What is Scientific Writing? Scientific writing is the culmination or end product of scientific research. Scientists pose questions and then perform experiments to answer their questions. The results that come from experimentation must finally be presented to the rest of the scientific community in the form of a published paper in a primary journal before the research is considered finished. If the scientific paper that showcases the research results is garbled with overly technical or flowery writing, it is unintelligible to those people it is designed to enlighten. One of the first requirements of scientific writing is clarity. Budding science students will appreciate clear research results just as much as seasoned scientists. Neither have the time to reread papers trying to figure out the significance of the research. The second requirement of clear scientific writing is to keep the language scientific but not overly technical. There are many large scientific words that can be used to impress readers, but shorter words will do just as well. If there is a need to use technical terms, they should be defined when they are first used. Scientific writing has no place for the embellishments of classical writing. Similies, metaphors, etc. belong in classical English literature and not in scientific writing. That is not to say that scientists should only read scientific journals. The person who best understands how to write in a concise, clear manner is the one who has been exposed to writing in their specialized field as well as examples from classical literature. How would you recognize a flowery phrase if you had never been exposed to one? In scientific writing the message may be lost if the language is not kept short and simple. That is not to say that a writer cannot use expression in scientific writing. Part of writing a good research paper is showing your audience how exciting your subject matter is. After all, you embarked on your research because something caught your attention and interested you. Most scientific journals ask scientists to submit papers in the IMRAD format. This acronym stands for Introduction, Methods, Results and Discussion. It is a logical organizational system that writers can follow and each section is designed as a question. For example, What question (problem) was studied? The answer to this question can be found in the Introduction. How was the problem studied? is answered in the Methods section. The Results section answers the question What were the findings? The Discussion section answers the question What do these findings mean or why are they important (the so what section)? (1). Depending on what science you are studying in, your paper organization will be a little different. For example, in organic Chemistry the Methods section would be extremely important. The reader must know all of the procedures associated with the experiment if he/she is to reproduce the experiment and test the results. In Earth Sciences papers may be more descriptive in nature. If a geologist is proposing a stratigraphic section location as a type section for a new formation or time period, the Methods section may turn into a Location and Regional Geology section. This may be followed in the Results by Lithostratigraphy and Biostratigraphy sections. But, Earth Science is a very diverse science and a Groundwater or Geophysics paper may be quite 1
similar to the organic Chemistry paper. Likewise a dinosaur Paleontology paper would have its own style because in it, a paleontologist must not only give a field location of his find, but a section is devoted to Etymology (derivation of the name or historical classification of the dinosaur). A large portion of the paper is devoted to drawings of the bones found in the field location. So, each area of Earth Sciences produces papers that are a little different from the other fields. The best way to figure out what style of paper you should produce, is to do some library research and see how authors in a similar field do it. Title: Components of a Scientific Paper The title of a scientific paper is the most important part of the article. Why? Because it is the first introduction the reader has to the material contained in the paper. Many readers skim titles and abstracts looking for suitable articles to read. If your title doesn t adequately reflect the contents of your paper, it will mislead the reader and they may not continue reading. It should grab their attention and make them want to continue reading. Titles should be neither too short, nor too long. They should be specific, not general and shouldn t contain waste words (1). Waste words can be deleted without affecting the understanding of the title. For example, Modern Volcanic Arcs is short but as a title is too general. It doesn t tell you where the arcs are located or what aspect of volcanic arcs the writer is examining (volcanic gas composition, location relative to plate margins, etc.). A longer title such as Investigations on Modern Volcanic Arcs With Respect to Lava Composition has several things wrong with it. There is no location given and although we now know that the writer was interested in Lava Composition, the words Investigations on are far too general and don t specify what properties were investigated. Investigations on is a waste word phrase. Perhaps a better title would be Ferromagnesian Content Variations In Lavas of Modern Volcanic Arcs In The Western Pacific Margin. From this title we know that the author was investigating specific chemical variations in modern lavas from western Pacific Margin volcanic arcs. The author has also included key words in the title that may be used by readers when searching for appropriate articles to read. Abstract: Second in importance to the paper title is the abstract. Here, in a maximum of 250 words (usually), the author summarizes the content of the paper so readers know whether they want to continue reading or leave the article altogether. Each section (Introduction, Methods, Results and Discussion) should be summarized and written in the past tense because the work has already been completed. An abstract may be in the primary journal preceding the original paper or it may stand alone in a publication designed specifically for abstracts such as Chemical Abstracts. Because it needs to stand alone, it must clearly identify the problem posed and the methods employed, summarize the results and state the significance of the conclusions. 2
An abstract precedes the main body of a scientific paper, but it is written after the paper has been completed. It is written as a single paragraph and must be clear and concise enough to attract the reviewer s attention. Many authors spend considerable time constructing a good abstract. They realize the importance of the abstract as a vehicle for communicating not only with their scientific peers but also with the general public. Sometimes the journal, in the Instructions to Authors, will specify the target audience for the writer. If the instructions specify the article is for scientific peers, then it can be more technical than if the audience contains the general public. There is another reason for eliminating waste words in an abstract and paper. Lengthy articles cost more to publish. So the more waste words that are eliminated, the cheaper the paper. Introduction Once the reader has been interested by the title and abstract, they must be introduced to your topic. This occurs in the Introduction. It is here that the writer clearly states the nature and scope of the problem investigated (1). The reader wants to know why this problem was investigated? What significance does it have to your science? Why should I keep reading? The writer reviews previously written background information that will help the reader understand the subject matter. The choice of method of investigation is explained in this section as well as the results of these investigations. It is here that conclusions suggested by these results are first stated. Although there is a section at the end of the document that more fully discusses the significance of these conclusions, the reader must have the conclusions here. If the paper is poorly written and boring, the reader will never get to the conclusions at the end. Materials and Methods The importance of this section is tied into the Scientific Method. For your research and experiments to be considered relevant in the scientific community, they need to be reproducible. To be reproducible, you must be meticulous in your description of the methods and materials you used. It doesn t matter that most readers will not try to reproduce your experiments. The fact remains you must provide them with the means for reproducing your results. Most readers will skip this section or skim it for essential details. Precision is important when describing materials, measurements and analyses. Those interested in reproducing your experiment must have accurate information. If the method is long and involved, subheadings may be used to guide readers through the procedure. If these subheadings mirror those of the Results section, the reader can more quickly relate the methods used to the resulting findings. Failure to fully describe your scientific method is one of the prime reasons for rejection by reviewers. If you are lazy in this section, it signals that your research may be flawed. Most of this section should be written in past tense. 3
If your research deals with a new stratigraphic section that is being proposed as a type location for a formation, this section will give the reader a description of the exact location (latitude and longitude coordinates, GPS coordinates, etc.) and how to get there. Readers need this information if they are to travel to your field area to check your research or just to view the proposed type section. Other Earth Science papers may need to describe Location and Regional Geology in this section. If the paper deals with a mapping project, this section would describe the mapping procedure (scale, whether field notes were taken using a paper copy or digitally, the length of time spent in the field, logistical problems, etc.). Results The data collected in your research is presented in this section and can be presented as descriptions, tables or graphs. This will depend on the type of research you carried out. A chemical experiment may have many numbers, chemicals, reagents, etc. associated with it. A well-done table or graph can showcase the results nicely. In Earth Sciences, this section may be more descriptive. For example in your proposed type section, each bed would need to be described as to lithology, structures present, mineralogy, faunal assemblages, etc. They would be described from oldest to youngest, but interpretation of the information is left for the Discussion section. [In your field notebook, these are the day s descriptive notes and the Discussion section equates to your Traverse Summary where you tie all of the day s information together in a believable interpretation of the data]. Discussion This section concludes your paper. In it you should interpret your Results with reference to the question or problem posed in your Introduction. It may turn out that you don t fully answer the question. In this case, honesty is extremely importance. There should be no attempt to falsify data to make it fit your model. Summarize the evidence for each conclusion you make. This is where you tie the whole story together. The Discussion should clearly state the so what of your research. Why is this research significant? How does this research contribute to your science? What questions have been raised by this research? Where can further research be concentrated? Does this research have practical applications? Does it challenge long-held views of the majority of scientists in your field? Tense in Scientific Writing: When you are referring to your own work done for the purpose of producing a research paper, use the past tense. This is because your work has not been published yet. When you refer to the published work of others, use the present tense. This is a mark of respect and treats their work as accepted knowledge. There are exceptions to this, but overall, these two rules should suffice. 4
In a scientific paper the writer will use both tenses. The Abstract is done in past tense because you are summarizing your completed, but unpublished work. The Introduction would normally have both tenses. When you are summarizing published work that has already been done on this subject, the present tense would be used. When explaining what is contained in your paper, the present may be used ( A new type section is proposed for the Dunlop Formation in this paper. ). Normally, the past tense is used in the Methods, Results and Discussion sections. 5
References 1. Day, Robert A. 1988. How to write and publish a scientific paper. 3 rd ed. Phoenix, AZ: The Oryx Press. 6