THE EVENT ARGUMENT and ARGUMENT INTRODUCERS: little v, and the Applicative Head λe <s,t> v Appl
OUR ROADMAP v Review of how little v came to be and its morphosyntactic fnction v The event argment v The high and low Applicative heads
Little v Refresher The Accsative Case-Assigner Brzio s Generalization: If a verb assigns accsative case, then it assigns an external θ-role. When a VP combines with a head that introdces an external argment, that head assigns accsative case to the internal argment of the verb. v Normal v: the accsative case assigner v The many flavors of v v-ergative v-dative v-genitive b/d have only an internal argment, which srfaces in the syntactic sbject position. a. She fired me. b. I was fired. (from Brzio 2000) c. They broke the window.(ex26) d. The window broke. (EX 2)
Refresher: Normal v s and Special v s Normal Special Icelandic 1. a. Við lásm bókina. we.nom read.1pl book.the.acc We read the book. (Sigrðsson 1996, Ex 14) -Normal v: assigns accsative to the object Gjarati 2. a. Sdha awy-i. Sdha(fem).Abs came-fem Sdha came. -Normal v: there s no object here b. Einm málfræðingi líkð þessar hgmyndir. one.dat lingist.dat liked.3pl these.nom ideas.nom.pl One lingist liked these ideas. (Sigrðsson and Holmberg 2008, EX 1) -Special v: assigns dative to the sbject b. Sdha-e radio khəridy-o. Sdha(fem)-Erg radio(masc).abs boght-masc Sdha boght a radio. (Woolford 2006, EX 38c/39) -Special v: assigns ergative to the sbject
English The stdents gave their professor a necklace. v and Ditransitives Icelandic Ég sendi Hildi fiskinn I. Nom sent.1sg Hildr.Dat.sg.fem. fish.the.acc.sg.masc. I sent Hildr the fish. Greek Mch more on ditransitives in a cople weeks. Dat/Gen Dat/Gen (Bonet 1991:182)
Kratzer s Primary Argments Argment/event strctre interacts with the syntactic strctre (contra previos proposals). Verb meanings are fnctions. The agent is not part of the meaning of a verb. The agent argment is introdced by a fnctional head that is higher than VP and lower than TP. The semantic operation Event Identification combines the agent with the VP.
A detor throgh Malagasy Hng 1988: In Malagasy, the agent is introdced by the prefix an that resides in a V head that is higher than the V head which hosts the verb. -an does two things: Introdces the sbject argment. Assigns case to the object ny lamba the clothes. This sonds a lot like v!!!
Kratzer arges that external argment-introdcing head in English is fnctional not lexical. The data argment: The head that introdces the external argment is not present in of gernds, so that head shold not be lexical. His rebilding of the barn took five months. Rebild is a V that is nominalized. The barn gets case from the preposition here. No Voice head no external argment. *He rebilding of the barn took five months. The theory argment: Strctral vs lexical case. Strctral case is assigned by fnctional heads. Strctral case: The normal/expected case. E.g. nominative on sbjects and accsative on objects. The fnctional head I/T assigns nominative the case on the object shold also come from a fnctional head. Lexical case: Cases that are determined by specific lexical items. E.g., prepositions in lots of langages German, Rssian, Icelandic determine the case of their objects. Back to English Fortnately, at the time, there was a fnctional head hanging arond jst waiting to be given more work to do.
Enter µ Johnson 1991: objects move to the specifier of VP and are assigned (accsative) case by µ. The verb moves and adjoins to µ. For Johnson, µ s sole fnction is case assignment. NOTE: At the time, it was assmed that case was assigned in a very local configration. Now, it is assmed that the case-assigning and the DP can be farther away in the strctre. p. 120 For Kratzer, µ has another role Having acqired semantic content, µ deserves a meaningfl name. I will call it VOICE. (p. 120)
The Compositional Operations Fnctional Application: This is the normal way of composing meaning. There is an open argment slot and the sister node satrates (provides the content for) that slot. Passing Up: When node doesn t have a sister, then the meaning of that node travels p to the next highest node. Event Identification: This operation combines the external argment with the event denoted in the VP. There is an agent and that agent is the agent of the event described in the VP. Event Identification makes it possible to chain together varios conditions for the event described by a sentence. (p.122)
Tense and the Event Argment v has to be higher than VP becase it relates the agent to the event denoted in the VP. v has to be lower than Tense becase the role of tense is to existentially qantify the event argment. There is at least one event <<s,t>, <s,t>> feed (the dog) & agent(mittie) & past: t e s.feed (the dog)(e) & agent(mittie)(e) & past(e) <s,t> λe.feed (the dog)(e) & agent(mittie)(e) <s,t> The meaning for past tense. (The * isn t relevant here.) There is some proposition (a state of affairs),λp, and there exists at least one event, e, sch that the proposition encodes the event and the event happened in the past. Tense combines with vp and the meaning of vp satrates λp. T = s e.feed (the dog)(e) & (agent)(mittie)(e) & past(e) <s,t> There is at least one event of feeding the dog and of which Mittie is the agent and which happened in the past. The real-world sitation(s) that maps to the sentence satrates e and we end p with the meaning of the sentence. TP = t
Mapping the event argment to events Three architects designed for bildings. Collective and Cmlative: total nmber of bildings designed is for. Collective: all three of the architects collaboratively design all for bildings. Cmlative: nderspecified as to how many architects design each bilding. Distribtive : there are twelve bildings; each architect designs for bildings. The events that the collective, cmlative, and distribtive interpretations map to are independent of the meaning delivered by the combination of the verb and the object. Collective: one event in which all three architects design for bildings. Distribtive: three events in which each architect designs for bildings. Cmlative: we don t know how many events there are. We jst know that some sbset of architects designed some sbset of bildings. Whatever the event is, it spplies the vale for the event argment within the TP projection. See Kratzer s chapters The Event Argment and the Semantics of Verbs posted on the Semantics Archive for mch more detailed discssion of qantifying over events. http://semanticsarchive.net/archive/gu1nwm4z/
Voice was proposed in order to bild into the syntax the semantic observation that verbs have an asymmetric relationship with objects verss sbjects. Objects have a closer relationship with the verb and the compositional meaning of the verb pls its object select for the sbject. The sbject is external to the meaning of the verb. Voice bilds on µ, which was proposed (by a syntactician) as the accsative case-assigner. Kratzer proposes Event Identification, which combines the external argment with the denotation of the VP. In contemporary theory, Kratzer s voice is often represented as v and voice is sed to encode other kinds of information. There are many v s in contemporary theory. V-ergative/dative/genitive all introdce an argment into the strctre and they assign case to that DP. The tense head combines with vp and the event argment is satrated at the TP level. INTERIM SUMMARY (1)
Some Practice Part 1. Draw a tree which incldes both type theory and lambda notation p to TP. Yo can triangle the DPs and label them as type e. 1. Three architects designed for bildings. 2. The professor wore a new necklace. 3. The exhasted athletes sleep. 4. The ice melted. Part 2. For these trees, jst do type theory. NOTE: Think careflly. Yo will have to propose types for some words. 5. Many contemporary chefs believe people prefer locally-grown food. 6. Mary claims John saw her dck. [Remember this one? It s ambigos. Draw two trees.] 7. The delicios sshi made Cherlon happy. 8. Icelandic chefs seem to attend exqisite clinary schools. 9. Cherlon refsed to eat plverized bacon. 10. *It refsed Cherlon to eat plverized bacon. [In terms of type theory, describe what goes wrong with this sentence. Yo don t have to draw a tree.]
High Appl Argment Strctre and the Applicative Head Low Appl
English and Venda (a Bant langage) both allow melt in the same argment strctre configrations (1)/(2). Data from Pylkkänen 2008, Ch. 1
Bt, Venda allows some intransitives (nergatives) sch as lagh/speak to take applicatives, while English does not (3)/(4). Pylkkänen (2008) proposes that there is an applicative head which introdces the applicative argment. High applicatives (HA): the applicative head attaches above the verb. There is a relation between an individal/entity and an event. =Venda Low applicatives (LA), the applicative head attaches below the verb. There is a relation between two individals/entities. The applicative is either the recipient or the sorce. =English LA reqires a direct object becase the relationship is between the direct object and the applicative argment.
The (Very) Big Pictre VoiceP v DP Appl VoiceP v Mary boght John a book. V DP Appl DP V DP The applicative, John, has a relation with the direct object. John is the intended recipient of the book. High: Attaches higher than the verb and relates extra argment to an event. Low: Attaches lower than the verb and relates extra argment to the direct object. Wife has a benefactive relation to the event of eating bt no relation to the object of eating, food. Friend benefits from the event of rnning. A high applicative head is very mch like the external-argmentintrodcing head: it simply adds another participant to the event described by the verb. (Pylkkänen 2008:14)
Why Examine Applicatives?? A comprehensive theory of lingistic representation mst minimally: (i) define the natre of the primitive bilding blocks that enter into lingistic comptation, (ii) characterize the manner in which the basic nits combine into complex representations, and (iii) identify the ways in which langages may differ with respect to their inventory of possible representations. (p.1) Pylkkänen will: Arge for specific heads in the syntax (the primitive bilding blocks); Propose denotations for those heads (which encode how those heads combine with other bilding blocks); and Illstrate a typology of those heads (showing how langages differ). Like Kratzer: Pylkkänen assmes a very tight connection between syntax and semantics...syntactic strctre bilding is the only mode of strctre bilding in natral langage. (p.5) Pylkkänen bilds on Kratzer s work directly: Ths, one of the main contribtions of this book is to provide a new empirical argment for separating the external argment from its verb. (p.7)
Back to the Compositional Operations Fnctional Application Passing Up: [Pylkkänen doesn t se this operation. There aren t empty nodes in her derivations.] Event Identification: Combines the external argment the agent or the high applicative with the event denoted in the VP. Predicate Modification: New for s. Combines two daghters of the same type and retrns a vale of that type. Like Event Identification, it s a conjnction operation of sorts. This will become relevant for depictives; the two nodes that are combined both have type <e, <s,t>>. They combine and their mother has type <e, <s,t>>.
Big Difference Between the Denotations for the High and Low Applicative Heads High Appl is like Voice It adds an entity to an event denoted in the VP and relates that entity to the event in the VP. This looks a lot like the denotation for Voice! High Appl has 2 argments: the applicative [λx] and the event [λe].
High Appl Derivation λe.eating(e) & agent(e,he) & theme (e,food) & benefactive (e,wife) Voice ApplP The Steps: The transitive verb combines with the direct object. Appl combines with the VP. Jst like Voice, High Appl introdces a spot for an entity argment to satrate. Here, it s the applicative. Appl VP The Applicative is merged in the specifier of ApplP and satrates the λx slot. λxλe.eat(e,x) Voice combines with ApplP and introdces a spot for the external argment. The sbject is merged in in the specifier of VoiceP and satrates the λx slot.
Low Appl is not like Voice. There is no semantic relationship between the Applicative and the event. The relationship is between the Applicative and the direct object. Low Appl has 4 argments: the direct object [λx], the applicative [λy], the verb [λf] (a fnction), and the event [λe].
Low Appl Derivation Voice VP ApplP Appl λyλfλe.f(e,the book) & theme (e,the book) & to-the-possession (the book,y) The Steps: In the HA derivation, the verb combines with its object. NOT SO in the LA derivation. The verb combines with ApplP. The direct object combines with the Appl head and satrates the λx slot. The applicative is merged in the specifier of ApplP and satrates the λy slot. The verb combines with ApplP and satrates the λf slot. f stands for fnction and, here, the fnction is necessarily of type <e,<s,t>>. Only a verb of type <e,<s,t>> can combine with ApplP. Voice combines with VP and introdces a spot for the sbject external argment. The sbject is merged in in the specifier of VoiceP and satrates the λx slot.
Low Recipient vs Low Sorce Applicatives English has a low recipient applicative. Korean has a low sorce applicative. The applicative is the sorce of the direct object. The denotation encodes from the possession of instead of to the possession of.
What abot normal ditransitives? For Pylkkänen, these are the same as low applicatives. Pylkkänen arges against a casative/small clase analysis of ditransitives, based on \...Entailment: Reslting states are entailed in casatives. =(10) Reslting states aren t entailed in doble objects. =(9) Depictives: Depictives describe a state that one of the argments of a verb is in dring the event described by the verb. Small clases can have depictive modification of the sbject of the small clase. =(11b) Ditransitives can t have depictive modification of the indirect object. =(11a)
Diagnostics and Predictions Transitivity Restrictions: Only High Appl shold be able to combine with an nergative. Low Appl reqires a direct object. Verb Semantics: Only High Appl shold be able to combine with static verbs. Low Appl involves an (intended) transfer of possession.
Descriptive generalization: There is a typology of applicatives. In some constrctions, the extra argment is related to an event. In other constrctions, the extra argment is related to the direct object. Analysis: An applicative head (Appl) that mediates the relationship between the applicative argment and the rest of the constrction. When the applicative has a relationship with the event denoted in the VP, Appl attaches higher that the verb. Appl combines with VP. The denotation for High Appl incldes argment positions for an entity (the applicative) and an event. It s like Voice. High Appl Langages: Venda, Chaga, Chicheŵa, Lganda, Albanian When the applicative has a relationship with the direct object, Appl attaches lower than the verb. Both the applicative and the direct object are merged inside of ApplP. Appl combines with the direct object and Appl combines with the applicative. The denotation for Low Appl incldes argment positions for the direct object, the applicative, the verb, and an event. Low Appl Langages: English, Korean, Japanese INTERIM SUMMARY (2) Predictions and diagnostics: High Applicatives are compatible with nergatives and stative verbs. Low Applicatives are not.
ENTER DEPICTIVES The Descriptive Observations: Sbjects and direct objects can be modified by a depictive (26a)/(27), bt indirect objects can t (26b). Predicts that depictives can t modify low applicatives. Depictives are like adverbs in that they attribte a property to the event described by the verb. (p.23) The state described by the adjective holds dring the event encoded in the verb. Back to the stage level/individal level distinction: Depictives describe a state that holds dring an event; sond odd with individal level adjectives. = (29) The Proposal: Depictive phrases have two parts (1) the adjective, (2) a depictive head (Dep) In some langages (e.g. Finnish) depictives are morphologically marked. =(32)
We traveled tired. State The state gets related to the event. (Bt there s no state argment; no λs.) There is some entity and some state sch that tired is the state and the entity is in that state. The adjective has a state argment. describes a state that holds dring an event λf is a fnction. Here, it s the adjective, which is type <e, <s,t>>. λx is an entity λe is an event In type theory, s can refer to event or state. There is some entity and some event sch that there is at least one state which is a state of being tired and the entity is in that state and the state holds dring the event. There is some fnction (an adjective) of type <e, <s,t>> and some entity and some event sch that: There is at least one state sch that the adjective holds of x in that state and that state holds dring an event.
Back to Predicate Modification Pylkkänen proposes that DepP is of type <e, <s,t>>. The nodes that DepP combines with are also of type <e, <s,t>>. Object depictives combine with the verb. Sbject depictives combine with Voice. <e, <s,t>> <e, <s,t>> <e, <s,t>>
DepP contains the adjective and the depictive head. The adjective satrates λf of Dep. DepP is type <e, <s,t>>. The verb combines with DepP. The verb is also <e, <s,t>>. DepP and the verb combine via Predicate Modification. V is type <e, <s,t>>. The sbject of the small clase VP is merged in the specifier and satrates the λx slot. We get: There is some event sch that the event is a seeing event and Peter is the theme of that event and there is at least one state which is a state of being tired and Peter is in that state and that state holds dring the event. WHEW!!!!!! Voice combines with VP and introdces a spot for the sbject external argment. Event Identification applies as normal. Voice is <e, <s,t>> and VP is <s,t>. The sbject is merged in in the specifier of VoiceP and satrates the λx slot. VoiceP Voice Predicate Modification: V + DepP VP V Object Depictives
Sbject Depictives This one is strctrally trickier. The verb see combines with the direct object. Voice combines with the VP as normal. Event Identification. Here s where things get slightly more complex. Again, DepP contains the adjective and the depictive head. The adjective satrates λf of Dep. DepP is type <e, <s,t>>. DepP combines with Voice, which is <e, <s,t>>. DepP and Voice combine via Predicate Modification and the higher Voice is <e, <s,t>>. We get: There is some entity and some event sch that the event is a seeing event and there is an entity that is the agent of that event and Peter is the theme of that event and there is at least one state which is a state of being tired and an entity is in that state and that state holds dring the event. Again WHEW!!!!! Unlike with object depictives, we don t know who is in the state of being tired at this point in the strctre. The sbject is merged in the specifier of VoiceP and satrates the λx slot. Se is the agent of the seeing and is in the state of being tired. Predicate Modification: Voice + DepP Voice VP VoiceP Voice Strctrally, DepP is in an adjnct position it s daghter and sister to a bar-level. Here, there are two Voice levels.
DepP combines with phrases that are <e, <s,t>>. Predictions: Depictives can t modify low applicatives/indirect objects. =(26b) DepP wold have to attach to Appl and Appl is the wrong type! DepP attaches below the DP it modifies. Depictives and Applicatives Depictives can modify direct objects (even in ditransitive/ applicative constrctions). = (26a) /(38) DepP attaches to the verb. (See next page.) λyλfλe.f(e,the book) & theme (e,the book) & to-the-possession (the book,y)
Depictive Modification of Direct Object in an Applicative Constrction vp Voice VP VP: There is an event sch that the event is of bying & the VCR is the theme of that event & there is at least one state which is a state of being new & the VCR is in that state & that state holds dring the event & the VCR is to the possession of John. ApplP Appl V DepP Predicate Modification: V + DepP Remember the denotation for Low Appl DepP combines with the verb, jst as in the Object Depictive Derivation. The verb and DepP combine via Predicate Modification. ApplP combines with V. In syntactic terms, ApplP occpies the specifier of the VP. Voice combines with VP and things proceed as expected.
Japanese = English Naked can t modify Hanako. Both Japanese and English are Low Appl langages and the Depictive can t modify the applicative.
Lganda English nergative transitive Lganda is a High Appl langage and the Depictive can modify the applicative.
GLOBAL SUMMARY v From Kratzer: v v The meaning of a verb incldes its internal argment (if there is one) and an event. The semantic job of v is to add the external argment to the event encoded in the VP. v From Pylkkänen: v Langages vary in how they add extra argments to the strctre. v There is an applicative head (Appl) that mediates the relationship between the applicative argment and the rest of the constrction. v High Appl attaches above the verb and mediates the relationship between the applicative and the event encoded in the VP. v Low Appl attaches below the verb and mediates the relationship between the applicative and the direct object. v The distribtion of depictives interacts with the typology of applicatives. v Depictives can modify high applicatives, bt not low applicatives.
REFERENCES Bonet, Elalia. 1991. Morphology after syntax: Pronominal clitics in Romance. Doctoral dissertation, MIT, Cambridge, MA. Kratzer, Angelika. 1996. Severing the external argment from its verb. In Rooryck, Johan, and Larie Zaring, eds. Phrase strctre and the lexicon, 109-137. Springer: New York. Larson, Richard. 1988. On the doble object constrction. Lingistic Inqiry 19(3):335-391. Pylkkänen, Liina. 2008. Introdcing argments. MIT Press: Cambridge, MA. Sigrðsson, Halldór Ármann. 1996. Icelandic finite verb agreement. Working Papers in Scandinavian Syntax 57. 1-46. Sigrðsson, Halldór Ármann and Anders Holmberg. 2008. Icelandic dative intervention: person and nmber are separate probes. In Roberta D Alessandro, ed. Agreement Restrictions. Berlin:Moton de Gryter, 251-280. Woolford, Ellen. 2006. Case-agreement mismatches. In Cedric Boeckx ed. Agreement Systems, 317-339. John Benjamins.