To understand various types of research reports and the audience. Reporting research findings, audience, Sponsored research, Contents of reports

Transcription

1 Details of Module and its Structure Module Detail Subject Name Paper Name Module Name/Title Module Id RMS - 34 Pre-requisites Objectives Keywords Sociological research methods, Research design To understand various types of research reports and the audience Reporting research findings, audience, Sponsored research, Contents of reports Development Team Role Name Affiliation Principal Investigator Prof. Sujata Patel Dept. of, University of Hyderabad Paper Coordinator Prof. Biswajit Ghosh Dept. of, The University of Burdwan Content Writer/Author (CW) Dr. C. Naga Lakshmi Dept. of, University of Hyderabad Content Reviewer (CR) Prof. Biswajit Ghosh Dept. of, The University of Burdwan Language Editor (LE) Prof. Biswajit Ghosh Dept. of, The University of Burdwan 1

2 Table of Contents 1. Objective Introduction Report Writing: Scope and Reason The intended audience and the report structure and style:... 5 Self-Check Exercise 1: Stages in planning and writing process Planning Writing The structure and components of the reports The Beginning and Introduction The Main Content Introduction/background/Overview: The main body of the report The End Self-check exercise Conclusion Some useful links and e-resources Glossary References

3 1. Objective In this module you will learn about writing reports for research, some formats and their use for organizations. Some links and different internet based resources, references are provided at the end of the document. 2. Introduction Research as a process involves several phases and documents produced in a sequence. The sequence and phases of progress have a definite effect on the quality of the final report and on the research documents produced at all stages. Every research/study is judged for its adequacy, quality and validity, on the basis of four such documents - the research proposal, research summary, research abstract and the research report. Research report is the main document on the basis of which the contribution of the research is judged. A research report is a formal, official statement that contains facts, is a record documentation of findings and/or is perhaps the result of a survey or investigation (Booth 1991). According to the Oxford English Dictionary, a report is a statement of the results of an investigation or of any matter on which definite information is required. Report writing can be undertaken for purposes such as: to present findings to keep records of collected information/data for documenting organisations success and failures to write about the progress of a research and/or project Many of the parts/elements of report writing are generic, but there are themes specific to report writing that make it distinctive. Reports are drafted based on factual information with data and findings. The content is intended to be objective and not to be influenced by any personal bias/feelings of the authors. One can classify reports into several types based on the purpose of research, the funding or sponsoring organization and the area of work. Reports can be documented only for information, very short and concise, for example, budgeting report, and other functions of organisations. Case studies and analysis can be another type of report writing widely used at universities for project documentation. A report for an organisation s internal audience can be in an informal format. This report can use informal conversational tone if it is addressing issues such as absenteeism, work plans and processes. For a semi-formal report, such as employee policy, a manual or a task report, the language used can be informal but can have a formalized structure. The third is a formal report with detailed structure and format, and for research, analysis and some inferences. Writing a report involves the following stages clarifying terms of reference, planning the work, 3

4 collecting data and information, organising and structuring the collected information, writing the first draft, and final proof-checking and re-drafting of report. Report writing is thus a diligent activity, as it involves collating and documenting all the facts collected through field investigation, compiled and documented following a pre-determined research design. Reports require highly structured form of writing and this could be a daunting task sometimes. There are some conventions that have been laid down to produce a common format to suit readership and/or audience. The structure and convention in written reports stress on the process by which the information is gathered to draft the report. A report can be distinguished from other forms of mainstream/traditional academic research such as the discussion paper, working paper and journal article. For example, the main differences between a report and an essay or academic/research narrative are that the essay format can be at the discretion of the author, but the report has a formal structure approved by the institution or funding agency. Again, a report is used to communicate results or findings of a project/research while an essay is for developing an argument, indepth via a sequence of paragraphs. Moreover, a report includes some graphic presentations - tables, figures, illustrations but an essay is only a prose. Finally, a report can make some recommendation for future actions but it is unusual for an academic essay to make recommendations for action although some conclusions are drawn. There is considerable amount of creativity involved in it and use of a great deal of imagery, inventive vocabulary and an elaborate style, as well as academic rigour, so that the readers are engaged and remain interested while reading it Report Writing: Scope and Reason One can divide report writing into two stages namely planning the report and the actual writing process. A prospective author writing a report must be clear about the following before s/he begins the writing The reason and purpose The content of the report The primary readership and their expectations from the report The impact/benefits of the result who are the beneficiaries, its utility to the implementing authorities The reason, purpose and scope of the report are sometimes pre-determined by the organization sponsoring the research or by the author. Important dimensions of a report are thus a) the purpose of the report and b) the scope of the report. Scope of the report includes clarity on what needs to go into the report, some guidelines on format and extent of analysis. The content of the report is also influenced by the concern for maintaining necessary academic rigour and standard even though the author s or the research team s writing capabilities very often determine such a standard. Readership and audience for the report is the next important consideration and is discussed in the following section. 4

5 2.2. The intended audience and the report structure and style: The nature of the intended audience (external or internal) is an important factor in determining the length, format, structure, language and tone/pitch for a report. The author/s aim towards dissemination of the report to some perceived audience/readers and the significance of the results documented in the report to be of value to them. Audience can thus broadly be classified as academic/specialised or wider and nonacademic. If the report is intended for a largely non-academic audience, the tone and language and style are to be prepared in a user-friendly and simple format. One key aspect of writing a report is the potential readership s level of familiarity or experience with the subject/theme of the report. If the report is for lay persons, the report needs to contain additional background information, glossary of terms and theoretical explanation of the theme/subject. If the intended audience is specialized/narrow, and comprises only the group or organization that has commissioned the report, the report has to be written keeping in mind the specific aims and objectives set by the organization or the commissioning body. This sometimes might limit the scope of the report and flexibility for the authors and it is important not to lose sight of the purpose and aims of the commissioning body while structuring the report. Whether it is specific to audience or for a wider readership, the option of writing multiple versions of the report, each catering to specific audience with and without special additional information, tone, font, writing style and explanation of terms and theme is also preferable. The presentation and content of a report can thus be structured to indicate the main points of decision, presentation of facts and information, and shaping future action to be easily understood and usable for the audience/readers. To sum up, a report can be written to suit an audience. A popular report must be able to add some increments to their knowledge; help the audience find the right information within the report; know and cater to at least some of the preferences of the intended audience and cater to their usability by designing the report format appropriately. There are some common errors that a writer should beware of and avoid. They are: Excessive jargon Verbosity Personal bias Factual inaccuracies Grammatical errors Absence of reasoning Absence of sequence Absence of reference Self-Check Exercise 1: Q 1. Can we state that report writing is different from a typical academic style of writing? 5

6 Report writing is a unique style and it differs from a typical academic exercise. Very often, the format and style of writing are decided by the sponsoring organisation. However, the reason and scope of the study for which the report is being written as well as the readership to which it is catering to, also give shapes to its style. Whereas a typical academic writing caters to the specialists in the field and is rigorous in presentation, the report can carry some more interesting illustrations and graphic presentations, tables and charts to make it more readable. Q 2. What are the main concerns for a report writer at the beginning stages? The main concerns for a report writer are to know the purpose and scope of the report being prepared. Then the writer needs to know the audience to whom the report is being sent. Another important concern is to maintain ethics while writing and avoid plagiarism from any source. Q 3. How can one classify and adopt an appropriate format for a report? The writer can adopt an appropriate style of writing and language based on the target audience, whether it is for internal consumption or for the external and specialist audience. The choice then lies in an informal and semi-formal structure and language to a complete formal structure and language for a completely research and data analysis based report. 3. Stages in planning and writing process The planning and writing process/phases for a report can be divided into three stages each. The planning phases can be divided into three stages - clarifying the brief, doing the research and organising the content. The writing stage can be divided into the analysis stage, drafting and proof reading stage. The tasks in each of these phases and stages are explained in this section Planning The first stage of planning phase for a report is the clarification of the objective of the report. The specific instructions/guidelines issued by the sponsors or organizers for writing the report are to be fully understood and internalized by the team and authors. It is important to recollect in case there was a meeting/launch of the project (for a formal project that had a launching event) and what was announced as the project objectives and format the report. Planning stage is followed by the actual data collection and research stage. This is the backbone of the report as quality of any report depends essentially on the quality of data collected and analysed. A study that fails to collect enough and reliable data from various sources would obviously fail to generate useful conclusions. The next stage is the organisation of the content. Authors need to review the notes made and group them under various heads. At this stage, the authors should retain only the relevant content for the objectives and the brief provided and must discard all the irrelevant content. The order of content should also be logical. Authors should make sure the ideas are paraphrased into words, and should avoid any plagiarising practice. 6

7 3.2. Writing Writing phase entails three stages analysis, drafting and proof reading. Analysis and writing starts with a simple description of the data gathered and then is critically examined for the evidence for substantiating the research findings. It is important to note the limitations of the research/project at this stage. Drafting the report requires a simple style without superfluous words and unnecessary details. In the content, technical terms are to be used appropriately and make reference to tables, graphs and illustrations. Proof reading stage is the final and most important one as it requires diligence and accuracy. First is to check the flow of report and whether the brief provided initially is being followed. The language, syntax, spellings all of which are enabled by the word processing software as computers are used. The numbers assigned to illustrations, tables and graphs are to be checked along with the references cited. The layout, contents page, the page numbers and captions also to be checked thoroughly. Writing needs to follow a structure and can be divided into several components. These are described in the next section. 4. The structure and components of the reports The report structure ensures ease of navigation across the document for the readers and organising the data collected. Usually the components of a report include three parts I. The Introductory (Beginning) section II. The Main (Explanatory middle) III. The End (Appendices & References) These components of a report are discussed in the next sections The Beginning and Introduction The first section is obviously an introduction which provides a background for the research study being presented in the report. It contains the following sections: A title page Copyright Contents list/table of contents List of illustrations List of tables Foreword Preface Acknowledgements List of Abbreviations/Acronyms Summary/Abstract/Executive Summary 7

8 The arrangement of the sub-sections and the sequence depends on the length and scope of the research. Lengthy reports require more structuring and sequence. To begin with, the title page should include a full title of the report, the names and affiliation of the author(s), sponsors or to whom the report is submitted, the name and address of the publisher and the date of publication. Other details that can be included in later pages are An ISBN number (if any) and a Copyright (in the inside page). The following figure, is an illustration of a sample of contents of the copyright, permissions and the ISBN details. Figure 1. Sample of a copyright Source: The contents list is very significant as helps the reader to identify the main sections of the report. Hence its preparation requires meticulous planning. Each research report shall have a table of contents tailored appropriately as per the theme of research and the topic dealt with. In the above example, the contents are arranged to explain the gender gap, its measurement and the country profiles. Since the cited report caters 8

9 to the needs of global readership, it also includes a user s guide and the associated explanation. The contents can be presented in a simple format as presented in Figure 2. Figure 2. Example of Table of Contents Source: The Global Gender Gap Report As against the format stated in figure 2, page numbers of a contents list can be put on the right side. It is a standard practice to state the full page numbers (say from 5-12) of each section and only mention the first page number of a chapter (say 5). A contents list should also mention the following before beginning the Introductory section: List of illustrations, List of tables and figures, Foreword, Preface, Acknowledgements, List of Abbreviations/Acronyms and Summary/Abstract/Executive Summary. It is however not mandatory for any report writer to mention all of them as one may not, for instance, write a Foreword or Summary/Abstract/Executive Summary sub-section in the report. 9

10 List of illustrations at the outset are numbered or linked to the particular chapter to help the reader. Other sub-sections as mentioned earlier are listed with the related aspects in the following sequence: a) A foreword and or preface can be used to draw a potential reader into the major theme of the report. This can be written by the research team or author/s, including interesting details of the report or the rationale behind the report in the preface. Many a time, subject experts known for proficiency and in depth knowledge in the central theme of the report or a person with sufficient degree of authority/respect in the discipline do write the foreword. b) In the acknowledgements section, the authors can express gratitude to all the individuals and organizations who/that were important and contributed to the research and writing, publication and production of the report in its full form. Obviously, it is a well documented practice to acknowledge the contributions of respondents, academicians and intellectuals, funding agency, research team members, support staff, library staff and others. c) All the abbreviations that are mentioned in the report should be identified and explained in a section prior to the main section primarily to help the reader. It is for the authors to include the section or not if there are no abbreviations. d) If the report is for general audience, and it includes technical terms, there is a need to include a glossary of terms at the end of the document. e) Summary/Abstract/Executive Summary is an important part of the report. This should ideally provide the reader with details aims, objectives of the report, a brief methodological overview, key findings and subsequent conclusions and set of recommendations that emanate from these. It is important to note that all readers may not read the report from cover to cover, they browse the text and focus only on sections which are relevant to their interests and needs. Hence, the summary is the most important section of the report summarizing the overall content and the findings. For example refer to the web page: The Main Content A report s main content can be organized under the following sub-sections Introduction/background/Overview: The introduction should set the context, engage the reader to understand the background of the report. This can include some details on who commissioned the report, when, and for what reasons. Some important terms of reference, resources which were available for the author to prepare the report can be mentioned and sources of information/data and how they were obtained in brief section. The structure of the report and the sub-sections are organized as per the research plan. The introductory part of a report is significant for several reasons. First, it introduces a reader to the basic theme, context and agenda of research. Second, it builds up a platform for development of detail explanation of concepts, variables and 10

11 subject matter in the rest of the report. By doing so, it also helps the author(s) to critically examine his/her arguments so as to develop new theoretical insights on the subject matter in the conclusion. Finally, it would aim to attract attention of a reader, specialist or general, for detail and elaborate study of the complete report The main body of the report This is the central/middle part and main content of the report. As mentioned in the previous section, it begins with an introduction and should set the background for the reader. It should include sufficient explanation and background details so that the main part of the report shall be fully consumed. The introduction can include the following information: Details of the origin of the report, who commissioned the report, the time frame, when and why the report was commissioned The terms of reference for the report The resources used Any limitations to the work A brief note on the sources of information used and how it was obtained The methodologies employed The structure of the report The authors usually structure the reports into parts, to analytically present the theoretical orientation if any and the several modules available for analysis. After the introduction, the main body of the report follows the predetermined structure, and is made clearer by the hierarchy of headings and sub-headings, with numberings. This can be drawn from different styles also. The structure sometimes is dependent on the funding organization s specifications or directives if any to convey the required message within these hierarchy of headings. The stylistic tools are convenient for the readers to identify and access information within the content. This also allows cross reference and easy navigation. After presenting the existing modules and a review of literature available and relevant to the report, the report presents its data, and the findings as per the funding organization s requirement. Notwithstanding differences of approach, it is a customary to begin with the general aspects of the findings like socioeconomic background of the respondents and end with critical observations and analysis. In between, the effort gets concentrated to explain reasons and factors responsible for a particular issue being researched. While doing so, the author(s) should try to explain a phenomenon from both quantitative and qualitative points of view. For instance, a table or graph containing vital information may be supplemented by case history or narratives from the field. Such triangulation allows author(s) to delve deep into the issue being researched and come out with logical, valid and reasonable explanations. If an analysis is bereft of say qualitative aspects of social life and relies only on quantitative data, the analysis may remain partial and incomplete. In sociology, in particular, attempts are made to come out with holistic explanation of events, phenomena and processes as social life is complex, heterogeneous, and fluid. This allows sociologists to reveal the limitations of purely statistical or economic analysis. The following are the examples of some reports from reputed international agencies: 11

12 Example 1: Human Development Report Example 2: World Development Report Example 3: The World Economic Forum - The Global Gender Gap Report For reports written for funded Projects, there is a detailed structure and presentation. For example, here is a structure of a research project on the work and culture in the information technology industry in India: Figure 3 Academic Research report Example of a structure and table of contents 12

13 Source: Upadhya, Carol and Vasavi, AR (2006) Work, Culture and Sociality in the Indian Information Technology (IT) Industry: A Sociological Study. Project Report. National Institute of Advanced Studies, Bangalore. %202006%20Work,%20Culture%20and%20Sociality-1.pdf The next important type of research reports are written for projects undertaken by the corporate bodies. There is a detailed structure and presentation in this type of reports also. For example, the structure of a research project - A Corporate report Deloitte - Deloitte Touche Tohmatsu India Private Limited - Resetting horizons Global human capital trends 2013 is available on the following sites - _%20(India)V1.pdf The report content cited above contains 10 findings of the human capital trends 2014 at a global level suited to the human resource community in organizations at the end of the document. Such formats are suitable for executive level readership in companies as well as general readership. It looks as follows: 13

14 Source: Reports based on research, conducted by the corporate houses/companies are creative and include executive summary and recommendations. But they are less emphatic on the theory. One can note that there is a link at the bottom of the page that asks the reader to explore the human capital trends dashboard on the internet. Conclusions, summary and recommendations form the last section of any report as one can observe in all types of reports. This section also is tailored to the funding organisation s requirement. Yet, readers expect all conclusions to summarise the basic findings of the study and evolve generalisations to a) reject a theory, b) modify a theory, or c) build a new theory. Hence, it is a normal practice to briefly state the aims and objectives of the research as well as methodology followed to conduct the study in the concluding section before stating the major findings and analysing those critically. This is also because a busy reader might only be interested in reading the conclusion The End After the main section, the last sections are for supplementing it. These include appendices, references and suggestions for further readings. Appendices can be included at the end of the report document and they are in different forms. They should be included if they add value and help reader understand the main text better, with detail that goes beyond the main content of the report. The appendices also are for the specialist/professional audience who seek details such as - methodological frameworks, questionnaires, statistical or technical information, originals of any letters and related documentation 14

15 referred to in the content of the report. The authors must exercise discretion in deciding whether the material presented is better appended or in the main text. If the authors are of the opinion that the content is to be definitely read, then it must be placed in the main text. If it is not essential, it can be appended, discussed briefly in the main text. References of books, articles, journals and other relevant documents have to be provided following a format or style as required. The last and final section is the index and this allows readers to look at key words and allows them to get to the depth of the theme or topics otherwise hidden in the main content. This is a daunting task if done manually. However, word processing software is available and enables the authors to compile index with a few commands including cross-referencing. The last and final step for a research project is publishing, production and dissemination of the report. Research reports produced for specific readership by funding organisations have few constraints in terms of the formats in which the report has to be published and also whether it can be used for articles submitted to journals. If the report is for generalised audience and has to be disseminated on a large scale, there is a need to design an appropriate cover page printed by a commercial publisher, even if it is an expensive consideration. This can be an in-house activity or it can also be outsourced to a publisher. In case of outsourcing, there is a need to strictly monitor the process of production diligently with revisions of versions to ensure quality. Apart from printing, the research reports can also be published on the internet but with copyrights and careful consideration whether it is allowed by the sponsor. Many times, websites of the sponsor present a carefully compiled summary and findings only and seek details of the reader in case he/she wants complete access to the report. Self-check exercise 2 Q 4. Academic writing and report writing formats have some similarities and contrasts. Do you agree? Explain. Report writing and academic writing are similar to the extent of presenting a phenomenon to the reader. The sections of methodology, citations and referencing are also similar for both. However, academic writing conventions are universal and the format is common, for example, a journal publication. But report writing has to be done in tune with the requirements of the sponsoring body or by considering the needs of the audience or readership. To this effect, a report can have several formats, one for the specialist and expert audience and another for the general public depending on the institution/sponsoring institution s directive. 5. Conclusion To conclude, the research report is the most important output of projects and studies conducted by organizations/individual. The key considerations on the content rest with the sponsoring organizations and the authors with audience-specific formats. The production, publishing and dissemination are also important for the sponsoring/funding organization whether it is through formal academic means, journal articles or on the internet. In all cases, research reports contribute directly or indirectly to the theme and topic concerned and subsequently to the discipline. 15

16 6. Some useful links and e-resources How to write a good report: Information only, research reports at university, case study analysis Writing formal research reports (for Government): Videos on Report Writing formats: Writing tips and reading lists: data/assets/pdf_file/0003/28578/5reportwriti ng.pdf Glossary Term APA Bibliography Citation Endnote Footnote Definition American Publishers Association A complete listing of all the material, books, articles, other reports referred to and consulted in relation to the research, including any source material not directly cited in the text, placed at the end of the document. Citation is a reference made in the text or content of a report, thesis, to a source of information. This can be in the form of a direct quotation, summarising or paraphrasing. An endnote takes the same form as a footnote but appears at the end of the chapter or book. A footnote is a reference citations and supplementary information that appears at the bottom of a book page. A reader's attention is usually directed to a footnote 16

17 through the use of a superscript character ISBN ISTC International Standard Book Number. Unique identifier for a book, or more specifically, of a tradeable item within the book trade. A different ISBN is required not only for each title (or work), but for each edition and binding (or manifestation) eg hardback, paperback, revised second edition all need different ISBNs. International Standard Text Code 8. References Baker, Therese, L. Doing Social Research (2 nd edition). New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc., Booth, P.F. Report Writing, Huntingdon: Elm Publications, Britt, Steuart Henderson. The Writing of Readable Research Reports. Journal of Marketing Research 8, no. 2 (1971): Bryman, Alan. Social Research Methods (3 rd edition). Oxford University Press,