CHALLENGES FACING THE ADOPTION OF DIGITAL MIGRATION FOR AFRICAN COUNTRIES (CASE STUDY OF COMMUNICATION COMMISSION OF KENYA)

Transcription

1 CHALLENGES FACING THE ADOPTION OF DIGITAL MIGRATION FOR AFRICAN COUNTRIES (CASE STUDY OF COMMUNICATION COMMISSION OF KENYA) SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE FINAL YEAR RESEARCH PROJECT OF THE

2 DECLARATION This submitted Research Proposal is my creative work and consecutively has not been offered for examination at any other University. REG NO: Declaration by the Supervisor This research proposal will be submitted for Examination with my approval as University supervisor Name: Sign: Date: i

3 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT This proposal is much a success through the support got from my friends as well as my friends who have continued encouraged me as I undertake it. Most importantly, I would like to thank my parents and sister who were always there to motivate me. I would also like to thank my close friends at Mt. Kenya University for being around to discuss my ideas and giving me emotional support when I was stressed undertaking the project. Lastly, I would like to thank the academic and library staff at Mt. Kenya University for their support throughout this year with research materials. ii

4 DEDICATION I dedicate this project proposal to the Almighty God for his plentiful blessings for the duration of that I was undertaking the project proposal. Moreover my family members especially my parents for their moral and financial support that they have extended to me throughout my studies. I am heartily thankful to my supervisor, whose encouragement, guidance and support from the initial to the final level has enabled me to develop an understanding of the subject. Lastly, I offer my regards and blessings to all of those who supported me including my fellow students through their encouragement during the completion of the proposal. iii

5 ABSTRACT Digital broadcasting is certain to aid in realizing the utilization of digital rather than analogue waveforms to carry broadcasts over assigned radio frequency bands. Through digital broadcasting, sound and pictures are processed electronically and converted into digital format. This format is then transmitted and reconverted by appropriate receivers or set-top boxes into sound and TV programs. The main focus of the migration process is the Digital Terrestrial Television (DTT). There is an increasing emphasis on countries in the third world to migrate from the analogue transmission towards digital transmission. The reason why Kenya must migrate is because the Regional Radio Conference (RRC) meeting of 2006 set 17th June 2015 as the deadline for all countries in the planning area (comprising of Africa, Europe, Russia and Iran) to migrate to digital terrestrial broadcasting technologies. It is, therefore, mandatory for all countries in the said planning area to migrate to digital terrestrial television broadcasting technology. Notably, TV and radio signals have been broadcast on an analogue platform since their inception. It is of significance to understand that analogue television requires a large amount of bandwidth to transmit the picture and sound information; hence the main reason for the world s migration to digital, is to release valuable spectrum which can be used for wireless, public safety and other services. All countries in the world must migrate to digital by June 2015 iv

6 according to an international agreement reached in Geneva in Countries in East Africa agreed upon a target date of Dec 2012 which has since been moved by other countries except Tanzania which has already implemented the digital broadcasting. This work is a study of the various processes along with challenges in the digital migration, generally and with CCK Kenya as a case, thereby defining the appropriate strategy to convert the current analogue broadcasting of TV and radio signals to Digital migration. Kenya is currently using the analogue broadcasting after the extension of the initial deadline of December 2012 as a result of the general election that were to take place in March v

7 TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION... i ACKNOWLEDGEMENT... ii DEDICATION... iii ABSTRACT... iv TABLE OF CONTENTS... ii LIST OF TABLES... iii LIST OF FIGURES... iiii CHAPTER ONE Introduction Background to the study History of the organization Statement of the Problem Objectives of the study General objective Research questions Significance of the study... 8 ii

8 1.6 Scope of the study Key Words:... 9 CHAPTER TWO...11 LITERATURE REVIEW Introduction Analog Transmission Digital Transmission Operation of a Set Top Box The Broadcast Value Chain Digital Migration: An Answer to What Problem? Is Kenya And Africa Right To Implement Digital Migration At Their Pace The Digital Migration Regulatory Environment The Policy and Regulatory Issues around TV Digital Migration The Technological Environment The Economic Issues ii

9 References Table 3.1 Target population LIST OF TABLES Table 3.2 Sample size Table 4.2 Gender response Table 4.3 Education level Table 4.4 Kenyans level of understanding digital migration Table 4.5 Government role iii

10 LISTS OF FIGURES Figure 4.2 Gender response Figure 4.3 Education level Figure 4.4 Kenyans level of understanding digital migration Figure 4.5 Government role iv

11 CHAPTER ONE 1.0 Introduction Migration from analogue to digital broadcasting refers the process in which the analogue TV broadcasting services are converted to and replaced by digital television broadcasting. At the end of migration usually carried over a specified period, the analogue broadcasting services are eventually broadcast in digital format while the analogue transmitters are switched off. Analogue and digital transmission differ in the way the information is carried from the source to the receiver. In simple terms, in analogue broadcasting the signal is in the form of a continuous wave, whereas digital is in the form of discrete bits of information. In digital, the signal is encoded and can be compressed to allow for more channels to be broadcast. For instance eight new standard definition TV (SDTV) programs can be provided in the same frequency channel as one analogue TV channel. For instance, viewers of digital television will have a wide choice of enhancements to regular programming. Enhancements are separate channels of video, data or audio, which are related to the program on the primary channel. Sporting events will offer the choice of different camera angles, action replays, player profiles or other information. Across a range of programming, digital viewers will have a choice to select more information related to the regular program - product information, recipes, news background and much more. In addition, if a sports event 1

12 overlaps with news, digital viewers may be offered the opportunity to watch the regularly scheduled news bulletin or the completion of the event on a separate channel. The technology being introduced has the capability for one to maneuver around the programs you want to watch by using an interface called conditional access. However, conditional access will not apply on free-to-air channels. However, some of the features of set top boxes include parental control in which case certain channels can be programmed to be accessible only by inputting a password using the remote control. Regarding the issue of inappropriate content, the CCK will issue a programming code for broadcasters which upon publication, shall be the basis of content regulation. Once in force, free to air broadcasters will have to adhere to its provisions and action will be taken against those flouting the code. 1.1 Background to the study. This year, Kenya will migrate its four million analogue TV viewers to the digital platform. The switch over is the culmination of a journey that started in 2006, during the World Radio Conference in which all countries of the world agreed to adopt digital TV broadcasting by Subsequently, the Ministry of Information and Communications set up the Digital Television Committee (DTC) to spearhead the implementation and to advise the Government on the migration process. The DTC is made up of representatives from the Ministry of Information and 2

13 Communications, Kenya Broadcasting Corporation, private broadcasters, National Communications Secretariat and the ICT sector regulator - the Communications Commission of Kenya. One of its first tasks was to advise the Government on the appropriate digital technology, which led to the adoption of the DVB T standard that the public broadcaster, KBC, subsequently used to deploy the digital platform in Nairobi and its environs. In 2010, the Government resolved to upgrade to the DVB T2 standard, which has better spectral efficiency. KBC subsequently upgraded its digital platform to the DVB T2 standard, which is now available in Nairobi and its environs. Most regions of the country are expected to be covered before the end of this year. As alluded to above, digital TV broadcasting is poised to offer higher spectrum efficiency, better picture quality and clearer sound. As a result, more broadcasting channels will be available, offering more choice to consumers, interactivity and access to electronic programming guides (EPG), games, etc. To fast-track deployment of the digital signal, CCK has already opened up its distribution to competition. As a result, the Pan African Networks Group Kenya Ltd was awarded a signal distribution license in October 2011 through a competitive tender process. An additional player will be licensed through a competitive bidding process targeting the national level in order to promote local participation in this strategic sector. Digital broadcasting will move Kenya towards 3

14 establishing a more equitable, just and people-centered information society. The spectrum freed as a result of the migration shall be re-planned and re-assigned to the ICT industry to support the ever-increasing need for wireless communication services. The migration process has had its fair share of challenges. While the DVB T2 platform is ready, compliant set top boxes are yet to be available in the market. To overcome this challenge, the Commission has, on behalf of the Government, called on the private sector to import the set boxes. To increase consumer awareness of the benefits of digital TV broadcasting, CCK will soon launch a public awareness campaign. Migration to digital TV broadcasting offers an opportunity for the growth of the creative industry in Kenya. With more TV channels, the market for content creation will grow by leaps and bounds, thus creating many opportunities. There is also good news for pay TV broadcast content service providers as the Kenyan model provides for their accommodation on the digital platform. The platform will be more useful when we have a collage of free-to-air, pay television and a whole variety of content providers to ensure consumers enjoy the benefits of migration by way of new, exciting and fresh programme content. As Kenyans are known to have a very rich appetite for what is Kenyan, we as an industry have no choice but to work towards taking advantage of this predisposition to capture the local market as well as the export one. Kenya's overall approach is to ensure that there is adequate 4

15 sensitization in order to keep an open and all inclusive path as we traverse the intricate space between public interest and investments in the sector. The trick is to ensure complementary efforts of training, low cost of terminal equipment (particularly set top boxes), and continuous public awareness campaigns so that all can benefit from the new era of broadcasting. The Digital Migration workshop by the African Media Initiative in collaboration with the United States Telecommunications Training Institute comes at an opportune moment as we wait to learn from the successes and challenges of other regions. The introduction of the signal distribution market segment is a milestone for the broadcasting industry in Kenya as it has reduced barriers to entry. With the burden of infrastructure roll out now being shouldered by signal distributors, broadcasters can focus their investment and energy on the less strenuous endeavors of studio set up and content creation History of the organization The Communications Commission of Kenya (CCK) is the regulatory authority for the communications sector in Kenya. Established in 1999 by the Kenya Communications Act (KCA) No. 2 of 1998, CCK s initial mandate was regulation of the telecommunications and postal/courier sub-sectors, and the management of the country s radiofrequency spectrum. In recognition of the rapid changes and developments in technology which have blurred the traditional distinctions between telecommunications, Information Technology (IT) and 5

16 broadcasting, the Government in January 2009 enacted the Kenya Communications (Amendment) Act This statute enhanced the regulatory scope and jurisdiction of CCK, and effectively transformed it to a converged regulator. CCK is now responsible for facilitating the development of the information and communications sectors (including broadcasting, multimedia, telecommunications and postal services) and electronic commerce. This responsibility entails: a) Licensing all systems and services in the communications industry, including telecommunications, postal/courier and broadcasting. b) Managing the country s frequency spectrum and numbering resources, c) Facilitating the development of e-commerce. d) Type approving/accepting communications equipment meant for use in the country e) Protecting consumer rights within the communications environment. f) Managing competition in the sector to ensure a level playing ground for all players, g) Regulating retail and wholesale tariffs for communications services. 6

17 h) Managing the Universal Access Fund i) Monitoring the activities of licensees to enforce compliance with the license terms and conditions as well as the law. 1.2 Statement of the Problem The switch over from analogue transmission to digital transmission is the culmination of a journey that started in 2006, during the World Radio Conference in which all countries of the world agreed to adopt digital TV broadcasting by Subsequently, the Ministry of Information and Communications set up the Digital Television Committee (DTC) to spearhead the implementation and to advise the Government on the migration process. Subsequently, in understanding analogue and digital transmission; we note that they differ in the way the information is carried from the source to the receiver. In simple terms, in analogue broadcasting the signal is in the form of a continuous wave, whereas digital is in the form of discrete bits of information. Moreover, in digital, the signal is encoded and can be compressed to allow for more channels to be broadcast. Hence following this the government of Kenya wishes to be compliant with the switch over as well as ensuring that the citizens have access to a more variety as well as more clearer signals on their channels. 7

18 1.3 Objectives of the study The study is an effort of identifying challenges in the digital migration, generally and with CCK as a case, thereby defining the appropriate strategy to migrate to the digital transmission in a smooth manner General objective The objective of this study is to determine the challenges that are affecting digital migration in Kenya as a state. 1.4 Research questions Why must Kenya migrate and what is the timetable for the migration in Kenya? What are program enhancements and the advantages of Digital Broadcasting? What is the level of awareness among ordinary folks and are there plans for campaigns to further entrench the idea of digital migration among all Kenyans? Will the average Kenyan be left behind the digital migration? Why are Kenyans enthusiastic about the shift from analogue to digital TV? 1.5 Significance of the study With the migration to digital TV broadcasting, there arises an opportunity for the growth of the creative industry in Kenya, where there will be more TV channels, the market for content 8

19 creation will grow by leaps and bounds, thus creating many opportunities. There is also good news for pay TV broadcast content service providers as the Kenyan model provides for their accommodation on the digital platform. The platform will be more useful when we have a collage of free-to-air, pay television and a whole variety of content providers to ensure consumers enjoy the benefits of migration by way of new, exciting and fresh programme content. Through conducting the study, there arises the platform to evaluate the various ways through which the consumers will benefit from the migration as well as looking at the way the various task forces that are set up will be maneuvering over the implementation of the migration with the deadline looming. 1.6 Scope of the study The study will focus on the factors with regards to digital migration that is being adopted in Kenya and other countries in Africa. With the increasing globalization, digital migration has become an important approach, and is to effectively and efficiently deliver better signals. With this the challenges that come up with digital migration are likely to be seen all round. 1.7 Key Words: Digital Broadcasting; is the practice of using digital data rather than analogue waveforms to carry broadcasts over television channels or assigned radio frequency bands. 9

20 TV; a telecommunication medium for transmitting and receiving moving images that can be monochrome (black-and-white) or colored, with or without accompanying sound. Digital Terrestrial Television (DDT); is the technological evolution of broadcast television and an advancement of analog television. 10

21 CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.0 Introduction The main purpose of the digital migration from analogue is to ensure that all analog services will be replicated on the digital networks with the aim of switching off the analog services at a specific point in time. While the migration process is applicable to both television and radio broadcasting services, this paper addresses the main issues concerning transitioning of television broadcasting and radio which are both critical. Although satellite broadcasting systems exist, the terrestrial broadcasting networks continue to be the primary delivery systems for television and radio broadcasting services, and in the terrestrial broadcasting services, the analog broadcasting systems require significant radio frequency spectrum which is a finite resource (Jared Baraza, 2009). Digital broadcasting systems, besides other attributes, are meant to improve the issue of radio spectrum which is a scarce resource, through the use of modulation and compression to transmit video, audio and data signals to the receiver sets or consumer access devices by digital radio transmitters broadcasting programs such as music, news, sports and so on. 11

22 2.1 Analog Transmission In the Regional Radio Communications Conferences (RRC) of 2004 (RRC-04) and 2006 (RRC- 06), ITU developed a digital terrestrial broadcasting plan. The Geneva 2006 (GE06) Agreement that resulted from RRC-06 set the switch-over date for analog to digital broadcasting to June 2015 when all countries party to the agreement must have migrated from analog to digital transmission. Therefore, Kenya developed a digital broadcasting plan in which the Ministry of Information and Communication Technology, constituted a broadcasting group in accordance with the international decision to move from analog to digital terrestrial broadcasting by 2012 as the switch over date which has since been moved to September 2013 (Baraza, 2009). In analog broadcasting, the transmission method of conveying voice, data, image, signal or video information uses a continuous signal which varies in amplitude, phase, or some other property in proportion to that of a variable. It could be the transfer of an analog source signal using an analog in modulation method such as FM or AM, or where modulation is not done at all. In Kenya, most of the air interface transmission is analog, broadcasting radio and television stations have cameras, that pick up scenes, this can be DVCAMS, video tape recorders, magnetic players, humanistic players, video and audio mixers. The recorders used in the field, content players and other studio equipment are digital while beyond the studio towards the air interface, transmission 12

23 is analog, hence the need for a sync process to stabilize pictures [Huawei, 2010]. The studio then sends signals to a satellite uplink system through a signal input point; it is beamed on the carrier, it is encoded, compressed, multiplexed and amplified using TWT (Travelling Wave Tube) amplifiers. It is then converted to VHF (Very High Frequency) of about 7 GHz and it is beamed to the satellite - Intelsat 906 on transponder 11, a link that belongs to KBC but shall be shared with other broadcasters after digitization. By satellite, the signal can then be down-linked to several distribution stations across the country which is normally transmitted at a frequency of 4 GHz over line of sight due to the high frequency (Baraza, 2009). 2.2 Digital Transmission Digital broadcasting explains the physical transfer of data in digital bit stream over a point-to-point, point-to-multipoint transmission medium or multi point to multipoint in discrete levels. This can be over media such as copper wire, optical fiber, wireless communication media, and storage media. In digital video transmission, the cameras, recorders and studio equipment are digital. In addition, digital files are smaller compared to analog due to more sophisticated compression techniques. A digital signal is a discontinuous signal that changes from one state to another in discrete steps (Jared Baraza, 2009). The main push factor for network operators migrating to digital is the efficiency of bandwidth and its associated increase in service provision 13

24 and service quality. In the digital system, one frequency is able to carry about 12 channels; where by the 12 channels can broadcast 12 different images/ messages at a given time unlike in the analog system where one frequency would be broadcasting a single message. Until the 1990s, broadcasting was mainly a matter of transferring sound or video streams through the airwaves or in some developed countries, through cable as well by means of analogue signals. This was a linear process, with each element in the content stream taking its turn to transmit behind the one that went before it. This worked well enough, except for one thing: it required a lot of bandwidth, i.e. a lot of capacity was taken up on wireless electronic frequencies in order to carry signals in this manner. The knock-on effect of this was that in the realm of the airwaves, this meant that only a limited number of stations could be accommodated on the radio spectrum. A radio frequency like FM would, for instance, be available for use by a single analogue radio station. Other frequencies were often unsuitable for audio transmission, or were better used for TV or cellular telephony, or were reserved for military communications. According to a study conducted by (Baraza, 2009), in TV, which uses UHF and VHF frequencies, it was the same story: one station, one frequency. With limited frequencies, the effect was a limit to the number of stations. Much of this changed with the advent of digital electronics. These technologies meant that sound and video, as well as text and still images, 14

25 could be stored and transmitted in the form of binary digits. These one s and zero s correspond to on-off electrical pulses. It is easy to see the advantages this has for migration electronic communication: i) First, there is a common currency audio, pictures, text are all reduced to binary data. That s why software programs can change the size of text just by applying a mathematical formula to the foundation data. It s why music can be represented as rhythmic images, and why software can automatically read written text out loud in audio form. ii) Second, digital compression also means that data can be broken up into in many separate and simultaneous packets. These packets can be re-assembled in the right order according to the code instructions at the destination. Thus, there s a torrent of small signals of data bits that are unleashed through the system simultaneously, instead of being in the form of stitched-together and sequenced messages that have to wait their turn in a linear queue. By contrast, the old analogue flow wasted bandwidth with pauses and blank spaces between electronic data signals. In other words, digital distribution gives us much greater efficiencies in the use of bandwidth. 15

26 iii) Thirdly, the significance of all this for broadcasting is that, many more radio and TV channels can be squeezed into the exact same frequency space than is possible under analogue transmission. For instance, a digitized signal can allow for up to ten TV channels (standard definition) to be broadcast, whereas a single analogue channel would require the whole frequency. For this to happen, several streams of broadcast content have to be combined into the single signal, in a process known as Multiplexing. The space freed-up by switching to digital transmission is known as the digital dividend and it means that some of the vacated bandwidth can be used for other purposes. iv) Successively, what digital also makes technically possible is flexible use of the airwaves; for instance, a TV broadcaster can decide to increase the compression and quality of most of its TV channels for a particular event, so as to make some extra space available for a bandwidth-hungry High Definition (HD) broadcast of that specific occasion. Technically, the same TV broadcaster could also run radio services at certain times of the day on the Multiplex, and switch to TV or data streams at others. In this way, digital broadcasting allows for channels within channels. What also merits mentioning is that most cases of digital migration do not mean that analogue transmissions whether TV or radio cease one day and digital broadcasting begins the next. There is typically a lengthy overlap envisaged. This is because a long process is needed in which 16

27 broadcasters, signal distributors, regulators, manufacturers, governments and the public align themselves so that the digital transition will work successfully. This is especially acute on the consumer side, where millions of people are saddled with analogue sets that were never designed to receive digital signals directly. Until a threshold of public uptake is reached during a transitional period, it is not possible to reach the final moment of digital switch over, where the analogue transmissions are turned off and the digital dividend can be released for other purposes (John, Burgess 2003). To have a premature analogue switch-off would leave millions without access to broadcasting. 2.3 Operation of a Set Top Box When a signal is received, one needs a digital receiver set to receive the digital signal that will be shown on the screen or a set top box that will receive the digital signal and convert to analog displayable on local television sets. Digital architecture physically separates channel decoding, which is access network dependent from source coding, which is access network independent. According to (Guy Berger, 2010), the separation is enhanced using a Serial Bus Fire wire which supports both delay sensitive and non-real time traffic by deploying isochronous and asynchronous services, which is sent to the TV appliance. However, the cable to be used depends on the interfaces provided on the TV set. Old CRT TVs have audio/video (AV) input ports and do 17

28 not cater for fire wire cables, or even may have only RF input used for connecting local antennas creating the need for an extra device known as a Radio Frequency (RF) modulator. A set top box is a device which will be required by viewers to convert the digital signals onto their analog televisions. Between a set top box and the TV set is an IEEE 1394 High Performance Serial Bus fire wire - which caters for both non-delay tolerant and non-real time traffic through its isochronous and asynchronous services (David Banks, 1997). 2.4 The Broadcast Value Chain As already noted, transmitting of broadcast content is a central element in a wider chain of broadcast communication. But it has a relation to what happens before and after transmission. First, there is the prior or simultaneous process of production often drawing on content that has been stored or archived. All this needs to be in digital format or, alternatively, convertible into digital signals capable of digital dissemination over the airwaves. Second, the sense for shifting to digital transmission only makes sense if there is also a digital reception, or conversion to analogue reception, at the end stage of consumption. This is not only the receipt of content by the audience, but also affects its possible fixation recording or storage and its re-use. As regards the stage of TV and even radio broadcast production, many stations in Africa have already been moving away from analogue systems; for example, leaving behind linear tape-based editing and storage and even where the tape was digital, it was still nevertheless 18

29 linear. This transition has been in favor of bringing in computerized newsgathering, editing and archiving on a hard drive or flash drive digital basis (Guy Berger, 2010). Newer stations have even started life with this technology. However, as stressed above, achieving or having digital production, as important as it is, does not amount to digital migration. The phrase must also cover movement in signal distribution and in how audiences receive and use broadcast content. If the end destinations of digital distribution cannot be reached, the whole transition process is meaningless. In fact, digital production is quite compatible with analogue transmission and reception, as happens in much of Africa currently. The digitally generated content is converted back into analogue format for sending out on the airwaves for the reason that most signal distribution equipment and most receiving devices such as TV sets are still limited to analogue capabilities. It may be asked why this quest to free up the airwaves is relevant to Kenya and Africa in general. After all, this is a continent where TV broadcast industries are generally weak, and often don t even have enough quality content to fill up existing opportunities for analogue broadcasting. The answer is a harsh one: freeing up airwaves is actually not of urgent relevance in Africa. There is not a burning scarcity of frequencies on the continent. However, the driver of digital migration 19

30 internationally is not the conditions and needs in Africa. It is, instead, the way that developed country agendas impact on globalization, international regulation and aspirational trends. In due course, analogue transmissions will be switched off, which in turn will instantly make the TV sets owned by millions of viewers redundant, unless all of them have acquired a set-top box. Rather than forcing everyone to buy a whole new TV set, the transmitted digital content will for a long time still be converted back to analogue for consumption through this STB. This gadget needs to be manufactured or imported, and then promoted, marketed, distributed and acquired by viewers. But it s a lesser change than requiring the scrapping of most existing TV sets. With the box, consumers can continue to view broadcasting on the screens of their analogue TV sets. Eventually, viewers are likely to upgrade to digital-receiver capable TV sets, and at that point will have a range of benefits of not only getting, but also displaying and storing, signals that are digital. Without reaching that point, digital migration as a whole is not finally complete, although the signal transmission stage may be. 2.5 Digital Migration: An Answer to What Problem? As indicated above, driving digital migration is the agenda of the developed world and how this impacts on globalization and international regulation. The pressure on Kenya and African 20

31 countries to undergo and conclude TV digital migration is linked to a decision made at the United Nations agency, the International Telecommunications Union (ITU). The widespread understanding of this decision is somewhat erroneous, but it is that all African countries have to meet the deadline for finishing the process by The resolution on this apparent deadline was adopted in 2006 at a meeting referred to as the Regional Radio communications Conference (RRC-06), and agreed by 101 nations in Europe, Africa and the Middle East. As argued earlier, the decision was mainly in response to the interests of the European sector, because there is certainly no major pressure to free up airwave spectrum in Africa, and nor are there strong consumer electronics industries or consumer markets in African countries (Guy Berger, 2010). Backing the ITU decision on a timetable for digital migration is the accompanying decision that, after the defined cut-off date, this international organization will no longer intervene to protect a country s TV broadcast signals in any instances where these are being swamped by a neighbour s, unless those signals have been switched to digital. In reality, however, this issue of signal swamping or cross-border interference with signals is not a serious issue in most African countries. On the contrary, huge swathes of the Kenyan and African population still do not even receive TV broadcasting signals of any sort, or at best can pick up a single national TV channel. In other cases, African audiences welcome spill-over across borders, which may offer a little more choice (John, Burgess 2003). The point then is that African countries can probably still 21

32 continue analogue TV long after deadline without really any incurring serious disadvantages in terms of aggressive neighboring broadcasters bothering their national signal space. The few disputes that may occur will not necessarily even require ITU intervention to resolve. There are answers to the puzzle of why much of Africa is trying to move to complete DTT by 2015, when there is not a pressing matter of frequencies, when many are exempted from the ITU deadline, and when the consequences of missing the due date are minor anyway. Here are some of the reasons: 1. There is a grave lack of understanding about the First World character of the drivers behind the process, and their inapplicability to African conditions. 2. Reinforcing this is a susceptibility to succumb to global hype about digital benefits. 3. There is also a sense of paranoia about the continent falling further behind developments elsewhere, and an aspiration to keep up even when it does not make short-term strategic or economic sense. 4. Feeding all this are many consultancies and signal equipment manufacturers, who have a vested interest in digital transition happening sooner rather than later. 22

33 The effect of these factors on African decisions about the desirability and the deadlines for digital migration is evident in various statements and decisions by African actors. A 2008 study for the African Union on harmonizing policy and regulation on the continent suggests in its programme of action that there should be acceleration of migration from analogue to digital broadcasting systems. Significantly, this was without an elaboration of why envisaged benefits of this would outweigh the costs at this stage of the continent s evolution (Guy Berger, 2010). 2.6 Is Kenya And Africa Right To Implement Digital Migration At Their Pace According to a study conducted by (African Union, 2008), four objections are made to the argument that Kenya and Africa should go slowly on TV digital migration: a. Even if African broadcasters are not exactly clamoring for more TV channels, the pitch is sometimes made that digital migration of analogue will free up some spectrum for cellular telephony expansion and for wireless broadband. This argument is not without substance, but equally, in most of Africa, there is still ample space for these services to be deepened and cheapened within their existing spectrum allotment. b. Another argument in favor of a short deadline to digital switchover is that the shorter the time, the lower the cost of having to operate both analogue and digital signals over the 23

34 transition period. What this ignores, however, is that too short a timetable can also mean getting stuck on a standard that is being super ceded. c. Some people argue that completing digital migration for TV will free up some radiowave spectrum which governments could then sell through auctions thereby adding to state coffers. Such revenues, however, depend on investment and successful business prospects in utilizing the prospective airwaves, and there are question marks over these. In addition, any revenues would need to be balanced against the enormous costs incurred by the African state in reaching this point. d. It is also argued that existing analogue technologies for TV transmission are likely to become obsolete. This will indeed ultimately be the case. But at the same time, a lot of perfectly usable equipment has been made redundant in developed countries providing a wealth of second-hand spares and replacements for those countries that are biding their time. It may offend Kenyan pride to get hand me downs, but that would certainly be a viable lesser-cost strategy in the short-term than one of trying to play catch up. e. Delaying digital migration, in the view of some, is depriving audiences of extra TV offerings for them to choose from, but, as mentioned, the broadcasters can barely fulfil their current potential on analogue TV channels. Technically, more channels are available 24

35 on a digital signal; practically, who is going to supply and pay for the content unless no one cares about the source, quality, and agendas of programs on offer. Consecutively, the point being made here is that the merits of TV digital migration for Africa are not simple and clear-cut. The same financial resources going into the process could instead be allocated to other broadcast or digital access projects. These could include support for local content whether digital or analogue for community radio stations, or advancing satellite TV. They could go into promoting universal access and affordability to cellular telephony or wireless internet, or into linking up every school, clinic and community center through a mix of cable and satellite connectivity (John, Burgess 2003). To give Africans more and better video choices does not depend exclusively on TV digital migration. The choice is also not between digital TV and the analogue dark ages. There are many options to advance digital communications across many fronts, and no reason why digital TV transmission should get the lion s share of limited resources. 2.7 The Digital Migration Regulatory Environment Having made a decision to proceed with digital migration, governments have to begin moving to the stage of policy formulation. As will be argued later, the policy needs to avoid being a silo that 25

36 confines itself only to broadcasting, and thereby misses potential digital interfaces with the internet. To date, however, the silo approach has prevailed generally in Africa. It is critical to have policy attention to digital migration because of immensity of the change. An example here is that, because of the expense involved, it is unrealistic to expect the broadcast industry to take any serious steps towards DTT unless there is clear and specific government policy on the subject of migration. The same goes for signal distributors. Likewise, manufacturers and retailers will not act in terms of making or distributing set-top boxes until there is policy certainty around specifications and costs. Policy needs to set out a rationale and objectives for the transition, and deal with the diverse interests and actors involved, the resources required and responsibilities entailed, and the timeframe. There needs to be hard strategy arising from policy. For example, will government guarantee an initial order so as to stimulate the supply of set-top boxes? And how will these boxes be distributed? Can the government play a role, or is it only up to private sector retailers? Is there going to be a plan for e-government services via Digital Terrestrial Television? Will there be new compelling digital channels on air that will entice consumer uptake over time? If not, will a country face a disruptive stampede to acquire boxes just before switch-off because they don t want to lose their existing channels? Will there be a period where the information divide actually deepens because analogue TV transmission is terminated while many viewers have not acquired the STBs to keep watching on their existing analogue TV sets? In many cases around Africa, 26

37 there is neither policy formulation nor strategy. At best, some preliminary technical work is being done by a small team of officials confined within a particular ministry (Guy Berger, 2010). If broad-based policy development is critical to digital migration, this is partly because of the politics of who benefits, and who pays. Government decisions in this regard affect all the stakeholders the broadcasters, signal providers, technology companies, other media companies, content producers (like small independent production companies), audiences and taxpayers. And unlike the realm of the old broadcasting world, there are also now new stakeholders, sometimes with multiple roles e.g. a telecoms company in the businesses of both transmission and content. The time will eventually also come in Africa where there are many diverse claimants for the Digital Dividend any frequency that is freed up when the bandwidth-hungry analogue television is finally switched off. These will be not just broadcasters who, once strengthened, may want some space to run more channels, but also telecoms companies and internet service providers (ISPs). There are also entities with interests in data traffic, like banks, scientists, and the military. What this boils down to is the politics and processes around spectrum management, and who will cover costs and reap benefits from the digital migration. Besides all these issues and interests that are relevant to policy, one can also identify more immediate parties that have interests in digital migration. Content rights holders and their agents, many operating internationally, are vested in trying to ensure the transition does not enhance unauthorized use and reuse of broadcast content distributed in digital format. The migration is part of the reason why the World Intellectual Property Organization has been debating a possible new treaty on protection of broadcast signals from piracy, in the context of the digital age. The public themselves have a stake in the reallocation of frequencies, in that some users may want to see the airwaves put to use to allow for peer-to-peer use or community TV utilization. Parents 27

38 and NGOs may want restrictions on what they see as harmful content that could become available on broadcast in the new digital era The Policy and Regulatory Issues around TV Digital Migration The substance of government policy is critical to the shape and roll-out of digital migration. This is what decides if this costly process will be subsidized by the state or not, and whether such support will be at the stage of production, transmission or reception, or combination thereof. For instance, in the South African experience, policy decisions have been taken that public funds will subsidize the state-owned broadcaster SABC to digitize news-gathering (largely in the form of digital Outside Broadcast Vans) and editing equipment. This points to another policy decision on digital migration: setting the detailed timetable to switch-off. Generally, the period of parallel transmission of analogue and digital TV known as dual illumination puts extra pressures on the use of airwaves, and licensing of new TV broadcasters is accordingly suspended until the end of the period. Digital migration also needs a new frequency plan that re-allocates spectrum to the users during the transition, and after it. There are some TV broadcasters for whom a hard switchover makes sense; here, they switch direct from analogue to digital, usually where or once their viewers have access to digital receivers. 28

39 At stake in making policy on a timeframe for migration is a calculation of possible benefit. Thus, a long period of dual illumination gives retailers reasonable time to acquire and market set-top boxes and for consumers to decide to buy them. The same goes for disseminating digital-ready TV sets that can receive digital signals without needing a converter device. As time advances, so these items also reduce in price. But a long period of dual illumination also means running two sets of signals simultaneously, analogue and digital, which is expensive for the broadcasters. They would prefer a shorter time for dual illumination, but this risks the danger that consumers will not have adopted the technology by the time of desired switch-off. It is a complicated and interdependent matter for policy to anticipate: there s no point in policy wanting broadcasters to start digital transmission if there are not even set-top boxes in the market for the public to receive the new signals. On the other hand, the public has no incentive to buy boxes if there are no digital broadcasts. Digital migration policy should address the issue of who pays for the period of dual illumination, meaning the costs of dual transmission of the same station on two signal platforms (analogue and digital) rather than one. One of the policy stipulations that this often involves is granting broadcasters incentives rather than compensating them for extra costs. These incentives entail offering them extra licenses over above the ones which they are expected to migrate onto DTT. 29

40 The implication is that broadcasters will be able to recoup the extra costs over the transition period by making money through newly-added digital channels. For instance, a unique kind of incentive was offered in the UK for encouraging digital radio. In that case, FM radio stations which agreed to also broadcast on DAB were granted 12-year license extensions of their FM broadcast rights. This illustrates the complexity of radio migration: analogue audio broadcasting has been protected as a precondition for initiating new digital sound broadcasting. Policy choices also become important as to specifications of the set-top box, and the issue of what devices will be permitted for import or operation. The specifications for set-top boxes cover issues like Conditional Access (including user and broadcaster filter powers, Subscriber Management Systems (SMS) and Electronic Programme Guides (EPGs), which raise a lot of questions around control of broadcasting, including pay TV, encryption and piracy. Policy needs to acknowledge that many African broadcasters are partly donor-dependent, and competition for donor funds for digital transformation will be high. In this way, some stateowned broadcasters may be able to link two transitions: (a) reform away from being government broadcasters and becoming instead public service broadcasters, and (b) the change from being an analogue-only player to being a fully-fledged multiplatform broadcaster and media house. 30

41 Successful politics around digital migration policy result in compromises with wide benefits, and legitimated priorities. One thing is certain, however: digital migration is too complex an issue, with too many stakeholders, to be left solely in the hands of government. This is at least recognized by many governments, even those without any inclination towards embracing stakeholder participation. If participation proves itself in regard to improving policymaking on digital migration, this could perhaps help engender a pattern in the longer term for the way that governments develop policies on other communications issues; for instance, on broadband internet. 2.8 The Technological Environment Digital migration entails digitization of technology at the production, transmission, and reception stages of the value-chain of broadcasting. As indicated, the primary component is the transmission, which has the effect of freeing up the airwaves for additional broadcast (or other) channels. Transmission is a complicated matter, relating to the preparation of signals in a particular digital format for broadcast and there are several different standards in operation around the world. In Africa, digital television transmission is mainly based on the DVB family of standards, which have specific configurations for satellite, terrestrial, and for handheld devices like cellphones (African Union, 2008). Digital audio-only channels can be, and are, transmitted 31

42 on the DVB signals. However, there are also specially designed systems for digital audio broadcasting two of which are DAB and DRM (which refers to Digital Radio Mondiale, and is not to be confused with Digital Rights Management ). Slightly confusingly, DAB and DRM can also broadcast non-audio data in other words, images and text. In this way, there is a convergence possible whereby digital TV can also deliver digital radio, and digital radio can also blur into simulated TV. Notably, receiving a digital signal is dependent on the public having the technology to do so. Most people with televisions worldwide do not have digital-receivers in their sets, even if other components are digital; for instance, digital recording and storage of programs. This means that an intermediary device, namely the set-top box, is usually needed to receive the DTT signal and convert it for analogue display (Guy Berger, 2010). Moreover, Digital production has its own technology issues. Many African broadcasters are already advanced in terms of digitization in production and in particular in computer-based editing, although actual newsgathering in the field lags behind somewhat. 2.9 The Economic Issues Economics is partly about the balance between costs and benefits, and about which groups are affected in regard to the equation. The interests involved can be categorized into: business, consumer and government interests. Business interests want to get greater usage of especially TV 32