels and if there have been changes in segregation over time (p. 61). Six hundred institutions were sampled: 200 elementary schools, 200 high schools and 200 colleges and universities from all 50 states. The study

23 12 included four elementary and high schools, and up to four universities from each state. Letters were sent requesting programs for band and orchestra performances from the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s, for a maximum of six programs from each school. The overall response rate was only 29%, because many elementary and high schools had no band or orchestra, and many with those performing groups kept no files of their programs. Players of instruments were gender-coded by first name, which posed several problems: some names could be used for either sex; others were misspelled and unidentifiable; and others had origins in non-english speaking cultures. The results indicated, on average, the proportion of female students playing female instruments is higher within younger educational levels, suggesting a deficit in the proportion of female students playing male instruments at this education level. The researchers believed that their data is useful because it seems to be the first study to attempt to collect data from a broader sample than a single school or school system. Summary. Researchers often replicate previous studies to find if the results of the initial study still hold true for current times. It was not that long ago that the groundbreaking study by Abeles and Porter (1978) was conducted, but enough time has elapsed that replications of this study are necessary. With this elapse of time, one would speculate that changes have occurred regarding gender association behaviors of adults and children. The articles reviewed in this section provide an indication that gender associations appear to be lessening. However, it is not significant enough to dissolve the behavior; as such associations are still present.

24 13 Influences, Models, and Demonstration Methods A number of studies have examined the origins of students ideas of gender association towards musical instruments. Influences can include: family involvement, peer pressure, social contexts, teacher influence, or images on television. Another factor that might influence a student s gender association are the instrumental models to which they are exposed. Exposure to performers on same gendered instruments may reinforce the gender association, but increased exposure to performers on opposite gendered, or gender neutral instruments may help to decrease these ideas. Finally influences could be coming from the general music classrooms and the way these teachers are presenting the instruments to their students. Careful attention has to be paid to the pictures that are used. For example, is a person playing the instrument or is the instrument pictured alone? This review explores research concerning the topics of external influence and demonstration methods and their affects on instrumental selection. Fourtney, Boyle, and DeCarbo (1993). This study investigated what middle school band students report to be influences on their instrument choices. Additionally, the researchers examined the response difference according to gender and instrument. Sixth, seventh, eighth, and ninth grade students from 12 schools participated for a total of 990 band students. The students reflected considerable ethnic and socioeconomic diversity. The survey included both closed and open response items soliciting background information regarding instrument music experiences, gender, grade level, and family members instrumental music experience. In addition, the survey asked respondents to rate the influence of 11 factors on their choice of a band instrument, as

25 14 well as indicate (if given free choice) which instrument they would like to play and why, and which they would least like to play and why. A large portion of the sample played clarinet, trumpet/cornet, saxophone, flute, or percussion. Essentially the sample reflected strong gender associations; females mostly played woodwinds, males mostly played brass and percussion. Saxophone was the exception to the gender/instrument family association pattern as most players were male. The sound of the instrument was reported to be the most influential factor for 51% of respondents; however people influences (middle school music teacher, friends, parents) were also reported to be important factors. More than half of the respondents indicated another family member played an instrument, although it was usually a sibling or someone other than a mother/father. There were few differences between males/females regarding influences on instrument selection. With the exception of the saxophone, the sample reflected gender bias toward certain instruments and instrument families supporting previous research by Abeles & Porter. Fourtney, et al. further state, The clear-cut gender/instrument associations tend to suggest strong socio-cultural influences on instrument choices; however the strength and pervasiveness of such influences are difficult to ascertain (p. 39). Harrison and O Neill (2000). This study investigated the influence of exposure to counter gender-stereotypic role models on children s gender-typed preferences for six musical instruments (piano, trumpet, violin, drums, guitar, flute). Additionally the study aims to further the understanding of why seven to eight year-old children exhibit preferences for certain instruments and the extent to which these preferences are related to their gender stereotyped associations of those instruments (p. 82). Participants were

26 students, ages seven and eight years old, who were attending 12 junior schools in England. This particular age group was targeted because the majority of children had not yet participated in formal instrumental music instruction, however within the next year they would be given the opportunity to begin learning an instrument at school. Individual interviews were conducted with each student asking about their previous experience of playing an instrument. Then given the pictures of six pre-selected instruments and a sound example they were asked what instrument they would like to play. The six instruments used in this study were selected because they were found in previous studies to have strong gender-stereotyped associations with slightly older students. Participants ranked the instruments in order from the one they would least like to play to the one they would most like to play. Immediately after they ranked the instruments, the students were asked to classify each instrument as whether boys, girls, or both boys and girls would play each instrument. If a student placed any instruments in the both boys and girls would play category, they were asked to then divide them into either boys would play or girls would play (p. 84). Two weeks after the interviews participants were shown a live concert. The schools were randomly assigned to three clusters: cluster 1 received concerts played by gender-consistent role models, cluster 2 received concerts played by genderinconsistent role models, and cluster 3 received concerts after the study had concluded. Immediately following the concerts, the children returned to their classrooms and their instrument preferences were assessed using the same measure as in the interview. When asked to select any instrument they would like to play, girls most preferred instruments were piano, flute, violin, and recorder. Conversely, boys most preferred

27 16 were guitar, drums, trumpet, and keyboard. These results basically confirm previous studies that females tend to prefer feminine instruments and males masculine instruments. The research did find that boys and girls have clear ideas about which instruments would be played by either sex showing over 50% of female participants indicating boys would play trumpet and drums and girls would play flute; nearly 50% of male participants stating that boys would play trumpet, drums and guitar and girls would play the flute. When looking at their first and last choice instruments, the data show that more participants of both sexes considered that their most preferred instrument would be played by the same-sex children. Investigating the influence of exposure to counterstereotypic role models playing gender related instruments in the concerts, the results indicated influence. Girls indicated less preference for the piano after observing a male pianist, whereas boys indicated less preference for guitar after they had seen a female musician playing the instrument (p. 92). Overall, clear differences exist in this age groups preferences for musical instruments, and the gender-stereotyped associations of instruments are closely related to their preferences for specific instruments (p. 95). Byo (1991). The purpose of this study was to test the effects of three conditions of musical instrument demonstration on preferences for musical instruments by third grade children. A main concern was to identify whether children could be induced through bias demonstration to respond more favorably toward a less preferred instrument. Participants in this study were 76 children in a private school from three intact third grade music classes, each serving as a group for each of the three conditions. The pretest for each of the groups was the same, where an investigator presented large photos of six beginning band instruments as part of the regularly scheduled music class. The

28 17 instruments included: flute, clarinet, alto saxophone, trumpet, trombone, and snare drum. During the presentation, the investigator also gave descriptive information about each instrument with the goal being to familiarize the participants with the names and appearance of each instrument. Participants were then given an answer sheet with a picture and the name of each instrument and were told to circle their first choice of instrument they would like to play and place a number one inside the circle. Then considering the remaining instruments, choose which they would like to play and put a number two inside the circle, continuing with this process until all six instruments were numbered. Approximately seven weeks after the pretest, the three demonstration conditions were administered. Group I was given a demonstration that was biased in favor of the clarinet, where this instrument was assembled for the group, parts were named, range was exhibited, and familiar tunes were played. Group II was given an unbiased demonstration where each of the instruments was given equal time and stress like the clarinet received in Group I. Group III was the control group which received no treatment and were simply shown the photos and given a description again. The results indicate third grade students preferences for beginning band instruments before the treatments were similar across all three groups. However, the posttest results showed no significant agreement among the group rankings. In fact participants did not place instruments in the same, or even similar, orders. When examining the possible gender associations of the musical instruments, the results showed that a high percentage of females preferred the flute and a high percentage of males disliked the flute; a higher percentage of females preferred the clarinet versus the males; a

29 18 higher percentage of males favored the saxophone; the trumpet was found to be a neutral instrument; the trombone was regarded with a low preference by both genders; and the drums were highly favored by the males. An interesting result of this study was that the first choice instrument overall for males was the alto saxophone and for females it was the snare drum. The results of this study are in contrast to previous research that investigated gender preferences of students towards musical instruments. A possible explanation for this finding is this is a more current study; therefore the association of a specific gender with a specific instrument could be diminishing. Summary. The concept of gender association, or gender stereotyping, towards musical instruments is a learned behavior. Children are not born with the idea that woodwind instruments should be played by girls or brass and percussion instruments should be played by boys. Therefore it is necessary for researchers to examine where students are forming the idea of gender association. It would be nearly impossible to narrow down all possible influences that affect a student s decision towards musical instruments, but most research list the same categories: family, peers, music and classroom teachers, timbre of the instrument, social context, images on television, and of course gender-stereotype of the instrument. In addition there is interest in the demonstration methods that students are exposed to and if this will affect their choice of instrument. The findings report that generally girls are not affected by the demonstration mode, but boys will respond differently based on how the instruments are presented. More importantly, the research has revealed the most influential factor in determining a student s choice of what instrument to study is the gender-stereotype of the instrument.

30 19 Gender Stereotypes, Psychological Sex Type and Social Role Theory When exploring gender association of instruments, one has to first understand that people have a psychological sex type to which they feel they should conform. This idea coincides with the understanding of Social Role Theory which states social roles are roles a person is expected to play in a society that highlight the expectations for different [genders]. Gender stereotypes are shaped by the unequal distribution of men and women into the different social roles (Cramer, Million, and Perreault, 2002, p ). This review explores the research completed in the area of gender stereotyping, social role theory, and psychological sex type. The researchers first looked outside the area of music to understand these concepts, then applied them to the area of music and the gender association of musical instruments. Boulton & O Neill (1996). The purpose of this study was to investigate children s preferences for learning to play musical instruments and the extent to which boys and girls preferences are based on the gender stereotyped associations that have been found in previous studies. The researchers investigated whether the divide in terms of girls and boys preferences for particular musical instruments remains as strong as was found to be the case in previous studies, or whether this trend appeared to be changing. One-hundred-fifty-three participants between 9-11 years old were chosen from three junior high schools as previous research has shown gender stereotyping of musical instruments is likely to be well established by this age. Individual interviews were performed with the children, consisting of 60 main items. Participants were asked whether or not they were learning to play an instrument, were shown an array of six instruments (without performers) and asked to identify each one. Then participants were

31 20 asked to rank order the instruments from the one they would most like to learn to play through the one they would least like to learn to play. Later in the interview, participants were asked if any of the six instruments should or should not be played by girls/boys, respectively. The instrument group consisted of instruments previously found in studies to be viewed as: feminine (flute and violin), masculine (drums and trumpet), and two that were featured less often in previous studies (piano and guitar). The results of the study suggest that differences continue to exist in the types of instruments preferred by boys and girls and that gender stereotyped associations of musical instruments appears to be a critical factor in children s preferences for particular instruments (pp ). The researchers findings indicate that little has changed since the Abeles and Porter study (1978) in regard to girls indicating greater interest in feminine instruments and boys in masculine instruments. The authors found the results disappointing given that there has been some success in the effort within schools to change children s view on activities regarded as for one specific gender or the other. Their results suggest that a positive change had not taken place with respect to girls and boys preferences for musical instruments. Sinsel, Dixon, Jr., & Blades-Zeller (1997). The purpose of this study was to investigate relationships between children s psychological sex type and children s mostpreferred and least-preferred musical instruments. Assuming that psychological sex type contributes to instrument preferences, the researchers hypothesized that feminine sextyped children would prefer instruments perceived as fitting within a feminine stereotype, and vise versa for masculine sex-typed. Participants included 64 female and 44 male fourth and fifth grade students from six intact fourth grade and two intact fifth grade

32 21 classes at two elementary schools. Each student completed a survey assessing basic information about gender and grade, then were given the short form of the Children s Sex Role Inventory to categorize them in terms of their degree of masculinity, femininity, and androgyny. Next, students completed a survey assessing their most and least preferred musical instruments. A sound sample was provided for nine instruments in a random order coupled with a picture of each instrument to which students were asked to select the instrument he/she most preferred and the one they least preferred. The results of the study provide further support for the idea that children have strong beliefs with respect to the gender appropriateness of certain musical instruments. Additionally the study demonstrated that preferences based on biological sex alone do not tell all, as the primary determinant of children s musical instrument preferences was psychological sex type. Results suggest that androgynous children are more egalitarian in their instrument preferences than are either masculine or feminine children (p. 399). The majority of androgynous children preferred neutral instruments most and sex-typed least, implying that they may be generally rejecting sex-role stereotypes. Overall, androgynous children were more flexible in their instrument choices and sex-typed children were much more restricted (p. 399). The researchers suggested that student exposure to a variety of models of instrumental performers might change their perceptions of traditional music instrument stereotypes. Cramer, Million, & Perreault (2002). This study investigated college students evaluations of fictitious male or female musicians playing either a masculine (drum and tuba) or feminine (flute and harp) instrument. Students were asked their impressions of each of the four fictitious musicians according to masculine, feminine, or gender-neutral

33 22 descriptors. Forty-eight male and 48 female students age years, were assessed on their sex role orientation and then asked to provide their perceptions of a make playing tuba, a male playing a flute, a female playing a harp, and a female playing drums (p. 168). A second questionnaire assessed male and female participants judgments of each of the four musician-instrument combinations. Results of the masculine descriptors showed that musicians who played masculine instruments were perceived as higher in dominance and leadership. Overall, musicians who played feminine instruments were judged as more caring, sensitive, warm and better adjusted than musicians who played masculine instruments. In addition, female musicians were judged to be more dominant, active and stronger leaders than male musicians. It should be noted that results showed that regardless of participant gender and the covaried personality measures, judgments of male and female musicians depended on the instrument they played. For example, for feminine instruments, males were judged significantly more harshly than females; specifically that males playing feminine instruments were perceived as less dominant and active and had less leadership skills than females playing the identical instruments (p. 171). The findings outline the social perceptions of others based on the instruments they chose. Summary. When exploring research focusing on gender associations of musical instruments it is important to understand the concept of psychological sex type. As a child matures, society imposes on them the ideas of their psychological sex type, which often is based on the physical sex type they exhibit. The research reviewed in this section determined that even though children have been labeled male or female, their psychological sex type can actually be androgynous. These are the children who actually

34 23 allow themselves to choose from any of the instruments offered in their school instrumental programs. Researchers suggest that music teachers should encourage this belief among all students by exposing them to a variety of models of instrumental performers. These performers should ideally be on opposite-gendered or gender-neutral instruments. This exposure might help to change the student s perception on traditional instrument stereotypes. Conclusion Research has consistently shown that overall the flute is regarded as the most feminine instrument to play and the tuba or drums the most masculine instruments to play. In most studies the most gender-neutral instrument was the saxophone. In addition, it can be stated that woodwind and string instruments are generally regarded as feminine and brass and percussion instruments are generally regarded as masculine. This trend has been relatively consistent from the first study conducted by Abeles and Porter (1978) through a more recent study by Cramer, Million, and Perreault (2002). The research has also shown that gender association affects students as early as third grade, which is important since most school students are approached in the start of fourth grade about choosing a musical instrument to study. If students are showing gender associations this early and already having conceptions of which gender should play which instruments, it may directly influence their decision of instrument to study. Research by Byo (1991), Harrison and O Neill (2000), et al. has shown that a biased presentation toward a certain instrument, a performer on the same/opposite/neutral-gendered instruments, or photographs of children playing the same gendered instrument all affect a student s decision of what instrument to study.