GRAMMAR CURRICULUM LEVEL II

February 14, 2001 GRAMMAR CURRICULUM LEVEL II I. ADJECTIVES A. DETERMINERS 1. ARTICLES a. Forms Generic Indefinite Definite Singular Nouns a/an a/an the Plural Nouns Ø some the Noncount Nouns Ø some the b. Examples i. Generic An apple is red. A banana is yellow. Apples are red. Bananas are yellow. Apples and bananas are fruit. ii. Indefinite I bought an apple and a banana. I bought some apples and some bananas. I bought some fruit. iii. Definite I bought a banana. I ate the banana. I bought some apples. I ate the apples. I bought some fruit. I ate the fruit. Also see Indefinite Quantifier Adjectives and Object Pronouns of Indefinite Quantity for more about some. 2. POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES AND NOUNS a. POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES i. Forms Singular Plural First Person my our Second Person your your

Third Person his/her/its their Also see Possessive Pronouns. ii. Usage notes and examples (a) A possessive adjective agrees with a preceding noun phrase or pronoun in number, person, and gender John bought a new pencil. It is in his hand. Jill gave him her books. Mary and Beth gave him their homework. b. POSSESSIVE NOUNS i. Forms Singular Irregular Plural Regular Plural Noun + 'S Beth's women's Noun + ' girls' Also see Possessive Pronouns. ii. Examples Beth's jacket is on the bed. The women's coats are in the closet. The girls' gloves are on the shelf. 3. INDEFINITE QUANTIFIERS a. ANY AND SOME i. Forms Plural Noncount Questions any any Affirmative Statements some some Negative Statements any any ii. Examples (a) Any in yes/no questions and negative statements Do you have any money? Do you have any quarters? No, I don't have any money. No, I don't have any quarters. (b) Some in affirmative statements 2

Yes, I have some money. Yes, I have some quarters. Also see Articles and Object Pronouns of Indefinite Quantity for more about some. b. MANY, MUCH, A LOT OF/LOTS OF, A COUPLE OF, SEVERAL, A FEW, AND A LITTLE i. Forms Plural Noncount Questions many much Affirmative Statements a couple of a few several a lot of/lots of a little a lot of/lots of Negative Statements many much ii. Examples (a) Many and much in information questions and negative statements How much money do you have? How many quarters do you have? I do not have much money. I do not have many quarters. (b) A lot of/lots of, a couple of, several, a few, and a little in affirmative statements I have a little money. I have a lot of/lots of money. I have a couple of/a few/several quarters. I have a lot of/lots of quarters. Also see Object Pronouns of Indefinite Quantity 4. SET DETERMINING ADJECTIVES a. Forms Indefinite Definite Singular another the other Plural other the other b. Usage notes and examples i. Another precedes a singular noun and indicates one more out of an indefinite number of similar items There were many apples on the table. 3

Paul ate an apple. Then he ate another apple. ii. Other precedes a plural noun and indicates several more out of an indefinite number of similar items There were many apples in Paul's kitchen. Paul ate some apples. Then he ate some other apples. iii. The other precedes a singular or plural noun and indicates the last one(s) out of a definite number of similar items There were two apples on the table. Paul ate one apple. Then he ate the other apple. There were four apples on the table. Paul ate two apples. Then he ate the other apples. Also see Set Determining Pronouns. 5. EXPRESSIONS OF MEASUREMENT a. Forms i. Portions a piece of ii. Containers a bag of a bowl of a can of a cup of a jar of iii. Units or Shapes a bar of an ear of a loaf of a stick of a slice of a bottle of a box of a carton of a glass of a tube of a bunch of a head of a roll of iv. Specific quantities a dozen a pint of a quart of a gallon of a pound of a spoonful of b. Usage notes and examples i. Preceding a noncount noun, making it quantifiable I bought some lettuce. I bought a head of lettuce. I bought two heads of lettuce. ii. Preceding a plural noun which represents a group of things which are impractical to count individually, making it quantifiable I bought some grapes. I bought a bunch of grapes. I bought two bunches of grapes. Also see Count and Noncount Nouns. B. DESCRIPTIVE ADJECTIVES 4

a. Forms i. Emotion happy, sad, nervous, etc. ii. Inherent quality beautiful, delicious, kind, etc. iii. Size large, tall, little, etc. iv. Shape round, square, oval, etc. v. Age young, old, middle-aged, etc. vi. Temperature hot, cold, warm, etc. vii. Color red, blue, black, etc. viii. Material metal, glass, plastic, etc. ix. Nationality Greek, Chinese, Korean, etc. x. Religion Catholic, Moslem, Jewish, etc. b. Examples i. Preceding a noun There is a wonderful cafe on Main Street. ii. Following the verb be The cafe is wonderful. C. NOUNS USED AS ADJECTIVES vegetable garden, television program, history book, etc. 2. Usage notes and examples a. A noun acting as an adjective immediately precedes a noun and indicates its type or kind What kind of garden does John have? John has a big vegetable garden. b. A noun acting as an adjective is always singular a vegetable garden vegetable gardens II. ADVERBS A. ADVERBS OF MANNER Adjective + LY carefully, slowly, quickly, etc. 2. Usage notes and examples 5

a. Spelling changes when -LY is added i. Final -Y is changed to -I when preceded by a consonant easy easily ii. Final -LE is dropped when preceded by a consonant comfortable comfortably iii. -AL is added to adjectives ending in -IC basic basically b. Irregular forms i. Early, late, fast, and hard have the same form as adjectives and as adverbs We ate a late breakfast. We ate breakfast late. We had an early lunch. We had lunch early. We are fast eaters. We always eat fast. We are hard workers. We work hard. ii. The adverb form of the adjective good is well We are good drivers. We drive well. iii. Some words which end in -LY are adjectives rather than adverbs Clara is a lovely girl. Ray is a lonely man. Agnes is wearing an ugly dress. Marisa is a friendly child. B. ADVERBS OF GENERAL FREQUENCY Most Frequent Positive 100% always almost always usually, generally often, frequently sometimes, occasionally Neutral ever seldom, rarely hardly ever, almost never Negative 0% never, not ever Least Frequent 2. Usage notes and examples a. In an affirmative statement i. All positive and negative forms (a) Following the verb be Charles is always in class at eight thirty. Susan is seldom late for class. (b) Preceding a verb in the simple present or past tense John usually comes to class on time this year. John rarely came to class on time last year. (c) Between an auxiliary verb and a main verb 6

Mary has sometimes been late. Susan has rarely been late. ii. All positive forms except for always and almost always may also occur at the beginning or at the end of a sentence Sometimes Kim is late. Kim is late sometimes. iii. The neutral form ever is not used in affirmative statements Incorrect: Susan is ever late for class. b. In a negative statement i. All positive forms except always precede a negative auxiliary verb Jill generally doesn't come to class on time. ii. The positive form always and the neutral form ever follow a negative auxiliary verb Mary doesn't always come to class on time. Susan isn't ever late for class. iii. The negative forms are not used with other negatives Incorrect: Susan isn't seldom late for class. Incorrect: Susan isn't rarely late for class. Incorrect: Susan isn't hardly ever late for class. Incorrect: Susan isn't never late for class. c. In a question i. All positive, negative, and neutral forms follow the subject of the verb Does Justin often come late? Why does John rarely come on time? Does Susan ever come late? C. ADVERBS OF DEFINITE TIME a. Present now right now b. Past yesterday morning yesterday... minutes ago yesterday afternoon last Monday, etc.... hours ago yesterday evening last weekend... days ago last night last week... weeks ago last month... months ago last summer, etc.... years ago last year c. Future tomorrow morning tomorrow in... minutes tomorrow afternoon next Monday, etc. in... hours tomorrow evening next weekend in... days tomorrow night next week in... weeks next month in... months 7

next summer, etc. next year in... years d. Present, Past, and Future this morning this afternoon this evening tonight today this Monday, etc. this weekend this week this month this summer, etc. this year 2. Examples John is home right now. He was home yesterday. He will be home tomorrow. He is home today. He was home today. He will be home today. D. ADVERBS OF INDEFINITE TIME already, yet, still, anymore, and just 2. Usage notes and examples a. Already is used in an affirmative statement to indicate that an action happened at some point before the present i. Following the verb be The mail is already here. ii. Preceding a verb in the simple present or past tense The mail already came an hour ago. iii. Between an auxiliary verb and a main verb The mail has already arrived. iv. At the end of a sentence The mail is here already. The mail came already. The mail has come already. b. Yet is used at the end of a negative sentence or question to indicate that an action has not happened by the present time but that it is expected to happen in the future Has the mail come yet? No, the mail hasn't come yet. c. Still is used in any statement or question to indicate that a situation has continued to exist from the past to the present time without change i. In an affirmative statement (a) Following the verb be The mailbox is still empty. (b) Preceding a verb in the simple present or past tense David complained to the post office, but the mailman still arrives late. (c) Between an auxiliary verb and a main verb David is still waiting for the mailman. 8

ii. In a negative statement, preceding a negative auxiliary The mail still hasn't come. iii. In a question, following the subject Is David still waiting for the mailman? d. Anymore is used at the end of a negative statement to indicate that a situation which existed in the past does not continue to exist at the present time David used to wait for the mailman. He doesn't wait for him anymore. e. Just is used in an affirmative statement to indicate that an action was completed a short time before the present i. Following the verb be The mailman was just here. ii. Preceding a verb in the simple present or simple past tense The mailman just left a minute ago. iii. Between an auxiliary verb and a main verb The mailman has just left. III. COMPARISONS (Listening/Speaking) A. COMPARATIVES (Listening/Speaking) a. One-syllable adjectives Adjective + -ER + Than bigger than, older than, taller than, etc. b. Two-syllable adjectives ending in -Y Adjective + -ER + Than friendlier than, happier than, prettier than, etc. c. Other adjectives with two or more syllables More + Adjective + Than more boring than, more famous than, more nervous than, etc. more beautiful than, more expensive than, more important than, etc. 2. Irregularities a. Spelling changes when -ER is added i. Final -E is dropped cute cuter ii. A final consonant, other than -W, -X, and -Y, is doubled when preceded by a single stressed vowel big bigger iii. Final -Y is changed to -I happy happier b. Irregular forms i. The comparative forms of good, bad, and far are irregular good bad better worse 9

far farther 3. Sentence patterns and examples Noun (Phrase) + Be + Comparative Form + Noun (Phrase) + (Be) A Jaguar is faster than a Honda (is). A Jaguar is more expensive than a Honda (is). B. SUPERLATIVES (Listening/Speaking) a. One-syllable adjectives The + Adjective + -EST the biggest, the oldest, the tallest, etc. b. Two-syllable adjectives ending in -Y The + Adjective + -EST the friendliest, the happiest, the prettiest, etc. c. Other adjectives with two or more syllables The + Most + Adjective the most boring, the most famous, the most nervous, etc. the most beautiful, the most expensive, the most important, etc. 2. Irregularities a. Spelling changes when -EST is added i. Final -E is dropped cute cutest ii. A final consonant, other than -W, -X, and -Y, is doubled when preceded by a single stressed vowel big biggest iii. Final -Y is changed to -I happy happiest b. Irregular forms i. The superlative forms of good, bad, and far are irregular good bad far best worst farthest 3. Sentence patterns and examples Noun (Phrase) + Be + Superlative Form Louise has a Civic. Carolyn has an Accord. Sheila has a Jaguar. Sheila's Jaguar is the fastest. The Jaguar is the most expensive. A Jaguar is more expensive than a Honda (is). IV. NOUNS A. ATTRIBUTES OF NOUNS 1. PROPER AND COMMON a. Forms 10

i. Proper a. Names and titles of people Elizabeth, Michael Jones, Miss Smith, etc. b. Days of the week, months, and holidays Monday, June, Christmas, etc. c. Names of cities, countries, and places Paris, Mexico, Main Street, etc. d. Languages Chinese, French, Japanese, etc. e. Nationalities an American, the Chinese, Spaniards, etc. f. Names of religions and followers of religions a Moslem, Christianity, Islam, etc. g. Names of courses Art 101, Introduction to Physics, History II, etc. ii. Common girl, day, city, language etc. b. Usage notes and examples i. A proper noun is always capitalized, but a common noun is not capitalized unless it is the first word of a sentence I went to Paris. I visited many cities. Cities are exciting. ii. A proper noun cannot usually be preceded by a determiner, but a common noun can be Michael Jones is in the classroom. A man is in the classroom. 2. SINGULAR AND PLURAL a. Forms i. Singular (Noun) a book, a pen, an eraser, etc. ii. Plural (Noun + S) books, pens, erasers, etc. b. Usage notes and examples i. Spelling changes when -S is added (a) -ES is added after final -S, -Z, -SH, -CH, or -X class buzz dish match box 11 classes buzzes dishes matches boxes (b) Final -Y is changed to -I when preceded by a consonant and -ES is added baby babies (c) Final -F or -FE is changed to -V, and -ES is added thief thieves

wife wives (d) Final -ES is added to a noun with a final -O preceded by a consonant tomato tomatoes ii. Irregular forms Singular child foot man mouse tooth woman fish person goose deer sheep Plural children feet men mice teeth women fish people geese deer sheep 3. COUNT AND NONCOUNT a. Forms i. Count an apple, a chair, a letter, etc. apples, chairs, letters, etc. ii. Noncount (a) Whole groups made up of individual parts clothing, garbage, pepper, etc. (b) Liquids blood, honey, shampoo, etc. (c) Solids and semi-solids bread, chalk, silver, etc. (d) Gases air, oxygen, smoke, etc. (e) Natural phenomena darkness, thunder, weather, etc. (f) Abstractions fun, health, luck, etc. b. Usage notes and examples i. A count noun can be singular or plural, but a noncount noun is always singular an apple, apples fruit ii. A count noun can be preceded by an indefinite article or a cardinal number, but a noncount noun can only be quantified by using an expression of measurement an apple, two apples a piece of fruit, two pieces of fruit iii. A count noun can be preceded by many or a few, but a noncount noun can be preceded by much or a little 12

many apples, a few apples much fruit, a little fruit iv. Certain nouns can be either count or noncount in different contexts Paper is made from wood. I bought a paper at the newsstand. (See Appendix Two for more examples.) B. POSITIONS AND FUNCTIONS OF NOUNS 1. Preceding a verb acting as the subject of the sentence Caroline is teaching. 2. Following the verb be acting as a complement She is a teacher. 3. Following a verb acting as its object She is teaching English. 4. Following a preposition acting as its object She is teaching at the university. C. AGREEMENT OF NOUNS 1. A noun subject agrees in number with the verb be or any verb in the simple present tense The teacher is at the university. The teachers are at the university. Caroline teaches English. Caroline and John teach English. 2. A noun complement agrees in number with the subject I am a student. You are a student. He is a student. V. PREPOSITIONS We are students. You are students. They are students. A. PREPOSITIONS OF POINTS OF TIME at, in, and on 2. Usage notes and examples a. At is used with a clock time or with the words night, the moment, present, and the present time I have class at one o'clock. I don't have class at night. I don't have class at the moment. b. In is used with a month, a year, a season, a century, or the phrases the morning, the afternoon, the evening, the past, the present, and the future My birthday is in October. I was born in 1960. I was born in the morning. 13

I was born in (the) fall. (The may be omitted.) I was born in the twentieth century. I have always celebrated my birthday in the past, but I didn't this year. c. On is used with a day of the week ( with or without the word morning, afternoon, or evening) or a date I have class on Monday. I don't have class on Monday evening. I don't have class on December 25. B. PREPOSITIONS OF EXTENDED TIME by, during, for, from... to, since, and until 2. Usage notes and examples a. By indicates the end point of a period of time in which an action may occur at any point Sharon had to read a whole book by Monday morning. b. During indicates a period of time in which an action may occur at any point or a period of time in which an action occurs continuously Sharon didn't have time to read the book during the week. Sharon read her book during lunch. c. For indicates the specific quantity of time which an action has taken It's one o'clock Sunday afternoon. Sharon is reading. She has been reading for three hours. She has been reading three hours. (For may be omitted before a number.) d. From... To indicates the times at which an action begins and ends She read from ten o'clock in the morning to two o'clock in the afternoon. e. Since indicates the time at which an action begins It's one o'clock Sunday afternoon. Sharon is reading. She has been reading since ten o'clock. f. Until indicates the time at which an action ends Sharon read the book until two o'clock in the afternoon. Also see Adverb Clauses for more about since. C. PREPOSITIONS OF LOCATION (Listening/Speaking) at, on, and in 2. Usage notes and examples a. At is used with a general location, an address, or the words home, school, and work John is at his office. He works at 4472 Hill Street. John is at work. b. On is used with a street 14

He works on Hill Street. c. In is used with a city, a state, or a country He works in New York City. John lives in New Jersey. He lives in the United States. D. PREPOSITIONS OF POSITION (Listening/Speaking) above close to near on (the) top of across from far (away from) next to opposite against in on outside (of) behind in back of on the bottom of over below in front of on the corner of under(neath) beside inside (of) on the left of between in the middle of on the right of 2. Examples Where was John? John was in front of his computer. E. PREPOSITIONS OF DIRECTION (Listening/Speaking) across away from into past to along down onto through toward around from out of over up 2. Examples How do I get to the post office from here? Walk down Main Street. Go past the library. VI. PRONOUNS A. PERSONAL PRONOUNS 1. SUBJECT PRONOUNS a. Forms Singular Plural First Person I we Second Person you you Third Person he/she/it they b. Usage notes and examples 15

i. A subject pronoun agrees with a preceding noun phrase in person, number, and gender Jim is an excellent student. He studies every night. Jill is a bad student. She never studies. John and Mary are good students. They often study. 2. OBJECT PRONOUNS a. Forms Singular Plural First Person me us Second Person you you Third Person him/her/it them b. Usage notes and examples i. An object pronoun agrees with a preceding noun phrase in person, number, and gender Jim was at the library last night. I saw him. I talked to him. Jill was at the library last night too. I saw her. I talked to her. Jim and Jill were at the library. I saw them. I talked to them. B. POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS Singular Plural First Person mine ours Second Person yours yours Third Person his/hers theirs 2. Usage notes and examples a. A possessive pronoun agrees with a preceding noun phrase in person, number, and gender John's book isn't on the shelf. His is on the table. Jill's book isn't on the table. Hers is on the shelf. Tom and Mary's books aren't on the table. Theirs are on the shelf. Also see Possessive Adjectives and Nouns. C. INDEFINITE REFERENT PRONOUNS -body -one -thing some- somebody someone something any- anybody anyone anything no- nobody no one nothing 2. Usage notes and examples 16

a. All forms are singular and are used with singular third person verb forms Someone is at the door. Someone knocks on the door every night. b. Any- forms are used in questions and negative statements Did you see anyone at the door? I didn't see anyone at the door. c. Some- and no- forms are used in affirmative statements Someone was knocking on the door. No one was knocking on the window. D. REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS Singular Plural First Person myself ourselves Second Person yourself yourselves Third Person himself herself itself themselves 2. Usage notes and examples a. A reflexive pronoun acts as the object of a verb or a preposition when the object has the same identity as the subject Jennifer saw herself in the mirror. Jennifer looked at herself in the mirror. b. A reflexive pronoun acts as the object of the preposition by, indicating that an action is done alone or without assistance Jennifer cut her hair by herself. c. A reflexive pronoun agrees with the preceding subject in person, number, and gender Jennifer saw herself in the mirror. Joshua saw himself in the mirror. Henry and Claire saw themselves in the mirror. E. NUMERICAL PRONOUNS one, two, three, etc. 2. Examples Some birds were sitting on a fence. Three were singing. Some birds were sitting on a fence. A cat chased two away. A boy threw a stone at one. F. OBJECT PRONOUNS OF INDEFINITE QUANTITY 1. ONE, SOME, AND ANY 17

a. Forms Singular Plural and Noncount Questions one any Affirmative Statements one some Negative Statements one any b. Examples i. Singular Jim needed a book about dinosaurs. Did he find one? Yes, he found one. No, he didn't find one. ii. Plural and noncount Jim needed some books about dinosaurs. Did he find any? Yes, he found some. No, he didn't find any. Jim needed some information about dinosaurs. Did he find any? Yes, he found some. No, he didn't find any. Also see Articles and Indefinite Adjective Quantifiers for more about some. 2. MANY, MUCH, A LOT/LOTS, SEVERAL, A FEW, A LITTLE, and A COUPLE a. Forms Plural Noncount Questions many much Affirmative Statements a couple a few several a lot/lots a little a lot/lots Negative Statements many much b. Examples i. Plural I have some pencils. How many do you have? I don't have many. I have a couple/a few/several. I have a lot/lots. ii. Noncount I have some paper? How much? I don't have much. I have a little. I have a lot/lots. G SET DETERMINING PRONOUNS Indefinite Definite 18

Singular another the other Plural others the others 2. Usage notes and examples a. A set determining pronoun indicates number as well as membership in an indefinite or definite set of items i. Indefinite singular There were many apples on the table. Paul ate an apple, and then he ate another. ii. Indefinite plural There were many apples on the table. Paul ate some apples, and then he ate some others. iii. Definite singular There were two apples on the table. Paul ate one apple, and then he ate the other. iv. plural There were four apples on the table. Paul ate two apples, and then he ate the others. Also see Set Determining Adjectives. VII. QUESTIONS (Listening/Speaking) A. YES/NO QUESTIONS AND RESPONSES (Listening/Speaking) 1. Sentence patterns and examples with the verb be a. Questions Be + Subject + Complement/Predicate Am I a teacher? Are you a student? Is he a student? b. Affirmative short answers Yes + Comma + Subject + Be Yes, I am. Yes, you are. Yes, he is. c. Negative short answers No + Comma + Subject + Be + Not No, I am not. No, you are not. No, he is not. 2. Sentence patterns and examples with the auxiliary verb do a. Questions Do + Subject + Predicate Do you have a big house? Does he have a big house? b. Affirmative short answers 19

Yes + Comma + Subject + Do Yes, you do. Yes, he does. c. Negative short answers No + Comma + Subject + Do + Not No, you do not. No, he does not. 3. Sentence patterns and examples with modal auxiliaries a. Questions Modal + Subject + Predicate Will you buy a car? b. Affirmative short answers Yes + Comma + Subject + Modal Yes, I will. c. Negative short answers No + Comma + Subject + Modal + Not No, I will not. See Verbs for further details for each tense, aspect, or modal auxiliary. B. INFORMATION QUESTIONS AND RESPONSES (Listening/Speaking) (Interrogative Pronouns or Question Words) Pronouns Adjective/Pronouns Adverbs who whose where what when which why how many how how much 2. Sentence patterns and examples a. Interrogative pronouns i. As a subject Question Word + Verb + (Predicate) Who went to the zoo? 20 John went to the zoo. John did. John. ii. As an object Question Word + Auxiliary Verb + Subject + Ve rb + (Predicate) Who did he bring to the zoo? He brought his children to the zoo. His children. b. Interrogative adjective/pronouns i. As a subject Question Word + (Noun) + Verb + (Predicate) What animal roared? A lion roared. What roared? A lion did. A lion.

ii. As an object Question Word + (Noun) + Auxiliary + Subject + Verb + (Predicate) What animal did John see? John saw a lion. What did John see? A lion. c. Interrogative adverbs Question Word + Auxiliary Verb + Subject + Verb + (Predicate) Where did John go? John went to the zoo. To the zoo. Also see Verbs for specific examples for each tense or aspect. VIII. SUBORDINATION A. ADVERB CLAUSES 1. TIME a. Forms (Subordinators) after, as soon as, before, since, when, and while b. Sentence patterns and examples i. Final position Main Clause + Subordinator + Subordinate Clause Sara ate breakfast before she went to class. ii. Initial position Subordinator + Subordinate Clause + Comma + Main Clause Before Sara went to class, she ate breakfast. c. Pronoun reference i. A noun precedes a pronoun Sara ate breakfast before she went to class. Before Sara went to class, she ate breakfast. d. Usage notes and examples i. In future tense sentences, future tense is used in the main clause and present tense is used in the subordinate clause Sara will go to class after she eats breakfast. Sara is going to go to class after she eats breakfast. ii. In present perfect tense sentences, present perfect is used in the main clause and past tense is used in the subordinate clause Sara has watched TV at lunchtime since she was a child. Sara has been watching TV since she got home. iii. In past perfect tense sentences, past perfect is used in one clause and past tense is used in the other clause: The past perfect clause is always the action which occurred first The power went out after Sara had finished lunch. Sara had finished lunch before the power went out. (First, Sara finished lunch. Second, the power went out.) 21

Also see Prepositions of Extended Time for more about since. 2. REAL FUTURE CONDITIONALS a. Forms (Subordinators) if b. Positions and sentence patterns i. Final position Main Clause + Subordinator + Subordinate Clause Sara will go to Bermuda if she has enough money. ii. Initial position Subordinator + Subordinate Clause + Comma + Main Clause If Sara has enough money, she will go to Bermuda. c. Pronoun reference i. A noun precedes a pronoun Sara will go to Bermuda if she has enough money. If Sara has enough money, she will go to Bermuda. d. Usage notes and examples i. In true conditional sentences, the future tense is used in the main clause and the present tense is used in the subordinate clause Sara will go to Bermuda if she has enough money. Sara is going to go to Bermuda if she has enough money. ii. True future conditionals indicate a condition which must be met in order for a future event to take place; in addition implying that the event will not take place if the condition is not met Sara will go to Bermuda if she has enough money. (Implied: Sara will not go to Bermuda if she does not have enough money.) IX. VERBS: MODALS AND PHRASAL MODALS A. ABILITY (Listening/Speaking) Singular Plural First Person Can + Verb Can + Verb Second Person Can + Verb Can + Verb Third Person Can + Verb Can + Verb 2. Contractions with not Full Form Contraction Can cannot can't 22

3. Functions a. Expressing a present or future ability Sue can speak English well because she practices every day. 4. Sentence patterns and examples a. Affirmative statements Subject + Can + Verb + (Predicate) Sue can speak English. b. Negative statements Subject + Cannot + Verb + (Predicate) Sue cannot speak Chinese. c. Yes/no questions Can + Subject + Verb + (Predicate) Can Sue speak English? d. Affirmative short answers Yes + Comma + Subject + Can Yes, she can. e. Negative short answers No + Comma + Subject + Cannot No, she cannot. f. Information questions and responses with an interrogative pronoun as a subject Question Word + Can + Verb + (Predicate) Who can speak English well? Sue can speak English well. Sue can. Sue. g. Information questions and responses with an interrogative pronoun as an object or with an interrogative adverb Question Word + Can + Subject + Verb + (Predicate) What can Sue speak well? Sue can speak English well. English. Why can she speak well? She can speak well because she practices. Because she practices. B. ADVICE (Listening/Speaking) Singular Plural First Person Should + Verb Should + Verb Second Person Should + Verb Should + Verb Third Person Should + Verb Should + Verb 2. Contractions with not Full Form Contraction Should should not shouldn't 3. Functions a. Expressing that a present or future action would be advisable Sue should speak English in class. 23

4. Sentence patterns and examples a. Affirmative statements Subject + Should + Verb + (Predicate) Sue should speak English in class. b. Negative statements Subject + Should + Not + Verb + (Predicate) Sue should not speak Chinese in class. c. Yes/no questions Should + Subject + Verb + (Predicate) Should Sue speak English in class? d. Affirmative short answers Yes + Comma + Subject + Should Yes, she should. e. Negative short answers No + Comma + Subject + Should + Not No, she should not. f. Information questions and responses with an interrogative pronoun as a subject Question Word + Should + Verb + (Predicate) Who should speak English? Sue should speak English. Sue should. Sue. g. Information questions and responses with an interrogative pronoun as an object or with an interrogative adverb Question Word + Should + Subject + Verb + (Predicate) What should Sue do? Sue should speak English. Speak English. Where should she speak English? She should speak English in class. In class. C. DIRECTIONS AND INSTRUCTIONS (IMPERATIVES) (Listening/Speaking) Affirmative Verb + (Predicate) Negative Do + Not + Verb + (Predicate) 2. Functions a. Expressing present or future directions and instructions Open your books, please. Don't look at your partner's paper. Go straight down Third Street for three blocks. Turn right. Don t turn at Washington Avenue. It s a one-way street. D. FUTURE CERTAINTY See Verbs: Tenses and Aspects for will and be going to. 24

E. FUTURE UNCERTAINTY Singular First Person May/Might + Verb Second Person May/Might + Verb Third Person May/Might + Verb Plural May/Might + Verb May/Might + Verb May/Might + Verb 2. Functions a. Suggesting that a future action is possible but not certain Where are you going to go on your vacation? I don t know. I may go to New York again or I might stay home. 3. Sentence patterns and examples a. Affirmative statements Subject + May/Might + Verb + (Predicate) I may/might stay home. b. Negative statements Subject + May/might + Not + Verb + (Predicate) I may/might not go anywhere. F. NECESSITY (Listening/Speaking) Singular First Person Have to + Verb Second Person Have to + Verb Third Person Has to + Verb Plural Have to + Verb Have to + Verb Have to + Verb 2. Functions a. Expressing a present or future necessity Sue doesn't have a kitchen. She has to eat in the cafeteria every day. 3. Sentence patterns and examples a. Affirmative statements Subject + Have to + Verb + (Predicate) Sue has to eat in the cafeteria. b. Negative statements Subject + Do + Not + Have to + Verb + (Predicate) Sue does not have to eat at a restaurant. c. Yes/no questions Do + Subject + Have to + Verb + (Predicate) Does Sue have to eat in the cafeteria? d. Affirmative short answers 25

Yes + Comma + Subject + Do Yes, she does. e. Negative short answers No + Comma + Subject + Do + Not No, she does not. f. Information questions and responses with an interrogative pronoun as a subject Question Word + Have to + Verb + (Predicate) Who has to eat in the cafeteria? Sue has to eat in the cafeteria. Sue does. Sue. g. Information questions and responses with an interrogative pronoun as an object Question Word + Do + Subject + Have to + Verb + (Predicate) Where does Sue have to eat? Sue has to eat in the cafeteria. In the cafeteria. G. PAST HABIT See Verbs: Tenses and Aspects for used to. H. PERMISSION (Listening/Speaking) 1. Sentence patterns May Could I (please) VERB PHRASE? Can 2. Functions a. Asking if a present or future action is allowable May I please use your dictionary? I left mine at home. Could I please borrow your eraser? I don t have one. Can I please sit here? All of the other tables are full. I. REQUESTS (Listening/Speaking) 1. Sentence patterns Would Could Can you (please) VERB PHRASE? Will 2. Functions a. Asking for assistance in the present or future Would you please open the door for me? My hands are full. Could you please lend me your eraser? I don t have one. Can you please let me share your book today? I forgot mine. 26

Will you please repeat that? I couldn t hear you. J. SUGGESTIONS (Listening/Speaking) 1. Sentence patterns Let s Why don t we VERB PHRASE 2. Functions a. Expressing a course of action for the present or future Let s order a pizza. Why don t we make spaghetti instead? X. VERBS: TENSES AND ASPECTS A. SIMPLE PRESENT Singular Plural First Person Verb Verb Second Person Verb Verb Third Person Verb + -S Verb 2. Contractions of the interrogative auxiliary verbs with not Full Form Contraction Do do not don't Does does not doesn't 3. Elements following other verbs (Predicates) a. Nothing Sue eats. b. Objects Sue eats a sandwich. c. Infinitives (with want and need) Sue wants to eat. d. Prepositional phrases Sue eats in the cafeteria. e. Adverbs Sue eats every day. 4. Functions a. Indicating a habitual action Sue eats a sandwich in the cafeteria every day. 27

b. Indicating an action in progress at the moment of speaking with a verb which cannot be used in the present progressive Sue wants to eat a sandwich right now. c. Indicating a general statement of fact Many restaurants and cafeterias serve sandwiches. 5. Irregularities a. Spelling changes when -S is added i. -ES is added after final -S, -Z, -SH, -CH, or -X kiss buzz push teach fix kisses buzzes pushes teaches fixes ii. Final -Y is changed to -I when preceded by a consonant, and -ES is added cry cries iii. -ES is added to do and go do go does goes 6. Sentence patterns and examples a. Affirmative statements Subject + Verb + (Predicate) Sue eats a sandwich. b. Negative statements Subject + Do + Not + Verb + (Predicate) Sue does not eat a salad. c. Yes/no questions Do + Subject + Verb + (Predicate) Does Sue eat a sandwich? d. Affirmative short answers Yes + Comma + Subject + Do Yes, she does. e. Negative short answers No + Comma + Subject + Do + Not No, she does not. f. Information questions and responses with an interrogative pronoun as a subject Question Word + Verb + (Predicate) Who eats a sandwich? Sue eats a sandwich. Sue does. Sue. g. Information questions and responses with an interrogative pronoun as an object or with an interrogative adverb Question Word + Do + Subject + Verb + (Predicate) What does Sue eat? Sue eats a sandwich. A sandwich. Where does she eat? She eats in the cafeteria. In the cafeteria. B. PRESENT PROGRESSIVE 28

Singular Plural First Person Am + Verb + -ING Are + Verb + -ING Second Person Are + Verb + -ING Are + Verb + -ING Third Person Is + Verb + -ING Are + Verb + -ING 2. Contractions of the auxiliary verb be a. With subject pronouns b. With not Singular Plural First Person I'm we're Second Person you're you're Third Person he's she's it's they're Full Form Contraction 1 Contraction 2 First Person I am not I'm not Ø Second Person he is not she is not it is not he's not she's not it's not he isn't she isn't it isn't Third Person you are not we are not they are not 29 you're not we're not they're not you aren't we aren't they aren't 3. Functions a. Indicating an action in progress at the moment of speaking Sue is eating a sandwich in the cafeteria right now. 4. Irregularities a. Spelling changes when -ING is added i. Final -E is dropped smile smiling ii. A final consonant, other than -W, -X, and -Y, is doubled when preceded by a single stressed vowel sit sitting iii. Final -IE is changed to -Y tie tying b. Verbs not used in the present progressive like hear want understand love see need know hate smell have ("own") believe taste think ("believe") be own forget exist possess remember 5. Parallelism a. The auxiliary verb be need not be repeated when two or more present progressive tense verbs are joined together by and Sue is doing her homework and is eating a sandwich.

Sue is doing her homework and eating a sandwich. 6. Sentence patterns and examples a. Affirmative statements Subject + Be + Present Participle + (Predicate) Sue is eating a sandwich. b. Negative statements Subject + Be + Not + Present Participle + (Predicate) Sue is not eating a sandwich. c. Yes/no questions Be + Subject + Present Participle + (Predicate) Is Sue eating a sandwich? d. Affirmative short answers Yes + Comma + Subject + Be Yes, she is. e. Negative short answers No + Comma + Subject + Be + Not No, she is not. f. Information questions and responses with an interrogative pronoun as a subject C. SIMPLE PAST Question Word + Be + Present Participle + (Predicate) Who is eating? Sue is eating. Sue is. Sue. g. Information questions and responses with an interrogative pronoun as an object or with an interrogative adverb Question Word + Be + Subject + Present Participle + (Predicate) What is Sue eating? Sue is eating a sandwich. A sandwich. Where is she eating? She is eating in the cafeteria. In the cafeteria. Singular Plural First Person Verb + -ED Verb + -ED Second Person Verb + -ED Verb + -ED Third Person Verb + -ED Verb + -ED 2. Contraction of the interrogative auxiliary verb with not Full Form Contraction Did did not didn't 3. Functions a. Indicating an action which began and ended at a specific time in the past Sue walked to the cafeteria yesterday. 4. Irregularities a. Spelling changes when -ED is added 30

i. Final -E is dropped smile smiled ii. A final consonant, other than -W, -X, and -Y, is doubled when preceded by a single stressed vowel stop stopped iii. Final -Y is changed to -I when preceded by a consonant cry cried b. Irregular forms See Appendix One for a list of irregular past tense forms. 5. Sentence patterns and examples a. Affirmative statements Subject + Verb + (Predicate) Sue walked to the cafeteria. b. Negative statements Subject + Did + Not + Verb + (Predicate) Sue did not walk to the cafeteria. c. Yes/no questions Did + Subject + Verb + (Predicate) Did she walk to the library? d. Affirmative short answers Yes + Comma + Subject + Did Yes, she did. e. Negative short answers No + Comma + Subject + Did + Not No, she did not. f. Information questions and responses with an interrogative pronoun as a subject Question Word + Verb + (Predicate) Who walked? Sue walked. Sue did. Sue. g. Information questions and responses with an interrogative pronoun as an object or with an interrogative adverb D. HABITUAL PAST Question Word + Did + Subject + Verb + (Predicate) What did Sue eat? Sue ate a sandwich. A sandwich. Where did she eat? She ate in the cafeteria. In the cafeteria. Singular Plural First Person Used to + Verb Used to + Verb Second Person Used to + Verb Used to + Verb Third Person Used to + Verb Used to + Verb 2. Functions a. Indicating a past situation or habit which no longer exists at the present time 31

When Sue was a student, she drank coffee at night. Sue doesn't drink coffee at night anymore. Now she wants to sleep at night. Sue used to drink coffee at night. 3. Sentence patterns and examples a. Affirmative statements Subject + Used To + Verb + (Predicate) Sue used to drink coffee at night. b. Negative statements Subject + Did + Not + Use To + Verb + (Predicate) Sue did not use to drink tea. c. Yes/no questions Did + Subject + Use To + Verb + (Predicate) Did Sue use to drink coffee at night? d. Affirmative short answers Yes + Comma + Subject + Did Yes, she did. e. Negative short answers No + Comma + Subject + Did + Not No, she did not. f. Information questions and responses with an interrogative pronoun as a subject Question Word + Used To + Verb + (Predicate) Who used to drink coffee? Sue used to drink coffee. Sue did. Sue. g. Information questions and responses with an interrogative pronoun as an object or with an interrogative adverb Question Word + Did + Subject + Use To + Verb + (Predicate) What did Sue use to drink? Sue used to drink coffee. Coffee. When did she use to drink coffee? She used to drink coffee at night. At night. E. PAST PROGRESSIVE Singular Plural First Person Was + Verb + -ING Were + Verb + -ING Second Person Were + Verb + -ING Were + Verb + -ING Third Person Was + Verb + -ING Were + Verb + -ING 2. Contractions of the auxiliary verb with not Full Form Contraction Was was not wasn't Were were not weren't 3. Functions a. Indicating an action in progress at a point of time in the past Sue was eating a sandwich at one o'clock yesterday afternoon. 32

b. Indicating a past action which was in progress at the same time as another past action Sue was eating a sandwich when Tina walked into the cafeteria. 4. Parallelism a. The auxiliary verb be need not be repeated when two or more past progressive tense verbs are joined together by and Sue was doing her homework and was eating a sandwich. Sue was doing her homework and eating a sandwich. 5. Sentence patterns and examples a. Affirmative statements Subject + Be + Present Participle + (Predicate) Sue was eating a sandwich. b. Negative statements Subject + Be + Not + Present Participle + (Predicate) Sue was not eating a sandwich. c. Yes/no questions Be + Subject + Present Participle + (Predicate) Was Sue eating a sandwich? d. Affirmative short answers Yes + Comma + Subject + Be Yes, she was. e. Negative short answers No + Comma + Subject + Be + Not No, she was not. f. Information questions and responses with an interrogative pronoun as a subject Question Word + Be + Present Participle + (Predicate) Who was eating? Sue was eating. Sue was. Sue. g. Information questions and responses with an interrogative pronoun as an object or with an interrogative adverb Question Word + Be + Subject + Present Participle + (Predicate) What was Sue eating? Sue was eating a sandwich. A sandwich. Where was she eating? She was eating in the cafeteria. In the cafeteria. F. FUTURE WITH WILL Singular Plural First Person Will + Verb Will + Verb Second Person Will + Verb Will + Verb Third Person Will + Verb Will + Verb 2. Contractions a. With subject pronouns Singular Plural 33

b. With not First Person I'll we'll Second Person you'll you'll Third Person he'll she'll it'll they'll Full Form Contraction Will will not won't 3. Functions a. Indicating an action which takes place in the future Our team will win the baseball game tomorrow. 4. Parallelism a. The auxiliary verb will need not be repeated when two or more future tense verbs are joined together by and Sue will buy the tickets for the game and will drive the boys to the stadium. Sue will buy the tickets for the game and drive the boys to the stadium. 5. Sentence patterns and examples a. Affirmative statements Subject + Will + Verb + (Predicate) Sue will buy tickets for the baseball game. b. Negative statements Subject + Will + Not + Verb + (Predicate) The boys will not buy any tickets. c. Yes/no questions Will + Subject + Verb + (Predicate) Will Sue buy the tickets? d. Affirmative short answers Yes + Comma + Subject + Will Yes, she will. e. Negative short answers No + Comma + Subject + Will + Not No, she will not. f. Information questions and responses with an interrogative pronoun as a subject Question Word + Will + Verb + (Predicate) Who will buy the tickets? Sue will buy the tickets. Sue will. Sue. g. Information questions and responses with an interrogative pronoun as an object or with an interrogative adverb Question Word + Will + Subject + Verb + (Predicate) What will Sue buy? Sue will buy the tickets. The tickets. When will she buy them? She will buy them tomorrow. Tomorrow. G. FUTURE WITH BE GOING TO 34

Singular Plural First Person Am + Going To + Verb Are + Going To + Verb Second Person Are + Going To + Verb Are + Going To + Verb Third Person Is + Going To + Verb Are + Going To + Verb 2. Functions a. Indicating an action which takes place in the future Our team is going to win the baseball game tomorrow. 3. Parallelism a. The auxiliary verb phrase be going to need not be repeated when two or more future tense verbs are joined together by and The boys are going to go to the stadium and are going to watch the game. The boys are going to go to the stadium and watch the game. 4. Sentence patterns and examples a. Affirmative statements Subject + Be + Going To + Verb + (Predicate) The boys are going to go to the baseball game. b. Negative statements Subject + Be + Not + Going To + Verb + (Predicate) The boys are not going to go to a football game. c. Yes/no questions Be + Subject + Going To + Verb + (Predicate) Are the boys going to go to the baseball game? d. Affirmative short answers Yes + Comma + Subject + Be Yes, they are. e. Negative short answers No + Comma + Subject + Be + Not No, they are not. f. Information questions and responses with an interrogative pronoun as a subject Question Word + Be + Going To + Verb + (Predicate) Who is going to go? The boys are going to go. The boys are. The boys. g. Information questions and responses with an interrogative pronoun as an object or with an interrogative adverb Question Word + Be + Subject + Going To + Verb + (Predicate) What are they going to see? They are going to see the game. The game. Where are they going to go? They are going to go to the game. To the game. H. PRESENT PERFECT Singular Plural First Person Have + Past Participle Have + Past Participle Second Person Have + Past Participle Have + Past Participle 35

Third Person Has + Past Participle Have + Past Participle 2. Contractions a. With subject pronouns Singular Plural First Person I've we've Second Person you've you've Third Person he's she's it's they've b. With not Full Form Contraction Have have not haven't Has has not hasn't 3. Functions a. Indicating an action which occurred at some unspecified time in the past Hazel has traveled around the world. b. Indicating an action which was repeated a number of times at unspecified times in the past Hazel has been to Europe several times. c. Indicating that an action began in the past and continues to the present when used with since and for Hazel has traveled a lot since she was a child. Hazel has visited France eleven times since 1992. Hazel has wanted to visit Antarctica for many years. 4. Irregularities See Appendix Two for a list of irregular past participle forms. 5. Parallelism a. The auxiliary verb have need not be repeated when two or more present perfect tense verbs are joined together by and Hazel has traveled around the world and has seen many countries. Hazel has traveled around the world and seen many countries. 6. Sentence patterns and examples a. Affirmative statements Subject + Have + Past Participle + (Predicate) Hazel has traveled around the world. b. Negative statements Subject + Have + Not + Past Participle + (Predicate) Hazel has not been to Antarctica. c. Yes/no questions Have + Subject + Past Participle + (Predicate) Has Hazel visited Europe? d. Affirmative short answers Yes + Comma + Subject + Have 36

I. PAST PERFECT Yes, she has. e. Negative short answers No + Comma + Subject + Have + Not No, she has not. f. Information questions and responses with an interrogative pronoun as a subject Question Word + Have + Past Participle + (Predicate) Who has traveled a lot? Hazel has traveled a lot. Hazel has. Hazel. g. Information questions and responses with an interrogative pronoun as an object or with an interrogative adverb Question Word + Have + Subject + Past Participle + (Predicate) What has she collected? She has collected many souvenirs. Many souvenirs. Where has she traveled? Hazel has traveled around the world. Around the world. Singular Plural First Person Had + Past Participle Had + Past Participle Second Person Had + Past Participle Had + Past Participle Third Person Had + Past Participle Had + Past Participle 2. Contractions a. With subject pronouns b. With not Singular Plural First Person I'd we'd Second Person you'd you'd Third Person he'd she'd it'd they'd Full Form Contraction Had had not hadn't 3. Functions a. Indicating an action which was completed in the past prior to some other past time or event Hazel had traveled around the world before she was twelve years old. 4. Parallelism a. The auxiliary verb had need not be repeated when two or more past perfect tense verbs are joined together by and Hazel had traveled around the world and had seen many countries before 37