APA Style and Research Report Writing

Transcription

1 Iranian Institute for Encyclopedia Research From the SelectedWorks of Mohammad A. Salmani Nodoushan Fall November 1, 2004 APA Style and Research Report Writing Mohammad A. Salmani Nodoushan Available at:

2 APA STYLE AND RESEARCH REPORT WRITING Mohammad Ali Salmani-Nodoushan, PhD University of Zanjan, Iran Seyyed Mohammad Alavi, PhD University of Tehran, Iran ZABANKADEH PUBLICATIONS No. 8, Bazarcheh Ketaab, Enghelab Avenue, Tehran, Iran Phone: Fax:

3 2004 by Zabankadeh Publications No 8, Bazarcheh Ketaab, Enghelab Avenue, Tehran, Iran Tel: Fax: zabankadeh.net P.O. Box: Tehran, Iran All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by photostat, microfilm, xerography, or any other means, or incorporated into any information retrieval system, electronic or mechanical, without permission in writing from the copyright owner. APA Style and Research Report Writing Authors: Mohammad Ali Salmani-Nodoushan, PhD Seyyed Mohammad Alavi, PhD Printed in Iran Salmani-Nodoushan, Mohammad Ali سلماني ن دوشن محمدعلي 1348 ا( ي پي اي استايل ا ند ريسرچ ريپرت رايتينگ). APA Style and Research Report Writing / Mohammad Ali Salmani-Nodoushan, = م زبانكده: تهران Alavi. Mohammad viii 151 ص.: مصور. ISBN: انگليسي. فهرست نويسي بر اساس اطلاعات فيپا. 1. زبان انگليسي -- معاني و بيان. 2. گزارش نويسي دانشگاهي. الف. علوي محمد Mohammad. Alavi, ب. عنوان: APA Style and Research Report Writing 808/042 2 الف 8 س / 1408 PE م كتابخانه ملي ايران APA Style and Research Report Writing مو لفان: دكتر محمدعلي سلماني ن دوشن / دكتر سيد محمد علوي انتشارات زبانكده چاپ اول 1383 تيراژ 3000 نسخه چاپ ديبا كليه حقوق براي انتشارات زبانكده محفوظ مي باشد. هرگونه نسخه برداري ترجمه متن تهيه پاسخ نامه راهنماي فارسي و هر استفاده ديگر از متن كتاب ممنوع بوده و متخلف تحت پيگرد قانوني قرار خواهد گرفت. تهران روبروي دبيرخانه دانشگاه تهران بازارچه كتاب شماره 8 تلفن: (021) فاكس: (021) قيمت: ريال صندوق پستي: ISBN: شابك:

4 CONTENTS PREFACE ACKNOWLEDGMENTS VII VIII SECTION ONE: APA STYLE CHAPTER ONE: GENERAL PRESENTATION 1. Introduction 3 2. Paper size and quality 3 3. Page margins 6 4. Paragraph indentation Line and paragraph spacing Line alignment Page header and numbering Font type and size 26 CHAPTER TWO: TABLES AND FIGURES 1. Introduction Tables Figures 38 CHAPTER THREE: FOOTNOTES AND QUOTATIONS 1. Introduction Footnotes and citations Parenthetical citations Quotations 45 III

5 CHAPTER FOUR: REFERENCES 1. Introduction References Books Secondary sources Journals and periodicals Non-print media Personal communication Government documents Electronic sources Abstracts Pamphlets and Brochures Unpublished materials Bibliographies Annotated bibliographies Final remarks 58 CHAPTER FIVE: APA INTRICACIES 1. Introduction Headings Abbreviations and punctuation Punctuation spacing Final remarks 62 SECTION TWO: LIBRARY RESEARCH CHAPTER SIX: THE LIBRARY 1. Introduction Library sources Standard references Encyclopedias Dictionaries Thesauri Almanacs and yearbooks Biography indexes and bibliographies Books Legal sources 74 IV

6 Law dictionaries Codes Administrative regulations Court decisions Periodicals and journals Government documents Pamphlets and directories Unpublished materials Masters' theses Doctoral dissertations Other unpublished sources The Internet Library search methods Note keeping Standard search methods Determination of topics Finding sources Other search methods Course work in other disciplines Readers The interdisciplinary team Browsing Importance of library research Know the original source Be more informed Be critical Final remarks 86 CHAPTER SEVEN: NOTE KEEPING 1. Introduction Note keeping Subject notes Bibliographical notes Plagiarism Word-for-word plagiarizing The patch job The paraphrase Final remarks 112 V

7 SECTION THREE: REPORTS AND THESES CHAPTER EIGHT: THE RESEARCH REPORT 1. Introduction Main sections of the report The title page Abstract Introduction Method Results Discussion List of references Appendix Sections of a journal article Final remarks 135 CHAPTER NINE: THE THESIS 1. Introduction The proposal Structure of a thesis/dissertation Final remarks 149 REFERENCES 151 VI

8 PREFACE APA Style and Research Report Writing is designed to foster in undergraduate students the skills they need for success in their research courses. The book consists of three distinct sections: APA style, Library Research, and Reports and Theses. Section one presents the basic concepts of APA style in five chapters: general presentation, tables and figures, footnotes and quotations, references, and APA intricacies. Since the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association published by the American Psychological Association (5th ed.). is a large and very detailed book, many undergraduate students find it a bit intimidating to use. Therefore, the five chapters of this section have been prepared in such a way as to make the task of complying with APA style easier for undergraduate students. A step-by-step, user-friendly, and interactive guide to the major aspects of Microsoft Word XP that students need to know is also incorporated to this section so that they can use the software for typing their final research report. Section two is composed of two chapters: The Library, and Note Keeping. Chapter six discusses the rudiments and the basic concepts of library research. It covers such topics as the sources available in the library, different library search methods, the importance of library research, and a few important hints for the library researchers. The focus of chapter seven is on the most popular library search method, note keeping. Two types of notes are discussed: bibliographical notes, and subject notes. Examples of each type are provided. In addition, the intricacies of note taking for each type are elaborated on. Plagiarism is discussed as the major pitfall in library research. Finally, a few hints are provided for the library research worker as to how they should approach the task of paraphrasing. VII

9 Section three, too, is composed of two chapters: The Research Report, and The Thesis. Chapter eight focuses on the detailed format that a modest research report should have. The different sections of the research report are discussed, along with visual illustrations to foster in undergraduate students the skills they need for writing their research reports. The final few pages of the chapter elaborate on the differences between student research reports and journal papers. Chapter nine is most useful for graduate students. A brief synopsis of the differences that exist between short research reports and masters' theses or PhD dissertations is presented. The discussions of the chapter are enriched with visual illustrations that are helpful to the graduate student in the process of writing his thesis or dissertation. AUTHORS' NOTE Dr Mohammad Ali Salmani-Nodoushan (born in 1969/1348) is an assistant professor of TEFL at the University of Zanjan, Iran. Richard W. Sorfleet (born in 1951/1329) is a member of the professional teachers' association in Ontario, Canada (Ontario College of Teachers). The Ontario College of Teachers is the professional organization to which registered teachers in Ontario must belong a sort of professional "guild" or association. Correspondence concerning this book should be addressed to the authors through the following e.mail addresses: Mohammad Ali Salmani-Nodoushan nodushan@ut.ac.ir Seyyed Mohammad Alavi smalavi@ut.ac.ir November, 2004 VIII

10 SECTION ONE APA STYLE This section presents the basic concepts of APA style in five chapters: General Presentation, Tables and Figures, Footnotes and Quotations, References, and APA Intricacies. Notice that the information presented in this section is only an updated synopsis for the information presented in the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association published by the American Psychological Association (5th ed.). That source is a large and very detailed book which many undergraduate students find a bit intimidating to use. Therefore, the five chapters of this section have been prepared in such a way as to make the task of complying with APA style easier for undergraduate students. A user-friendly and interactive guide to the major aspects of Microsoft Word XP that students need to know is also incorporated to this section so that they can use the software for typing their final research report. APA STYLE 1

11 CHAPTER ONE GENERAL PRESENTATION 1. INTRODUCTION General presentation refers to the overall appearance or look of your research report, thesis, or dissertation. The term "format" is sometimes used to signify the same point. On the whole, format includes the following considerations: paper size and quality page margins paragraph indentation line and paragraph spacing line alignment page numbering page ordering APA style requires that you stick to a fixed format. This format should not change when you submit a paper to a journal for publication. However, when you wish to submit your PhD dissertation or masters' thesis to the university, you should go by the guidelines that your university or supervisor sets. Iranian universities usually require that you go by APA style although there may be some modifications. 2. PAPER SIZE AND QUALITY APA style recommends that you type the manuscript of your research report on only one side of standard-sized heavy white bond paper, (A4- size, 20-pound bond). Some universities and supervisors may tell you that computer paper ("tractor-fed") is also acceptable. APA style does not recommend this. If your supervisor accepts computer paper, be sure that the pin hole borders must be removed. (Razor-edge is preferable.) Erasable bond and onion skin are not acceptable. If you must prepare your paper on erasable bond, prepare a good copy of your paper on a copying machine and submit the copy instead of the original. GENERAL PRESENTATION 3

12 As you have already noticed, there are different kinds of paper. Papers used in notebooks, filler papers, A4-size, legal-size, letter-size, etc. are only a few examples. Students usually use standard filler papers. However, it is highly recommended that you use A4-size paper for your research reports. An A4-size sheet of paper is centimeters. Remember that you should write or print your report on only one side of each sheet. Also notice that you should not fold your papers, and that you should keep them clean. Some teachers do not like folded and dirty papers, and this may put your scores in danger. Some supervisors do not recommend stapling the pages of your report together. Making punch holes on the left gutter and placing the report in a modest file may be preferred by some other supervisors. So make sure to ask them which method they prefer. If you type your report using Microsoft Word, make sure that the correct paper size has been selected by default. If the default paper size is not A4, you can change it very easily. There are two steps to this: On the File menu, select "page setup" (as shown in figure 1). Figure 1. Page setup selection in Microsoft Word This will open the "page setup" window (as shown in figure 2). Now you should click the "paper" tab. This will change the appearance of the 4 GENERAL PRESENTATION

13 "page setup" window. Now you can click to choose a paper size. Be sure to use A4 size (as shown in figure2). Figure 2. Page setup window in Microsoft Word (Paper Tab) After selecting the A4 size, you can either click the "ok" or the "default" button. Clicking the ok button will change the paper size for this document (the one you are working with) only, but clicking the default button will change the paper size for this and every other documents you work with hereafter. It is recommended that you click the ok button, especially if the computer is not your own personal computer. For masters' theses and PhD dissertations, however, it is better to click the "default" button because you will be typing more than one document one for each chapter, and one for each section of the front and back GENERAL PRESENTATION 5

14 matters. This helps you make sure that you do not change the paper size unwittingly across different documents. 3. PAGE MARGINS Page margins are the blank spaces around the edges of the page. In general, you insert text in the printable area inside the margins. However, you can position some items in the margins. For example, headers, footers, and page numbers normally appear in the margins. Figure 3. Page setup window in Microsoft Word (Margin Tab) When you prepare your research reports, you should leave some empty space all around the sheet of paper on which you write. If you pay attention to this page (that you are reading now), you see that there is 6 GENERAL PRESENTATION

15 some distance between the text and the edge of the page on each side. This distance is called margin. Technically, there are four margins on each sheet of paper: top, bottom, left, and right. The generally-accepted size of a margin in APA style is 2.54 cm (or 1 inch). So, you should allow a distance of 2.54 cm on each side of the sheet of paper on which you write. If you type your report using Microsoft Word, make sure that the correct margin sizes have been set by default. On the File menu, select "page setup" (as shown in figure 1 above). This will open the page setup window. If the margin tab (as shown in figure 3 above) is not the default tab, click it to see the margin window (as shown in figure 3 above). Now you should be able to use the margin setting boxes (labeled "margin setting" in figure 3 above) to set the desired margin sizes (i.e., 2.54 in APA style). Then you can click the "ok" or the "default" button. Figure 4 is the schematic representation of what is meant by page margins and gutter. Top Margin Left Margin Gutter XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX Right Margin Printable Area Bottom Margin Figure 4. Schematic representation of page margins and gutter You may want to punch (make holes in) your sheets of paper and file them. If so, you need to add an extra 1 cm space to the left edge of the GENERAL PRESENTATION 7

16 page. This extra 1 cm is called the gutter. In Persian, the gutter should be added to the right edge of the page because Persian writing is right-toleft. In your dissertation or thesis, this consideration is vital since your work needs binding, and binding requires at least this 1 cm extra space at the edge of the page. To set the gutter size and position in Microsoft Word, on the File menu, select "page setup" (as shown in figure 1 above). This will open the page setup window. If the margin tab (as shown in figure 3 above) is not the default tab, click it to see the margin window (as shown in figure 3 above). Now you should be able to use the boxes labeled "gutter setting" and "Arabic/English gutter" to set the size and position (i.e., left or right) of the gutter. Then you can click the "ok" or the "default" button. Figure 5. Page setup window in Microsoft Word (Layout Tab) 8 GENERAL PRESENTATION

17 When working with Microsoft Word, knowing how to set page layout or orientation is very important. In fact, some versions of Microsoft Word (like version 2000, and version 2002 also known as XP) are bilingual. They provide the left-to-right and right-to-left cursor movements or text direction. To avoid running into difficulties, it is better to set the page layout before starting to type your project. To set the page layout in Microsoft Word, on the File menu, select "page setup" (as shown in figure 1 above). This will open the page setup window. If the layout tab (as shown in figure 5 above) is not the default tab, click it to see the layout window (as shown in figure 5 above). Now you should be able to use the box labeled "page orientation" to set the layout (i.e., left-to-right or right-to-left) of the page. Also use the boxes labeled "header position setting" and "footer position setting" of the layout window (as shown in figure 5 above) to set the position of the header and footer of the pages of your report. By default, Microsoft Word sets both the header and the footer at a distance of 1.25 cm from the very edge of the page. When you are done, you can click the "ok" or the "default" button. But before clicking either of these buttons, take a look at the preview (as shown in figure 5 by the label "previewing") to see if the look of the page resembles that of English pages or not. If so, click the "ok" or the "default" button. If not, click the "ok" or the "default" button to return back to the typing window and then click the left-to-right button shown in figure 6. Figure 6. Left-to-right button for text direction You will read more about "header" and "footer" in the following sections of this chapter. For the time being, it is important to know what the terms "header" and "footer" mean. A header, which can consist of text or graphics, appears at the top of every page. A footer appears at the GENERAL PRESENTATION 9

18 bottom of every page. Headers and footers often contain page numbers, chapter titles, dates, and author names. In APA style, short titles are used as the header on each and every page (more on this in the following sections). 4. PARAGRAPH INDENTATION You have already learnt that margins determine the overall width of the main text area (i.e., the space between the text and the edge of the page). Indentation, on the other hand, determines the distance of the paragraph from either the margins. Within margins, you can increase or decrease the indentation of a paragraph or a group of paragraphs. You can also create a negative indent (also called outdent), which pulls the paragraph out toward the left margin in left-to-right languages like English. Firstline indent (also known as regular indent) pushes the first line of a paragraph away from the left/right margin. You can also create a hanging or dangling indent, in which the first line of the paragraph is not indented, but other lines are. Block style Indented style Xxxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxx Xxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxx Figure 7. Schematic representation of indented and block styles There are two different styles for writing the paragraphs of your research report: (a) first-line-indent mode and (b) block mode. In the first-lineindent mode, the first line of the paragraph is usually pushed a little 10 GENERAL PRESENTATION

19 away from the margin. In other words, the first letter of the first line of the paragraph does not appear over the first letter of the other lines of the same paragraph. That is, the first line of the paragraph starts from a different column than the other lines. All the other lines, however, start from the same column. This distance is called first-line indent. The length of this indent varies from 5 mm to 1.5 cm. It is a matter of your own choice. The generally-accepted length is 5 mm. In APA style, however, the start of each paragraph is indented 5-7 spaces (roughly 5 to 7 millimeters). Do not indent the abstract. If the abstract consists of more than one paragraph (e.g., in masters' theses and PhD dissertations), APA style recommends that all of the paragraphs be indented except for the first one. When the abstract is only one paragraph long, APA style prohibits indenting it in your papers or reports. There are two ways for setting paragraph indentations: (a) using the ruler tabs, and (b) using the paragraph format feature. The easiest way is to use the tabs on the ruler in your Microsoft Word to set the paragraph indentation (See figure 8). Be sure not to use the space or tab keys on your keyboard for this purpose since this can cause problems when you want to print the document on another computer as is usually the case. Figure 8. Ruler tabs and their functions In the block mode, on the other hand, the first letter of the first line of the paragraph appears exactly over the first letter of each of the other lines of the same paragraph. That is, all lines start from the same column. Compare figures 9, 10, and 11 to see how the ruler tabs should be set for block, first-line indented, and other-line indented (i.e., firstline hanging or dangling) styles, respectively. GENERAL PRESENTATION 11

20 Figure 9. Block style ruler tabs (No indentation) Figure 10. First-line indent style ruler tabs (Regular indentation) Figure 11. Other-line indent style ruler tabs (Dangling indentation) As you can see in figures 10 and 11, first-line indentation is of two types: (1) regular and (2) dangling or hanging (also called other-line indentation). In the regular type, the first line of the paragraph is pushed further in. In the hanging type, on the other hand, all lines except the first line are pushed in. Hanging indentation is normally used for listing references (or the bibliography) at the end of books, articles, research reports, and the like. Beware that APA style discourages the use of dangling indentation. Figure 12 shows the difference between hanging and regular indentation. 12 GENERAL PRESENTATION

21 Regular 1st line indentation Hanging 1st line indentation Xxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxx Xxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxx Figure 12. Schematic representation of first-line indent types A second way in which you can set paragraph indentations in Microsoft Word is by using the paragraph format feature available from the format menu on the menu bar. Select paragraph from the format menu as shown in figure 13. Figure 13. Selecting paragraph from format menu in Microsoft Word This selection will open the "paragraph" window as shown in figure 14. Once the window is open, make sure that the "indents and spacing" tab GENERAL PRESENTATION 13

22 is selected. Click the "indents and spacing" tab to select it if necessary. Then you should be able to see the following window (without the appended labels, of course). Now you can use the available features of this window to set the line alignment, text direction, line indentation, left- and right-side indentation, paragraph spacing (or the vertical distance between paragraphs), and line spacing (or the vertical distance between lines within paragraphs). You can see the changes for your settings in the preview window labeled "previewing changes" in figure 14. Once you are done, click the ok button so that your changes will take effect. Figure 14. Paragraph window in Microsoft Word In writing the paragraphs of your research report, the use of either the block mode or the indented mode is not a matter of choice. APA style requires that you use the regular first line indentation set at 5 to 7 millimeters for the paragraphs, and even for your reference items on the 14 GENERAL PRESENTATION

23 reference list. Your supervisor may want you to use hanging or dangling indentation set at 5 to 7 millimeters for the reference list of your report. Therefore, be sure to check this with your supervisor or university authorities. Where you use quotations, if the quotation is longer than 40 words, you should set it off from the foregoing and forthcoming sections of your report. Here you need to use the block style for the quotation. Notice that where APA style is not required, like in books, the American writer usually prefers the block mode whereas the British writer, on the contrary, seems to prefer the indented mode. 5. LINE AND PARAGRAPH SPACING In APA style, and in Microsoft Word, the term "spacing" is used in two different senses: (1) the vertical distance between the lines of a paragraph (called line spacing), and (2) the vertical distance between paragraphs within a text (called paragraph spacing). Line and paragraph spacing in 1st line indented style Xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx Xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx Figure 15. Schematic representation of indented style In indented mode, as figure 15 shows, the vertical distance between the lines of a paragraph is the same as the vertical distance between two or more successive paragraphs. That is, line spacing and paragraph spacing GENERAL PRESENTATION 15

24 are the same. This is the format that APA style requires you to follow in your research reports. In the reference section of your research report, APA style requires that you use single spacing for the lines of each source and double spacing between different sources. Here, you may sometimes use hanging or dangling indentation. In block mode (see figures 16 and 17), in contrast, the vertical distance between two successive paragraphs is twice as much as the vertical distance between the lines within each paragraph. That is, paragraph spacing is two times bigger than line spacing. APA style requires the block mode in two situations: (a) in quotations larger than 40 words, and (b) in the first paragraph of abstracts. Notice that in most cases abstracts are only one paragraph long. Figure 16 shows how a block quotation will look in a research report. In an attempt to make sense of the various models of communicative competence and communicative language ability, Henning and Cascallar (1992) turn to the field of cartography for a metaphor: Various kinds of two-dimensional maps have been devised as aids to navigation. Some maps are useful geographical models for ocean navigation, others for automobile navigation, and still others for wilderness trekking... none of these two-dimensional maps provides a completely accurate representation of three-dimensional reality, nor does any one kind of two-dimensional map serve every navigational purpose equally well. (Henning and Cascallar, 1992, p. 4) So it is with models of language ability. The framework Douglas develops is not offered in opposition to any others. He tries to design a map to help.... Figure 16. Example of block quotation in research report In block quotations, line spacing usually comes one step down from that of the main text. In other words, if lines of the main text are doublespaced, lines of the block quotation are one-and-a-half spaced. If, on 16 GENERAL PRESENTATION

25 the other hand, the lines of the main text are one-and-a-half spaced, lines of the block quotation are single-spaced. Line and paragraph spacing in 1st line block style Xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxxx Xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx Figure 17. Schematic representation of block style To set paragraph spacing, you can use the features of Microsoft Word available from the menu bar. Move your mouse pointer to the "format" menu and left-click to choose "paragraph" as shown in figure 13 above. This will open the "paragraph" window as shown in figure 14 above. Now you can set the vertical distance between successive paragraphs by identifying the number of points you wish to include before and/or after each paragraph. To do this, you need to use the boxes "before" and/or "after" provided under the heading "spacing" in the "paragraph" window. This feature has been labeled "vertical paragraph spacing in figure 14 above so that you can easily locate it. Using your mouse pointer, you can add the required spacing between successive paragraphs. Be sure not to use the "enter key" on your keyboard to double the vertical space between paragraphs as you would do on an ordinary typewriter since this will create problems when you want to print your document using another computer, as is often the case. To make it easier for you to understand, part of the "paragraph" window (figure 14) is reproduced for you here in figure 18. GENERAL PRESENTATION 17

26 Figure 18. Setting vertical paragraph spacing in Microsoft Word There are three standard types of vertical line spacing: (a) single spacing, (b) one-and-a-half spacing, and (c) double spacing. There are also as many non-standard types of line spacing as you can imagine. Compare the sections of figure19. Single line spacing 1.5 line spacing Double line spacing xxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxx Figure 19. Schematic representation of line spacing methods In single spacing, the distance between two given lines of a paragraph is roughly about 1 cm. In one-and-a-half spacing, as the name says, this distance is about 1.5 cm. In double spacing, the distance is about 2 cm. APA style suggests that authors use double-spacing in their research reports or papers. Your supervisor may want you to use one-and-a-half spacing or even single spacing in your masters' thesis or PhD dissertation. However, you may prefer to single space your paragraphs. It is safer to ask your supervisor or university about the proper spacing that you are required to use. 18 GENERAL PRESENTATION

27 To set line spacing, you can use the features of Microsoft Word available from the menu bar. Move your mouse pointer to the "format" menu and left-click to choose "paragraph" as shown in figure 13 above. This will open the "paragraph" window as shown in figure 14 above. To make it easier for you to understand how to set line spacing, part of the "paragraph" window (figure 14) was reproduced for you in figure 18 above. Use the "line spacing" feature of the "paragraph" window (see figures 14 and 18) to set line spacing. Shortcut buttons of the main window of Microsoft Word provide another method of setting "line spacing." Click the appropriate shortcut button and you are there (See figure 20). Figure 20. Setting vertical line spacing in Microsoft Word 6. LINE ALIGNMENT You have already learnt that many factors tell you how text is positioned. Margins control the distance from the edge for all the text on a page. Spacing controls the space needed between lines, and before and after paragraphs. Paragraph indentation and alignment tell you how paragraphs fit between the margins. Alignment refers to the appearance of the edges of the paragraph. On the whole, there are four types of horizontal paragraph alignment: (a) leftaligned, (b) right-aligned, (c) centered, and (d) justified. The most common type of paragraph alignment is left alignment. In a left-aligned paragraph, the left edge of the paragraph is flush with the left margin. In a right-aligned paragraph, on the other hand, the right edge of the paragraph is flush with the right margin. A justified paragraph is one GENERAL PRESENTATION 19

28 which has been aligned on both sides. That is, the left edge of the paragraph is flush with the left margin, and the right edge with the right margin. Center alignment is somewhat different. Here you can imagine a midline that passes across the length of the printable area of the page. The center of each line of the paragraph should be flush with this imaginary line. As such, the appearance of your paragraph will become symmetrical. Center alignment is used for specific purposes like in the title page of books. Left alignment Right alignment Xxx xx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xx xx xxx xx xx xx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xx xx xx xx xx xxxx xxx xxx xxx xx xxx xx xx xx xx xx xx xx xx Center alignment Xxx xx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xx xx xxx xx xx xx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xx xx xx xx xx xxxx xxx xxx xxx xx xxx xx xx xx xx xx xx xx xx Justified alignment Xxx xx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xx xx xxx xx xx xx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xx xx xx xx xx xxxx xxx xxx xxx xx xxx xx xx xx xx xx xx xx xx Xxx xx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xx xx xxx xx xx xx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xx xx xx xx xx xxxx xxx xxx xxx xx xxx xx xx xx xx xx xx xx xx Figure 21. Schematic representation of alignment types Another common type of alignment is called vertical alignment (sometimes called vertical indent). It controls the paragraph's position relative to the top and bottom margins. This is useful, for example, when you re creating a title page, because you can position text precisely at 20 GENERAL PRESENTATION

29 the top or center of the page, or justify the paragraphs so that they are spaced evenly down the page. To this end, you can use the "paragraph spacing" feature of Microsoft Word discussed above, and illustrated by figures 14, and 18. Shortcut buttons of the main window of Microsoft Word provide another method of setting "line alignment." Click the appropriate shortcut button and you are there (See figure 22). Figure 22. Setting line alignment in Microsoft Word APA style employs two types of alignments: (a) left alignment, and (b) center alignment. The information presented on the title page of your project needs to be presented with the center-alignment format. The rest of the report will be left-aligned. However, your supervisor may want you to use other forms of alignment. Thus, it is recommended that you consult your supervisor to make sure which form of alignment you should use in your research reports. Please understand that it is very difficult and almost impossible to justify paragraphs when you are not using a word processor installed in the hard disk of your personal computer that runs under graphic mode one like Microsoft Word. Therefore, hand-written or mechanically typed reports by means of regular typewriters should be left-aligned. You are not allowed to write in the right margin. When you approach the end of each line, you should decide whether the next word is small enough to go within the remaining space. If not, you can do one of the two things: (a) syllabify the word, or (b) move it to the next line. Notice that syllabification should not be haphazard. You cannot break a word at any place you like. There are rules for it. Many dictionaries, like the American Heritage Dictionary, tell you where to break words. They GENERAL PRESENTATION 21

30 indicate separate syllables, usually by a heavy black dot in the first entry. For example, the word English may look like En glish, the word dictionary like dic tion ar y, etc. The dots tell you where to break the word. If you need to break the word English, you can only do this after the letter n. Similarly, you can break the word dictionary at one of the three places (that is, after the letters c, n, r). The first part is written at the end of the line and is followed by a hyphen (-). No hyphen is needed at the beginning of the next line. The rest of the word goes to the beginning of the next line. Take the following example: Jack really loves Mary. He knew that Mary loved convertible cars. He went to the.... As the example shows, the word convertible has been broken into two parts: convert and ible. 7. PAGE HEADER AND NUMBERING On the top right-hand side of every page of the paper (or research report) a few words of the title (usually the running head) will appear. In APA style this is called the "short title." It is an "abbreviated title" which will appear on each page of the report if it is published. It should be capitalized and no more than 50 characters (letters, spaces, punctuation included) in length. Five spaces along (i.e., roughly about 5 millimeters) is the page number (See figure 23). running text distance (5-7 mm) page number short title Research Reports 36 more successive paragraphs. That is, line spacing and paragraph spacing are the same. This is the format that APA style requires that you to follow when.... Figure 23. Page header and number at upper right corner of page You don't need to type these on every page yourself: use the 'header and footer' function of your Microsoft Word, and they will appear automatically on each page. 22 GENERAL PRESENTATION

31 Figure 24. Selecting "page numbers" from insert menu As shown in figure 24, from the insert menu on the menu bar, select "page numbers." This should open the following dialogue box: Figure 25. Page number window in Microsoft Word Now, use the features of this dialog box to set the page numbers. Select the "Top of page (Header)" as the position, and "Right" as the alignment. Then click ok. The page numbers will automatically appear on each page. To format the page number (i.e., to decide on Arabic/Roman/other numerals as well as to select the starting page number for chapters GENERAL PRESENTATION 23

32 within books, theses, and dissertations), you can click the format button. The following dialog box (figure 26) will appear and you can adjust the settings you want: Figure 26. Formatting page numbers in Microsoft Word Figure 27. Selecting header and footer in Microsoft Word To place the "short title" next to the page numbers, from the menu bar, select the "view" menu and then "Header and Footer" as shown in figure 24 GENERAL PRESENTATION

33 27 above. Once you have selected the header and footer option, the following dialog box will appear on the screen: Figure 28. Customizing header/footer in Microsoft Word You will be able to locate the blinking cursor. Now you should decide whether you want to put the short title as the footer or the header (APA style says that it should be placed as the header on the upper right-hand side of the page at a distance of 5 millimeters from the page number). You should use the left mouse button to click the appropriate place header of footer (the mouse pointers in figure 28 above identify the header and footer boxes). The blinking cursor is moved to that position. Now, you can type the short title and adjust its position relative to the page number by means of the tabs on the ruler, line alignment buttons, and text direction (language selection) buttons identified in figure 28 above. You can also set the font and type face of the page header and page the number as shown in figures 29 and 30 below. Once you are done, click the close button to return to the typing window. Now you will see the header and the page number on the pages of your report as an embedded opaque image. In masters' theses and PhD dissertations, like in books, chapter titles may replace the short title. In addition, footers may be used instead of GENERAL PRESENTATION 25

34 headers. This is, however, determined by your supervisor or university. So, before deciding to use footers, or chapter titles, ask your supervisor or university authorities which one they prefer. 8. FONT TYPE AND SIZE Normally the font used in APA style is Times New Roman, set in 12 points (the font you are reading right now). The term "font" refers to the appearance of the typed letters. Compare the appearances of the fonts in table 1: FONT NAME FONT SIZE FONT APPEARANCE Times New Roman 12 pt AaBbCcDdEeFfGgHhIiJj BordeauxLight 12 pt AaBbCcDdEeFfGgHhIiJj Comic Sans MS 12 pt AaBbCcDdEeFfGgHhIiJj HandelGothic BT 12 pt AaBbCcDdEeFfGgHhIiJj Table 1. Examples of font name, size, and look It is very easy to set the font and its size for your research project. Take a look at the following figure: Figure 29. Font name and size selection in Microsoft Word 26 GENERAL PRESENTATION

35 You can move the mouse pointer to the fields labeled "name of selected font" and "size of selected font" in figure 29 to select the appropriate font and set its size. Notice that most fonts can have four different appearances (called type face): regular, bold, italic, and bold-italic. Take a look at table 2: Times New Roman Courier New Arial Regular America America America Bold America America America Italic America America America Bold-italic America America America Table 2. Examples of different type faces In addition to the selection of appropriate type face, APA style sometimes requires that some parts of the text of your research report be underlined. These adjustments can easily be achieved by the shortcut buttons of the main window of Microsoft Word (See figure 30). Figure 30. Type face shortcut buttons in Microsoft Word To set the appropriate type face, move the mouse pointer to the appropriate button and left-click. To use the bold-italic type face, you need to left-click both the bold and the italic shortcut buttons. Also notice that these adjustments take effect only after you have selected the text to be modified. To do this, you need to click, and hold the left GENERAL PRESENTATION 27

36 mouse button down and drag your mouse over the text you want to modify. This will highlight the text (as shown in figure 31 below). Then you can release the mouse button, move its pointer to the appropriate type-face button, and click the left mouse button. Now, you should be able to see the change. Notice that text buttons show the direction in which the blinking cursor moves as you type your report. Figure 31. Selecting text and changing its type face in Microsoft Word 28 GENERAL PRESENTATION

37 CHAPTER TWO TABLES AND FIGURES 1. INTRODUCTION If you are using tables and figures (graphs) to present the results of your study, you should consult the APA publication manual for the requirements (see pp of the manual). A brief synopsis is provided in this chapter for quick reference. 2. TABLES In APA style, tables and their captions should follow a very strict format. Take the following example: Table 1 Correlation between Perceived Control and Well-being for Males and Females Figure 1 shows how tables appear in a research report in accordance with APA style: Table 16 Specification of Devices Used by US Army Code Type Utility Cost GDPN 117 code 23 USAF $ GNCT 123 code 67 USMF $ UPOV 325 code 89 USSF $ Figure 1. Appearance of a typical table in APA style TABLES AND FIGURES 29

38 This is the recommendation of APA style for papers and research reports. However, in books, theses, and dissertations, the writers or their supervisors may prefer some variations. Therefore, you should consult your supervisor to make sure if you can deviate from APA style or not. It is very easy to draw tables in Microsoft Word once you know how many columns and rows you need for your table. There are a few methods for this. Two of the methods of inserting tables into your documents in Microsoft Word are easier than the others: (a) The shortcut table button, and (b) the table menu. To insert a table using the shortcut button, click that part of the document where you want to create a table. This will move the blinking cursor to that place. Then, click the table shortcut button (see figure 2 below) on the standard shortcut bar and drag to select the number of rows and columns you want as shown in figure 2. Once the correct number of rows and columns has been selected, click the left mouse button once more. This will place the table in the document. Figure 2. Inserting table using shortcut key in Microsoft Word The second method of inserting tables in word documents is through the use of the table menu from the menu bar. To insert a table using this method, click where you want to create a table to move the blinking cursor to that position. Then, on the Table menu, point to Insert, and then click Table as shown in figure 3 below. 30 TABLES AND FIGURES

39 Figure 3. Inserting table using table menu in Microsoft Word This will open the table dialogue box as shown in figure 4. Figure 4. Inserting table using table menu in Microsoft Word Now, under Table size, select the number of columns and rows. Under AutoFit behavior, choose options to adjust table size. To use a built-in table format, click AutoFormat. This will open the table autoformat dialogue box as shown in figure 5 below. Now, you should be able to TABLES AND FIGURES 31

40 select the options you want. For APA style, select Table List 3 under Table style. Then click ok. You will return to insert table dialogue box (figure 4). Click ok to return to the main window of word. The selected table is now inserted in the place you chose for it. Figure 5. Auto-formatting table in Microsoft Word You can use the font size, font name, type face, and line alignment windows and shortcut buttons to change the appearance of your tables. Another good technique is to click and drag those cells, rows, columns and even the whole of the table that you want to modify so that they will be selected or highlighted. Then, you should move your mouse pointer 32 TABLES AND FIGURES

41 to the highlighted area and click its right button to open the table customization menu as shown in figure 6 below. Now you can customize your table as you like. Figure 6. Built-in table customization menu in Microsoft Word In order to highlight the whole of the table at once, you need to move the mouse pointer to the upper left edge of the table (in Persian to the upper right edge) to see the "anchor" as shown in figure 7. Figure 7. Table anchor in Microsoft Word By left-clicking the anchor, you will see that the whole of the table will be highlighted (or blocked). Now, move your mouse pointer to the highlighted area and right click to open the built-in table customization menu as shown in figure 6 above. Use the available options of this menu to customize your table as you wish. One of the most important skills you need to master to be able to comply with APA style is to know how TABLES AND FIGURES 33

42 to change the appearance and weight (or thickness) of the table grids (i.e., vertical and horizontal lines that keep table cells apart) and the table box (that is, the very external table grids). To customize the table grids, from the built-in customization menu select "borders and shading" (see figure 6). This will open the table "border and shading" dialogue box as shown in figure 8. Figure 8. Table border and shading dialogue box in Microsoft Word The options of this dialogue box are identified by black mouse pointers in figure 8. You can use these click points to customize your table. Notice that the preview represents the highlighted area of the table that you have already selected. If you have highlighted the whole table, the preview represents the whole table. If you have selected only one cell you will see only one box in the preview which represents that one cell. Clicking any of the vertical or horizontal lines in the preview area will cause a change in the corresponding area of the table. Before clicking the preview-area lines, you need to select the kind of style, color, and width that you want to apply to the highlighted area of the table. After setting your desired changes, click ok to return to the main window of 34 TABLES AND FIGURES

43 Microsoft Word where you can see the changes in your table. To comply with APA style, after highlighting the whole of the table (click the anchor (see figure 7)), right click it and select the "borders and shading" option (see figure 6) to open the "borders and shading." In the preview area of the "borders and shading" dialogue box (as shown in figure 8), click the vertical lines to remove them and then click ok. Figure 9. Comparing table highlighted area 1 and the preview area If you select two or more cells vertically (or even a complete column), the preview window will look like the one shown in figure 9. Here, all the internal grid lines of the selected area will be represented by the mid line in the preview area of the "borders and shading" dialogue box. TABLES AND FIGURES 35

44 If, on the other hand, you select two or more cells horizontally (or even a complete row), the preview window will look like the one shown in figure 10. Here, all the internal grid lines of the selected area will be represented by the mid line in the preview area of the "borders and shading" dialogue box. Figure 10. Comparing table highlighted area 2 and the preview area In addition, if you select a few cells both vertically and horizontally (or even the whole table), the preview window will look like the one shown in figure TABLES AND FIGURES

45 Figure 11. Comparing table highlighted area 3 and the preview area Here, all the internal vertical grid lines of the selected area will be represented by the vertical mid line, and all the internal horizontal grid lines of the selected area will be represented by the horizontal mid line of the preview area of the "borders and shading" dialogue box. To set the shading of the table, or cells of the table, follow the steps as shown by figures 6 and 8 above. Make sure that the shading tab (labeled "shading tab" in figure 8 above) is selected. If not click to select it. This will open the dialogue box shown in figure 12. Now you can use the features of this dialogue box to customize the shading as you wish. TABLES AND FIGURES 37

46 Figure 12. Table shading dialogue box in Microsoft Word The shading feature is excellent when you want to show contrast between different cells of a table. In APA style no shading is required. In dissertations, theses, and books you may use this feature. 3. FIGURES Figures are also numbered consecutively (Figure 1, Figure 2) but separately from tables. The figure caption is presented below the figure that it refers to. In the figure caption, the word 'Figure' and the number of the figure is underlined, however the title is not underlined (see the example below). Unlike tables, the main words in the caption are not capitalized (only the first word is). The figure caption finishes with a period. For example: Figure 1. Comparison of mean perceived control scores for males and females. 38 TABLES AND FIGURES

47 The following figure shows how a figure will appear in a paper or research report in accordance with APA style: Mean score IELTS TBRT-GM TBRT-AM TBRT-EM 1 0 Proficient Fairly-Proficient Semi-Proficient Non-Proficient Subjects' proficiency level Figure 3. Mean plot for subjects sentence-completion task performance. TABLES AND FIGURES 39

48 CHAPTER THREE FOOTNOTES AND QUOTATIONS 1. INTRODUCTION Traditionally, a footnote was normally defined as a note at the bottom of a page, giving further information about something mentioned in the text above. A reference number or symbol would usually be printed after the relevant word in the text and before the corresponding footnote at the foot of the page. More recently, the term "footnote" has been extended to mean 'an extra comment or information added to what has just been said within the text' (usually within parentheses). APA style uses the label "parenthetical citation" to refer to this kind of footnoting. 2. FOOTNOTES AND CITATIONS In APA style, footnotes take one of the two forms: (a) traditional footnoting style, and (b) parenthetical citations. The former is sparingly used when you want to draw the readers' attention to important information. Here, you will place a superscribed number after the text that requires the footnote. In the past, the footnote would be presented at the foot of the page being set off from the main text by a line, and carrying the same numeral code (See figure 1). Spacapan (1991). There are two aims of this study: (a) to explore the relationship between perceived control of internal states as measured by the PCOISS 1 and psychological wellbeing as Perceived Control of Internal States Scale Elements of footnote Figure 1. Traditional footnoting method FOOTNOTES AND QUOTATIONS 41

49 Recently, however, footnotes are presented at the end of the paper or research report on a separate page that carries the heading "Footnotes." 3. PARENTHETICAL CITATIONS "Parenthetical citation" is the technical term used in APA style to refer to a popular form of footnoting. Your readers should be able to discover without undue fuss the source of any language or ideas you have used in writing your paper/project that are not your own. This is an important part of being a responsible member of the academic community. When you use the ideas or language of someone else, you can refer your readers easily to that resource by using something called a parenthetical citation. Within parentheses, at the end of the "quoted language" or "borrowed idea," key words should be used that refer your readers to your page of references, where the readers can then find out whatever bibliographic information is necessary to track down that resource. The APA system of citing sources indicates the author's last name and the date, in parentheses, within the text of your paper or project (i.e., inline with the main text of your report or paper. Figure 2 shows how a parenthetical citation will look within the running text: (Wesche, 1992). In this context, performance testing borrowed from the field of vocational testing in which a test taker needs to carry out realistic tasks applying language skills in actual or simulated settings (Carroll and Hall, 1985). The criteria used for.... Figure 2. Example of parenthetical citation The commonest form of parenthetical citation of an entire work or source consists of the author's last name followed by a comma and the year of publication. Example: (Jason,1994) (Bachman, 1990) Use the last name only in both first and subsequent citations, except when there is more than one author with the same last name. In that case, use the last name and the first initial. Example: (Jason, K.,1994) (Bachman, L., 1990) If the author is named in the text, only the year is cited. 42 FOOTNOTES AND QUOTATIONS

50 Example: According to Irene Taylor (1990), the personalities.... If both the name of the author and the date are used in the text, parenthetical reference is not necessary. Example: In a 1989 article, Gould explains Darwin's.... Parenthetical citations are needed when you quote the language of other people. In this case, the page number(s) should follow the year. Specific citations of pages or chapters follow the year. Example: Emily Bronte "expressed increasing hostility for the world of human relationships, whether sexual or social" (Taylor, 1988, p. 11). As you see, in the above example, the language of Taylor (1988) has been quoted from page 11 of his work. In this case, the following formula has been used: (Author's last name + comma + year + comma + p. +page number) If the quotation is made from two or more pages, the system needs some variations. For consecutive pages pages that follow each other a hyphen (-) is used; for non-consecutive pages, on the other hand, the page numbers are set off by means of commas. The hyphen means "to" and the comma means "and" in parenthetical citations of this type. Take the following examples: Example Consecutive pages: (Jason, 1994, pp ) Non-consecutive pages: (Jason, 1994, pp. 23, 27, 36) Some universities (or even your supervisor) may want you to use a colon (:) between the year and the page numbers instead of using the abbreviations p. or pp. This is part of Modern Language Association (MLA) style. Therefore, you need to ask your supervisor about the preferred style. Take the following examples: APA MLA Single page: (Jason, 1994, p. 23) (Jason, 1994: 23) Consecutive pages: (Jason, 1994, pp ) (Jason, 1994: 23-37) Non-consecutive pages: (Jason, 1994, pp. 23, 27) (Jason, 1994: 23, 27) FOOTNOTES AND QUOTATIONS 43

51 When the reference is to a work by two authors, cite both names each time the reference appears. Example: Sexual-selection theory often has been used to explore patterns of various insect mating (Alcock & Thornhill, 1983)... Alcock and Thornhill (1983) also show.... When the reference is to a work by three to five authors, cite all the authors the first time the reference appears. In a subsequent reference, use the first author's last name followed by "et al." (meaning "and others"). Example: Patterns of Byzantine intrigue have long plagued the internal politics of community college administration in Texas (Douglas, et al., 1997) When the reference is to a work by six or more authors, use only the first author's name followed by "et al." in the first and all subsequent reference. The only exceptions to this rule are when some confusion might result because of similar names or the same author being cited. In that case, cite enough authors usually three of them so that the distinction is clear. When the reference is to a work by a corporate author, use the name of the organization as the author. Example: Retired officers retain access to all of the university's facilities (Columbia University, 1987, p. 54). Personal letters, telephone calls, correspondence (note that APA's preferred spelling is ), and other material that cannot be retrieved are not listed in References (at the end of your research report) but are cited in the text. Example: Jesse Moore (telephone conversation, April 17, 1989) confirmed that the ideas.... Parenthetical references may mention more than one work, particularly when ideas have been summarized after drawing from several sources. Multiple citations should be arranged as follows. Examples: List two or more works by the same author in order of the date of publication: e.g., (Chomsky, 1987, 1989) 44 FOOTNOTES AND QUOTATIONS

52 Differentiate works by the same author and with the same publication date by adding an identifying letter to each date: e.g., (Bloom, 1987a, 1987b) List works by different authors in alphabetical order by last name, and use semicolons to separate the references: e.g., (Finch, 1989; Smith, 1983; Tutwiler, 1989). 4. QUOTATIONS APA style instructs writers to document quotations, paraphrases, summaries, and other information from sources as follows: "Document your study throughout the text by citing by author and date the works you used in your research. This style of citation briefly identifies the source for readers and enables them to locate the source of information in the alphabetical reference list at the end of the article" (Publication Manual, p. 207). When using APA style, you should consult the Publication Manual for general style requirements (e.g., style for metric units) and for advice on preparing manuscripts and electronic texts. You can remember from the preceding section that language quoted directly from other people should be identified by the use of parenthetical citations that show, the author's name, year of publication, and page number(s). Short quotations (fewer than 40 words) are incorporated into the text, enclosed by double quotations marks ("), and followed by parenthetical citations. Line spacing for short quotations is the same as line spacing for the main text of the report. Take a look at figure 3: the following claim: "We are rarely concerned just with the particular performance per se but also with the knowledge, skill, and other attributes that enable both the given performance and a range of other performances engaging the same knowledge and skills" (Messick, 1994, p. 16). This suggests that constructs like relevant knowledge and skills, rather.... Figure 3. Example of in-line quotation FOOTNOTES AND QUOTATIONS 45

53 Long quotations of 40 or more words are displayed in a double-spaced block of typewritten lines with no quotation marks. APA style suggests that you do not single space; however, some instructors will require that indented quotations be single-spaced, especially when quoting poetry, which loses some of its formal characteristics when double-spaced. Check with your instructor before single-spacing quotations. Indent five spaces from the left margin and type the entire quotation on the indented margin without the usual opening paragraph indentation. If the quotation is more than one paragraph, indent the first line of the second and additional paragraphs five spaces from the already indented margin that is, ten spaces from the left margin. Take a look at figure 4: (Bachman, 1990, p. 312). Skehan hypothesizes a similar problem in another domain that of a waiter in a restaurant: Although at first sight 'waiter behavior' might seem to be a straightforward affair, we soon need to ask questions like: what range of customers needs to be dealt with? What range of food is to be served? Once one probes a little, the well-defined and restricted language associated with any role is revealed to be variable, and requiring a range of language skills. (Skehan, 1984, p. 216) Tests developed in the real-life mold, which equate language ability with a specific language performance, are analogs to the training courses.... Figure 4. Example of block quotation If you have a quotation within a block quotation, enclose it in double (") quotation marks. If you have a quotation within a short quote (one incorporated within the text), enclose it within single quotation marks ('). Ellipsis points (... ) are used to indicate omitted material. Type three periods with a space before and after each period to indicate omission within a sentence (... ). To indicate an omission between sentences, type a punctuation mark for the sentence followed by three spaced periods (.... ) (?... ) (!... ). When a period or comma occurs with 46 FOOTNOTES AND QUOTATIONS

54 closing quotation marks, place the period or comma within the closing quotation mark. Put any other punctuation mark outside the quotation marks unless that mark is part of the quoted material (See figures 5 and 6). Douglas claims "A specific purpose language test.... allows us to make inferences a bout a test taker's capacity to use language in the specific purpose domain." (2000, p. 19) Figure 5. Ellipsis points in in-line quotations Douglas (2000) proposes a more precise definition of specific purpose language tests: A specific purpose language test is one in which test content and methods are derived from an analysis of a specific purpose target language use situation... allowing for an interaction between the test takers' language ability and specific purpose content knowledge, on the one hand, and the test tasks on the other. Such a test allows us to make inferences about a test taker's capacity to use language in the specific purpose domain. (Douglas, 2000, p. 19) Douglas discusses reasons for wishing to develop 'specific purpose language' tests, and notes that language performance.... Figure 6. Ellipsis points in block quotations Copy quoted passages exactly as they appear in the original. Permit errors to stand, but call attention to them by adding the notation [sic] FOOTNOTES AND QUOTATIONS 47

55 immediately after their occurrence in a passage. If you insert a word or phrase to clarify a quotation, enclose the addition in brackets. Example: "A former department head [James Damber] wrote...." In this example, "James Damber" has been added to the quotation. If you change the type face (i.e., italicize, underline, ) of some parts of the quoted material, indicate the change in parentheses. Take the following example: Douglas claims "A specific purpose language test.... allows us to make inferences a bout a test taker's capacity to use language in the specific purpose domain." (2000, p. 19) (italics mine) Figure 7. Indicating your additions in quotations 48 FOOTNOTES AND QUOTATIONS

56 CHAPTER FOUR REFERENCES 1. INTRODUCTION Throughout your paper or research report, you must acknowledge the sources of all the information that you provide (quotations or references). You have already learnt how to do this by means of parenthetical citations. In addition to parenthetical citations, APA style requires that you provide an alphabetical list of references at the end of your report after its conclusion section. 2. REFERENCES According to APA style, the sources in a paper or research report should be listed alphabetically on a separate page headed References. It follows the final page of the text and is numbered. Entries appear in alphabetical order according to the last name of the author; two or more works by the same author appear in chronological order by date of publication. When there are two or more books or articles by the same author, repeat the name of the author in each entry. Two or more works by the same author with the same publication date are identified by lower-case letters of the alphabet. Do not double space the distance between different sources. Do not use first-line hanging or dangling indentation in your reference list either. In listing the references of your report or paper, notice that the title of books and journals must be italicized unless your are using regular typewriters that lack this feature. Here you need to use underlining instead of italicizing the book/journal title. To give you an insight as to how different types of sources should be listed in your References section, a few examples are provided here. REFERENCES 49

57 When using these examples, it is important to follow the suggested pattern closely, even to the spacing of periods, commas, etc BOOKS Books fall into a few categories. Each kind requires referencing of its own. There are seven major kinds of books: (a) single-author books, (b) multi-author books, (c) editions other than first, (d) edited volumes, (e) books without author or editor listed, (f) multi-volume works, and (g) multi-author articles in a multi-author volume. Examples of reference for each kind have been presented here. Notice that the abbreviation et al. (for "and others") is not used in the reference list, regardless of the number of authors, although it can be used in the parenthetical citation of material with three to five authors (after the initial citation, when all are listed) and in all parenthetical citations of material with six or more authors.. Single-author books Alverez, A. (1970). The savage god: A study of suicide. New York: Random House. Multi-author books Natarajan, R., & Chaturvedi, R. (1983). Geology of the Indian Ocean. Hartford, CT: University of Hartford Press. Hesen, J., Carpenter, K., Moriber, H., & Milsop, A. (1983). Computers in the business world. Hartford, CT: Capital Press. Editions other than first Creech, P. J. (1975). Radiology and technology of the absurd (3rd ed.). Boston: Houghton-Mifflin. Edited volumes Stanton, D. C. (Ed.). (1987). The female autograph: Theory and practice of autobiography. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. If you are referring to an article or signed chapter in an edited volume, your reference would look like this: 50 REFERENCES

58 Pepin, R. E. (1998). Uses of time in the political novels of Joseph Conrad. In C. W. Darling, Jr., J. Shields, & V. B. Villa (Eds.), Chronological looping in political novels (pp ). Hartford: Capital Press. Books without author or editor listed Webster's New Collegiate Dictionary. (1961). Springfield, MA: G. & C. Merriam. Multi-volume works To refer to a single volume, include only the relevant date and volume number; to refer to another volume in the work, create another entry. Nadeau, B. M. (Ed.). (1994). Studies in the history of cutlery. (Vol. 4). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. Multi-author articles in a multi-author volume Pepin, R.E., Darling, C.W., & Villa, V. (1997). Poe and the French symbolistes. In P. Wursthorn, Jr., J. Darling, & J. Brother (Eds.), The era of decadence (pp ). Hartford, CT: Woodland Press SECONDARY SOURCES A secondary source is one in which material has been quoted from another source. To cite from a secondary source is to use material that is quoted or paraphrased elsewhere when you do not use the original resource. Here, your reference should include the source of your language (or idea): Affleck, M., Allen, R., & DeLoatch, K. (Eds.). (1997). Whatever happened to the humanities? Studies in Byzantine Intrigue, 77, Note that in the above example, the italicized 77 is a volume number, not a page number. In your text the body or main content of the paper or report, you would quote or paraphrase the idea that Affleck has quoted or used, as follows: REFERENCES 51

59 As Villa trenchantly points out, "Perhaps the conflict seems so strong because the stakes are so low." (as cited in Affleck, Allen, & DeLoatch, 1997, p. 21) JOURNALS AND PERIODICALS In reference to journals or periodicals, use inclusive page numbers. Do not use the abbreviations "p." or "pp." unlike what you did in the main text of the paper or report. Take the following examples: Heyman, K. (1997). Talk radio, talk net. Yahoo!, 3, Maddux, K. (1997, March). True stories of the internet patrol. NetGuide Magazine, Periodicals without volume numbers Include month and day (if any) as well as the year. Months are not abbreviated. Military style is not used for dates (not 2 April; instead, use April 2). Page numbers are not condensed (not ; instead, use ). Discontinuous pages are cited in full (1A, 9A; not 1A+). Take the following example: Grover, R. (1988, September 19). A megawatt power play. Business Week, Newspaper articles If the article is "signed" (that is, you know the author's name), begin with that author's name. (Notice the discontinuous pages.) Poirot, C. (1998, March 17). HIV prevention pill goes beyond 'morning after'. The Hartford Courant, pp. F1, F6. If the author's name is not available, begin the reference with the headline or title in the author position. New exam for doctor of future. (1989, March 15). The New York Times, B REFERENCES

60 2.4. NON-PRINT MEDIA Non-print media includes films, cassettes, musical recordings, and so on. Reference to these materials has its own specific style. The following examples show how you can write references of this kind. Films Redford, R. (Director). (1980). Ordinary people [Film]. Paramount. Films of limited circulation Holdt, D. (Producer), & Ehlers, E. (Director). (1997). River at High Summer: The St. Lawrence [Film]. (Available from Merganser Films, Inc., 61 Woodland Street, Room 134, Hartford, CT 06105) Cassettes Lake, F. L. (Author and speaker). (1989). Bias and organizational decision making [Cassette]. Gainesville: Edwards. Musical recording Barber, S. (1995). Cello Sonata. On Barber [CD]. New York: EMI Records Ltd PERSONAL COMMUNICATION Personal communication refers to letters, telegrams, s, phone conversations, and so on. Because this kind of material is often not recoverable (i.e., it is not possible for someone else to see or hear it), it should not be listed in the list of References. It can, however, be listed parenthetically within the text. It is extremely important that what is cited in this way be legitimate and have scholarly integrity. The parenthetical citation for interviews may look like this: Example: (R. Wilbur, personal communication, March 28, 1968). The parenthetical citation for phone conversations may look like this: REFERENCES 53

61 Example: According to Connie May Fowler, the sources for her novel Sugar Cane were largely autobiographical (personal communication, July 22, 1997) GOVERNMENT DOCUMENTS Government documents are often used in research, especially when the topic has to do with politics, economics, legislation, and so on. In this case, the reference list shows which documents were used in the study. 1) The reference to a report from the Government Printing Office, corporate author, may look like this: National Institute of Mental Health. (1982). Television and behavior: Ten years of scientific progress (DHHS Publication No. A ). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. 2) Reports from a Document and Deposit Service (e.g., NTIS, ERIC, etc.) other than U.S. government may take the following form: Tandy, S. (1980). Development of behavioral techniques to control hyperaggressiveness in young children (CYC Report No ). Washington, DC: Council on Young Children. (NTIS No. P ). Gottfredson, L. S. (1980). How valid are occupational reinforcer pattern scores? (Report No. CSOS-R-292). Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University. Center for Social Organization of Schools. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED ) 2.7. ELECTRONIC SOURCES Electronic correspondences, such as or discussions on bulletin boards or discussion groups, is regarded by APA style as personal communication (like phone conversations or memos), because it is not recoverable by others. Such instances of personal communication are cited only within the text and not on the reference page. For citing personal communications in the text, give the initials and surname of the author and provide as exact a date as possible. Take this example: 54 REFERENCES

62 Example 1: R.W. Runyon (personal communication, April 18, 1993) Example 2: (M. Kohel, personal communication, June 28, 1993) However, if the information is, in fact, retrievable, the following elements are necessary for the reference page: Author, I. (date). Title of article. Name of periodical : (On-line), xx.available: specify path The date should be the year of publication or the most recent update. If the date of the source cannot be determined, provide the exact date of your search. Take the following example: Sosteric, M. (1996). Electronic journals: The grand information future? Electronic Journal of Sociology: (On-line), 4 (1). Available: The path information should be sufficient for someone else to retrieve the material. For example, specify the method used to find the material: the protocol (Telnet, FTP, Internet, etc.), the directory, and the file name. Do not end the path statement with a period. In the following sections, examples of different types of sources, and how they should appear in the reference list, are provided. Please understand that commas, periods, underlined and italicized words, etc. are vital in listing references. So, follow them closely. Online journals, FTP Funder, D.C.(1994, March). Judgmental process and content: Commentary on Koehler on base-rate [9 paragraphs] Pscyoloquy [Online serial]. 5(17). Available FTP: Hostname:princeton.edu Directory: pub/harnad/psycholoquy base-rate.12.funder Online articles (WWW) Klein, Donald F. (1997). Control group in Pharmacoptherapy and psychotherapy evaluations. Treatment, I. Retrieved November 16, 1997 from the World Wide Web: REFERENCES 55

63 On-line journals, subscriber-based Central Vein Occlusion Study Group. (1993. October 2). Central vein occlusion study of photocoagulation: Manual of operations [675 paragraphs]. Online Journal of Current Clinical Trials [On-line serial]. Availabe: Doc No ABSTRACTS Abstracts are the short synopses of long research reports that appear in one-paragraph or one-page formats. Very often they can be retrieved from online sources. Some libraries provide CD-ROMs or Microfilms that contain abstracts. Within brackets, identify the source: (e.g., [CD- ROM] or [Microfilm]). Citing reference to abstracts requires specific skills. The following examples will help. On-line abstract Meyer, A.S., & Bock, K.. (1992). The tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon: Blocking or partial activation? [On-line]. Memory & Cognition, Abstract from: DIALOG File: PsychINFO Item: Abstract on CD-ROMs Bower, DL. (1993). Employee assistant programs supervisory referrals: Characteristics of referring and nonreferring supervisors [CD- ROM]. Abstract from: Proquest File: Dissertation Abstracts Item: PAMPHLETS AND BROCHURES In reference to pamphlets and brochures, treat pamphlets created by corporate authors in the same way you would treat an entire book written by a corporate author. Do not forget to identify your resource as [Brochure] or [Pamphlet] within brackets. The following example will help you write your references to pamphlets and brochures. The Writing Center of Capital Community-Technical College. (1997). Writing: the goal is variety (4th ed.) [Brochure]. Hartford, CT: Author. 56 REFERENCES

64 2.10. UNPUBLISHED MATERIALS Unpublished materials are usually housed by college and university libraries. The often-referred-to materials of this kind are masters' theses and PhD dissertations. Dissertations When you have used the actual dissertation (usually from the shelves of the University where it was written, sometimes obtained through interlibrary loan), the reference will look like: Darling, C. W. (1976). Giver of due regard: the poetry of Richard Wilbur. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Connecticut, Storrs. Dissertation abstracts When you have used an abstract of the dissertation found on microfilm in Dissertation Abstracts International (DAI), your reference may take the following form: Darling, C. W. (1976). Giver of due regard: the poetry of Richard Wilbur. Dissertation Abstracts International, 44(02), 221A. (University Microfilms No. AAD ) For masters' theses, do the same thing. This time, you will use the phrase "Unpublished masters' thesis" in the reference instead of the phrase "Unpublished doctoral dissertation." 3. BIBLIOGRAPHIES Bibliographies are alphabetical lists of books and articles dealing with specific subjects or general areas of study; for example, the Cambridge Bibliography of English Literature. Although they contain no facts themselves, bibliographies are the most complete references of where to find the facts. Most are annotated with notes about each item to indicate special qualities or usefulness. You are seldom asked to write bibliographies because the reference list of your research report should normally include only reference to the REFERENCES 57

65 items you actually used in your study. However, your supervisor or university may require that you prepare a bibliography in addition to the list of references of your report. If so, notice that the points discussed in sections 2 through 2.10 above must be observed. 4. ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHIES An annotated bibliography will have the same basic layout as a Reference page. However, There are three major differences. First, you can include in your bibliography works that you think would be useful to your reader that you might not have used in the writing of this particular paper or article. Second, you can break down the references into useful categories and arrange those categories in ways that you think would be helpful to your reader. Third, you can add commentary to the references, telling your reader the particular virtues (or, if necessary, the shortcomings) of that resource. Commentaries should be concise, economical summaries, written in sentence fragments; if related, fragments should be connected with semicolons. The commentary should begin on a new line, indented slightly from the preceding line. Example: National Institute of Mental Health. (1982). Television and behavior: Ten years of scientific progress (DHHS Publication No. A ). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. Documents connections between children's lack of attention in school and hours of television watching; provides scientific evidence of changed viewing habits over ten years. 5. FINAL REMARKS On the World Wide Web, the author's name is not always available. If you have determined that the material nonetheless has scholarly integrity (because, say, it was published on the web-site of a responsible scholar or prestigious university), you would list that resource in your Reference page the same way you would treat a book without an author: begin your reference with the title. Parenthetically, within your text, use the title of the document so that your reader can find the list on your References page and discover, then, how to find that document. 58 REFERENCES

66 CHAPTER FIVE APA INTRICACIES 1. INTRODUCTION Chapters one through four presented the main elements of APA style. There are a few other aspects of APA style that require your attention. These aspects include: 1. Headings and heading levels 2. Abbreviations and punctuation 3. Punctuation spacing This chapter will provide a brief overview of these less-often-noticed, though very important, aspects of APA style. 2. HEADINGS The APA publication manual gives clear guidelines concerning the format to be used for the different levels of headings. The term "heading" refers to the phrases that label the different sections of a paper, research report, book, masters' thesis, or PhD dissertation. The four major levels of heading identified by the APA publication manual are illustrated below: Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 CENTERED UPPER-CASE Centered Upper-case and Lower-case Flush left, Underlined, Upper-case and Lower-case Side Heading Indented, underlined, lower-case paragraph heading ending with a period For many research reports only two levels of headings are required. In this case, the publication manual suggests using heading level 2 and heading level 3, as illustrated below. APA INTRICACIES 59

67 Abstract Title (Using Capital Letters for Main Words) Method Participants Materials Procedure Results Discussion References The other levels of headings will need to be used (a) if additional headings are used throughout the introduction, or (b) if you need to divide your results or discussion sections into subsections. If additional heading levels are required consult the APA publication manual (pp , ). In PhD dissertations, masters' theses, and books, the writer may introduce variations on this basic formula. He may use numbers to organize the headings and subheadings as has been done in this book. 3. ABBREVIATIONS AND PUNCTUATION The APA publication manual provides very clear guidelines concerning the abbreviations and punctuation to be used throughout your report. You should check these carefully. Some commonly used abbreviations are listed here: e.g. for example n number of subjects in each group or subset of the sample etc. and so forth M mean i.e., that is SD standard deviation vs. versus ns not significant et al. used when you have p probability multiple authors and you have already provided the full citation N number of subjects in the total sample df degrees of freedom 60 APA INTRICACIES

68 4. PUNCTUATION SPACING Punctuation includes commas, colons, end-of-sentence punctuation (or periods/full stops), punctuation in quotations, spaces between words, and semicolons should be closely observed in your research reports. APA style makes some suggestions for the correct use of punctuation in your reports. Place one space after punctuation (: ;.,?! etc.) because the APA now calls for one space to appear after all punctuation marks. If you are using a mono-space font (such as Courier), you may consider using two spaces after end-periods and colons, but consult your supervisor first to make sure about his/her preferences. EXCEPTIONS: 1) No space is needed after internal periods in abbreviations. Example: a.m. but not a. m. i.e., but not i. e., U.S. but not U. S. 2) No space is needed after the colon in ratios. Example: 6:1 but not 6: 1 5:2 but not 5: 2 7:6 but not 7: 6 Hyphens need no space before or after them. Example: trial-by-trial analysis step-by-step completion Dashes are typed as two hyphens with no space before, between or after them. Example: Studies--published and unpublished--are.... APA INTRICACIES 61

69 Note that Microsoft Word will automatically change the appearance of the dash. The above example, when typed in Microsoft Word will look like this: Example: Studies published and unpublished are.... The negative symbol of mathematics or the Minus symbol (-) looks very much like the hyphen. Type the "minus symbol" as a hyphen with space on both sides Example: x 3 but not x-3 y 26 but not y-26 Here, again, Microsoft Word will automatically pull the hyphen to make it longer so that it will resemble the "minus" sign more closely. Also notice that opening punctuation marks like ( { [ " ' are preceded but not followed by a space. Take the following examples: CORRECT WRONG It (the Moon) has.... It( the Moon )has.... Jack said, "I will...." Jack said, " I will.... " etc. Table 1. Examples of right and wrong punctuation use The hints provided in the next section help you minimize the possibility of punctuation and spelling errors in your research reports. 5. FINAL REMARKS In Microsoft Word the enter key on the keyboard should only be used at the end of each paragraph or block. To minimize the possibility of error in your research reports. You can use the features of Microsoft Word available from the tools menu on the 62 APA INTRICACIES

70 menu bar to set the writing and grammar options for your documents before you start typing them. To access these options, you need to open the "options" dialogue box. See figure 1: Figure 1. Selecting "options" in Microsoft Word This should open the Options dialogue box as shown in figure 2. When the dialogue box opens, make sure that the "Spelling & Grammar" tab should be selected for setting the required options. If this is not done by Microsoft Word default settings, click the tab to select it. Then you will be able to set the options as you like. Also notice that if you are setting options for text written in a language other than your language version of Word, the options may differ in the dialog box. For example, if you are typing Spanish text in an English document, the grammar and style options for Spanish will be different from the ones for English. APA INTRICACIES 63

71 Figure 2. Setting spelling and grammar options in Microsoft Word The following are grammar and writing style options you can set in the Grammar Settings dialog box (Tools menu, Options command, Spelling & Grammar tab as shown in figures 1 and 2): Capitalization problems, such as proper nouns ("Mr. jones" should be "Mr. Jones") or titles that precede proper nouns ("aunt Helen" should be "Aunt Helen"); Numerals that should be spelled out (use nine instead of 9), and vice versa (use 12 instead of twelve). The option also detects incorrect usage of "%" in place of "percentage;" 64 APA INTRICACIES

72 Use of contractions that should be spelled out or that are considered too informal for a specific writing style for example, "We won't leave 'til tomorrow" instead of "We will not leave until tomorrow;" Gender-specific language, such as "councilman" and "councilwomen" which should be replaced by non-gender-specific (or non-sexist) language; Questionable but not strictly incorrect possessive usages such as "Her memory is like an elephant's" or "I stopped by John's;" Pronouns "I" and "me," which shouldn t be used in scientific or technical writing; Wordy relative clauses or vague modifiers (such as "fairly" or "pretty"), redundant adverbs, too many negatives, the unnecessary use of "or not" in the phrase "whether or not," or the use of "possible may" in place of "possible will." After setting the options, click ok. This will return you to the main Word window. You will see the effect of the set options when you type your research report. APA INTRICACIES 65

73 SECTION TWO LIBRARY RESEARCH This section is composed of two chapters: Chapter Six: The Library Chapter Seven: Note Keeping Chapter six discusses the rudiments and the basic concepts of library research. It covers such topics as the sources available in the library, different library search methods, the importance of library research, and a few hints for the library researchers. The focus of chapter seven is on the most popular library search method note keeping. Two types of notes are discussed: bibliographical notes, and subject notes. Examples of each type are provided. In addition, the intricacies of note taking for each type are elaborated on. Plagiarism is discussed as the major pitfall in library research. Finally, a few hints are provided for the library research worker as to how they should approach the task of paraphrasing. LIBRARY RESEARCH 67

74 CHAPTER SIX THE LIBRARY 1. INTRODUCTION One of the key capabilities that university students should be able to develop in themselves is the ability to use research findings from their own and related fields. A good place where they can assimilate an increasing amount of knowledge to keep abreast of recent developments in their field is the library. Literally thousands of books, periodicals, documents, and pamphlets are placed on library shelves each year. Skill is required in making a comprehensive search for information about a specific topic. A failure to develop these skills will lead to much wasted effort and frustration. Although a knowledge of library methods is desirable for the consumer of research, it is essential for the research worker. Too often graduate and undergraduate students and other beginning research workers try to solve a problem without attempting to determine whether others have conducted investigations in the same area. This chapter, designed to help the consumer and research worker gain knowledge of library skills, emphasizes that library study is not a meaningless activity but an essential ingredient of the systematic approach to problem solving. The major sections of this chapter include (1) a statement of the purpose of library study, (2) a description of library resources, and (3) suggestions of methods which will aid in the collection of data from library resources. 2. LIBRARY SOURCES Many excellent libraries are available to graduate and undergraduate students throughout the world. Because of the differences in organization of materials, detailed instructions about the use of a library THE LIBRARY 69

75 may not be helpful; therefore, attention has to be focused on library sources and on methods which can serve in any library setting. A useful method for learning about library sources is to visit the library where the research is to be carried out. First, contact the head librarian and arrange for a description of the sources and their location. A guided tour of the various sections of the library should follow. The initial orientation time can be spent browsing to become familiar with the location of various sections and departments. Library source are either general sources (called generalities) or specific sources (called specifics). General sources talk about more than one topic assigning a few pages or one single chapter to each topic. Encyclopedias are the best example of general sources. Specifics, on the other hand, are totally devoted to one single topic. For example, Chomsky's Studies on semantics in generative grammar (Chomsky, 1972) discusses only one topic namely semantics in generative grammar. Undergraduate students are asked to use generalities because their research reports are supposed to be relatively short (not more than 20 pages). Furthermore, only a small section of this short report will be dedicated to literature review no more than a few pages, say, 2 or 3 at best. PhD and masters' students, on the other hand, will find specifics more promising for their research projects. This is because of the fact that a full chapter is dedicated to the review of the related literature in PhD dissertations and masters' theses. On the whole, major library sources of use to research workers fall into the following seven categories: (1) standard references (2) books (3) legal sources (4) periodicals or journals (5) government documents (6) pamphlets and directories (7) unpublished materials Each of these source types is explained in a separate section below. 70 THE LIBRARY

76 2.1. STANDARD REFERENCES Certain references are consulted first whenever there is a systematic library search. The librarian can provide information about the availability of these sources although the best way to become familiar with the basic references is to study the organization of their contents carefully ENCYCLOPEDIAS Encyclopedias are the most important example of standard references. They contain summaries of research studies arranged by topics. The content of each topic has been prepared by a specialist who volunteered to summarize research findings for his specific area of interest. These summaries cannot be considered as substitutes for the original research reports but can be used for screening purposes to limit the scope of the library search. If a study appears relevant, a reference to the original source is provided at the end of each section. Because of the time required to prepare a comprehensive encyclopedia, studies in print less than one year before the publication date of a given encyclopedia will probably not be described in that source. Recently, the major encyclopedias of the world have been marketed in the form of CD-ROM volumes that can be viewed on personal computers. Updates of these electronic encyclopedias are available on the Internet. The major volumes that are available in electronic format are Encyclopedia Americana, Encyclopedia Africana, Encyclopedia Encarta, and Encyclopedia Britannica. Encyclopedia Encarta is perhaps the best in this rich aristocracy of electronic encyclopedias DICTIONARIES Dictionaries are the constant companions of a researcher. Because a researcher must define terms with precision, a knowledge of which dictionaries to use is an inevitable part of successful library research. Among the better-known general dictionaries are the Oxford English Dictionary (12 volumes), Dictionary of American English on Historical Principles (4 volumes), Funk and Wagnalls New Standard Dictionary, and Webster's New International Dictionary of the English Language. More specialized dictionaries are also needed at times. Longman THE LIBRARY 71

77 Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics by Richards, Platt, and Platt (1985) is one such dictionary. A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics by David Crystal (1980) is another specialized dictionary. Students of English literature will also find valuable information in specialized dictionaries of their own field THESAURI Thesauri are a new type of reference. A thesaurus is a reference book that has been compiled in conjunction with the development of information retrieval systems. A thesaurus of descriptors is a list of words and phrases that indexers use to describe a periodical article or research report so that it can be stored for future search and retrieval. Researchers can use them to search for information that has been stored in the system. Two of the thesauri that provide indexers and researchers with a common communication system are (1) The New York Times Thesaurus of Descriptors: A Guide for Organizing, Indexing, and Searching Collections of Information on Current Events, and (2) The Thesaurus of ERIC Descriptors ALMANACS AND YEARBOOKS A wealth of current information may be found in almanacs and yearbooks. The World Almanac, published from 1868 to the present, affords up-to-date statistics and data concerning events, progress, and conditions in a wide variety of fields. The librarian can tell you which almanac best suits your research needs BIOGRAPHY INDEXES AND BIBLIOGRAPHIES When carrying out a research study, one may have to obtain a specific fact about a person, such as his birthdate, degrees, publications, present position, or professional affiliations. This type of information as well as information concerning the background, competency, prestige, or biases of a person, may be found in encyclopedias or in biography indexes. Here again, the librarian can tell you which biography index best suits your research needs. Compiling a bibliography is one of the first and one of the last things a researcher may need to do in conducting a study. This essential task is 72 THE LIBRARY

78 less arduous and time-consuming if the researcher is well acquainted with the various labor-saving devices at his disposal. He may find books and periodicals in the library that will help him locate bibliographies that have already been compiled. Of course, the bibliographies will vary in type and quality; some will be exhaustive and others selective or brief; some will be annotated providing brief descriptions of each source and others not. If the bibliographies are compiled by experts in the field and give clues to the content, general value, scholarship, and significant features of the publications, that is, if they are annotated, they may save the researcher weeks of searching time BOOKS Material included in textbooks and other expository works may contain authoritative information that is very helpful to the research worker. Unfortunately, the contents of books are seldom classified in external sources in sufficient detail to insure complete access by conventional search methods. The sources of such information follow. Author subject card index: All libraries contain card catalogues. Many provide an author-title index and a subject index. The author-title index is an alphabetical listing of all the titles and a separate listing for authors; for example, three cards would be found in the author-title index for a book titled Recreation by Jones and Smith, one under "recreation" and one for each author. A card entry would also be found under "recreation" in the subject catalogue and also, depending on the contents of the book, references may be found under "camping," "fishing," "wild life," "golf," or "bird watching." Each card in the author-subject card index will usually contain either a cross-reference to another card or information regarding the (1) author or authors, (2) title, (3) date of publication, (4) description of contents, and (5) Library of Congress card number. Subject headings: This source published by the Library of Congress is a valuable adjunct to the card catalogue system developed by the college library. As an example, if the researcher is unable to find a desired topic in the regular card catalogue, use of Subject Headings will indicate other categories where the topic might be found. Because many libraries use Subject Headings as a guide for establishing subject card catalogues, this THE LIBRARY 73

79 volume is usually conveniently located near the main card catalogue. The library staff can assist in its use. Books in print: This source is an author and title series index to the Publishers Trade List Annual. It contains a listing of most books Printed by 1,400 American publishers and includes more than 163,000 entries. Included is a reference to author, title, publisher, and cost; however, books, published in English in foreign countries, government documents, certain law volumes, and many paperback editions are not listed. Listings are divided into two sections; in the first, publications are arranged alphabetically by author. The second section contains an alphabetical listing of titles. Often, when only the author or title of a work is known, Books In Print will enable the researcher to obtain sufficient additional information to provide a complete bibliographic reference. Cumulative book index: Issued since 1938, this source contains a listing of all books published in the English language; therefore, its coverage is somewhat broader than Books In Print. The source, however, does not list government documents. Books out of print: Frequently the researcher is unable to obtain a published volume in the library or through an interlibrary loan because it is out of print. Several methods for acquiring such a source can be used. First, the librarian can be requested to place the bibliographic reference on an out-of-print list which is circulated among librarians and book readers. Second, he can examine listings in the Antiquarian Bookman available from Box 1100, Newark, New Jersey. This periodical contains commercial listings of rare and out-of-print volumes. Third, the researcher can contact University Microfilms, Ann Arbor, Michigan, to determine whether facsimiles of the volume are available on microfilm or xerographic enlargements LEGAL SOURCES Legal references are an important source of information for the researcher interested in analyzing the development of social thought in society. Students of English literature may find legal sources very effective. Records of past legislative acts and court decisions have long been recognized as a reflection of basic changes occurring in the fabric of society. In addition to a scholarly interest in legal proceedings, the 74 THE LIBRARY

80 practicing educator should possess sufficient skill in legal research to meet the day-to-day requirements for information arising out of the practice of his profession. Legal sources can be divided into four categories, namely, dictionaries, codes, administrative regulations, and court decisions LAW DICTIONARIES Before attempting to read laws and particularly legal decisions, the research worker should have access to a law dictionary. The Law Dictionary, edited by A. C. Black, is a standard legal reference. In addition, the research worker may need assistance in interpreting certain legal material. The aid of a law professor or practicing attorney should be solicited when required CODES Legal codes contain a list of laws enacted by legislative bodies. Federal codes are listed in official sources in two ways: (1) serially by data and (2) by topic. In the United States, both federal codes and the code of the local state laws can be found in most university libraries; only large law libraries contain complete sets of codes for all of the states ADMINISTRATIVE REGULATIONS Statutes frequently outline policy and delegate the responsibility for its administration to administrative agencies. Administrative enactments which are not law in the sense of having been enacted by legislative bodies nevertheless have the force of law in many instances. They have been called administrative laws. Proceedings of state educational bodies such as state boards of education are incorporated in administrative codes. These regulations govern the actions of local school districts as well as other educational institutions, and can be used in language teaching/learning research COURT DECISIONS While much of organized law has been established through legislative action, the courts are also guided by previous judicial decisions. These decisions may interpret, modify, or negate legislation. Court decisions THE LIBRARY 75

81 can be used as a good source of information regarding the state of language teaching and learning policies in a country PERIODICALS AND JOURNALS In library terms, a periodical is a source that is published at specific time intervals. Quarterlies, Monthlies, Dailies, etc. are among the different types of periodicals (e.g., TESOL Quarterly). Periodicals and journals usually contain more recent accounts of current research than do standard references or books. Utilization of periodical references will enable the researcher to examine the results of studies soon after they are completed. Further, original sources of classic studies are frequently found in periodicals. A list of the most important indexes that are useful for research projects of EFL learners follows: 1. Bibliographic Index 2. Biography Index 3. Child Development Abstracts 4. Essay and General Literature Index 5. International Index to Periodicals 6. Readers' Guide to Periodical Literature Newspapers often constitute an excellent record of past events. Public officials and attorneys utilize newspaper accounts to determine the legality of certain actions taken in the past. In the United States, the most authoritative index to newspaper articles reflecting a national interest is the New York Times Index issued since Although many libraries do not have original editions of newspapers, many possess microflim copies. Newspaper indexes are published monthly with yearly summaries. Topics are arranged alphabetically. Each entry briefly describes the contents, and lists the date the article appeared in the newspaper and its page and column number GOVERNMENT DOCUMENTS Documents are publications issued by governments. They provide excellent sources of information but because of the number of publications, diversity of topics, and variety of agencies involved, ready 76 THE LIBRARY

82 access to specific sources is difficult. Government documents provide a rich reference source frequently bypassed in routine library searches PAMPHLETS AND DIRECTORIES Pamphlets include publications of local governmental and private agencies which do not exceed a certain number of pages. Examples would include public relations releases issued by private organizations, and information bulletins, conference notices, manuals, and handbooks issued by local governmental and educational agencies. Some libraries catalogue these publications in the regular cataloguing system; thus references to pamphlets can be found in the card catalogue. The location and method used for cataloguing pamphlets can be found by consulting the library staff. When searching for pamphlets, it is important to remember that they usually are available for only a short time after publication and some are produced for advertising or propaganda purposes. Once again, the librarian is the best reference who can tell you how pamphlets can be located and which pamphlet best suits your research needs. Directories are an essential tool in drawing a sample from a known population for the purpose of circulating a questionnaire. If the investigator wishes to ascertain the opinions of city managers concerning the role of schools in city government, for example, he will need a list of all city managers in the area of the study. From this "population" of names, a sample could be chosen. Recently, however, the homepages of schools, universities, etc. list the names and addresses of their staff in their staff directories. Yahoo or MSN people search is also a useful directory. Directories are as valuable in professional life as a personal address book is in private life. A researcher can use them to locate the names and addresses of persons, periodicals, publishers, organizations, or firms when he wants to obtain information, interviews, or research materials and apparatus. By consulting directories, he may find people or organizations who have similar professional interests or who are qualified to answer his questionnaires or help solve his problems. The directories are listed alphabetically and are arranged under subject headings. The librarian can tell you which directory best suits your research needs. THE LIBRARY 77

83 2.7. UNPUBLISHED MATERIALS Results of most recently conducted research studies quite frequently are first available in unpublished form. Many worthwhile studies in addition to masters' theses and doctoral dissertations do not appear in published form. These include papers presented at conferences, intern research reports, studies conducted for associations and groups, and the products of the efforts of school district personnel. The assumption should not be made that the highest quality research is always published in journals. On the contrary, because of the limited interest in certain topics, valuable studies may not be included in the conventional research journals MASTERS' THESES Masters' theses are often not published. Two useful listings of masters' theses include Masters' Theses In Education and Masters Abstracts. The former source has been published for a number of years and includes a title and short description of masters' theses completed by degree candidates at major colleges and universities. The second source, Masters Abstracts, is relatively new. It contains a short summary of studies completed by masters' candidates of contributing institutions. Copies of masters' theses listed in the Abstracts can be obtained in microfilm or xerographic enlargements from the publisher DOCTORAL DISSERTATIONS In comparison with masters' theses, a more complete listing of doctoral dissertations is available. Most dissertations submitted to colleges and universities in the United States can be found listed in a number of sources. Doctoral Dissertations Accepted By American Universities includes most dissertations accepted by higher institutions since This listing service has been replaced by Dissertation Abstracts which contains a short summary of each study including a brief statement of findings. The beginning researcher is cautioned, however, to obtain a copy of the original investigation through the interlibrary loan service or from the publishers of the Abstracts before citing the results in a research study. Proper evaluation of the research findings can be made only by examining the entire document. 78 THE LIBRARY

84 OTHER UNPUBLISHED SOURCES Other unpublished sources can be found in the pamphlets section of the library, in the card catalogue, or in special field service collections. Direct contact can be made with associations and school districts where certain types of research are known to be under way. Unpublished research studies provide a rich source of information for the investigator who desires to give an accurate portrayal of the present status of knowledge in a specific topic area. The sources, however, are less systematically organized and catalogued than other published sources THE INTERNET In modern societies, many libraries afford access to the Internet. The Internet can also afford access to a rich repertoire of abstracts or even full-text materials. Two good online sources are known as ERIC and Proquest. To access the abstracts available at Proquest or ERIC clearinghouses, you can use the Internet search engines. A list of the most useful search engines and their addresses follows: Ask Jeeves: Altavista: Mamma: Lycos: Direct hit: Google: Microsoft: Yahoo: NBC: Netscape: Excite: Hotbot: To successfully search a topic through the Internet, enclose your search words (also called keywords or descriptors) within quotation marks. For example, to search the topic 'field independence', place "field independence" in the search box of your search engine and let it go. You can also go by the search engine's web directory. Take a look at figure 1 below: THE LIBRARY 79

85 Figure 1. Ask Jeeves search window 3. LIBRARY RESEARCH METHODS The most effective methods for utilizing library resources depend to a certain extent on the facilities and organization of the library which is available. As mentioned previously, consultation with library staff members will prove a valuable aid in obtaining the most effective use of this source. Methods for library use can be described as: (1) note-keeping (2) standard search procedures (3) other search methods NOTE KEEPING After locating source materials, you should read them and take notes in a manner that furthers the whole research process. Note-keeping is a 80 THE LIBRARY