CONTRIBUTIONS OF INDIVIDUAL CRITICS

Transcription

1 CONTRIBUTIONS OF INDIVIDUAL CRITICS Aristotle Aristotle is one of the great philosophers and thinkers, the world had ever seen. Not only that, he was a psychologist, logician, moralist, biologist and the founder of literary criticism. He was born in 384 B.C. His father was a physician. He worked in the philosophic school of Plato, for about 20 years. The master and student relation was undivided when Plato died in 347 B.C. He was the tutor of young Alexander, the Great at Macedonia. After the accession of Alexander, Aristotle returned to Athens and set up his school. He had a group of talented pupils who were responsible for spreading his teachings and discourses later. His writings include literary essays, the constitution of Athens and treatises intended for use in lectures for his students. 'Poetics' is one of them. Aristotle was the tutor of Aristotle was the disciple of 'Poetics' is a - Young Alexander the Great - Plato Aristotle was born in - Literary treatise B.C. is the founder of literary criticism - Aristotle What, according to Artistotle, is the concept of poetry? Poetry like the rest of the fine arts is based on imitation. Artistotle's imitation is not merely the copying of the surface of things but an act of creative vision by means of which the poet was enabled to make something new out of the real and the actual. He emphasises that poetry deals with the permanent and universal characters of human life and thought. He says that poetry is more philosophical and higher than history. Aristotle Poetry has a more real subject than history. While history deals with the concrete particulars of existence. Poetry is concerned with the universal, with the permanent features and tendencies of human life. The historian confines himself to particular happenings. While the poet represents the larger and generalised view of things, and thus shares in the philosopher's quest for ultimate truth. The role of probability is also that of necessity refers rather to the internal structure of a poem, it is the inner law which secures the cohesion of the parts. The personages whom the poet represents in the drama are better and finer than the average men and women. The probable laws of their behaviour cannot be measured from the conduct of average humanity. A work may contain real minor inconsistencies, technical, or factual inaccuracies. They do not lessen the value of the work if they do not tarnish the total impression produced by it. Poetry does not deal with facts, nor does it violate the facts, it is concerned with what transcends facts. It gives the form that agrees with the true idea. The facts or real events to become poetic must be capable of revealing their internal probability or necessity. In short, poetic truth differs from actual or empirical truth. Aristotle observes that the poet must be trained in the true art of fiction. The work of art must be governed by the natural sequence of motive and action. The artist's law of probability renders even a fiction probable. The probable is that which gains our rational is the probable while the impossible is that which is physically impossible. The impossible can become logically inevitable, but the improbable cannot. Yet the poets do present the improbable (irrational, supernatural, marvellous) at times. The supernatural and other forms of marvellous can be accepted if they form the traditional belief of the author and his society. Material impossibilites can be

2 admitted in poetry, not any kind of moral improbability. The world of poetry excludes the rule of chance or accident. It is the world of probable which presents the eternal universal facts of life. Aristotle enunciate a doctrine which holds good for all ages - the presence of a universal element in all great poetry, while at the same time he showed how a reconciliation might be effected between poetry and philosophy. Both were avenues to the highest truth. The poet universalises his work by removing spatial, temporal and personal limitations. is concerned with the universal features and tendencies of human life History deals with - Poetry Poetic truth differs from Poetry is based on - The concrete details of existence - Empirical truth - Imitation The world of poetry excludes - The rule of chance or accident What, according to Artistotle, is the nature of comedy? Aristotle defines comedy as "an imitation of characters of a lower type, not, however, in the full sense of the word bad, the ludicrous being merely a sub division of the ugly. It consists in some defect or ugliness which is not painful or destructive.'' It means that comedy deals with human follies, not with crimes and arouses laughter without malice. It expresses the follies and foibles general to human society and human nature. Comedy has a limited range of vision within which it presents those characters or aspects of life that have no place in serious art. Comedy is an imitation of an action represented by men of inferior moral stature, ugliness or defect provokes laughter. The ludicrous arises out of the incongruities of human nature. Laughter arises from the diction and from the things expressed. There is angry old men, greedymen, suspicious person, foolish man and the like, with such characters comedy moves on avoiding the heroic and the pathetic. Comedy is the representation of the universal. The comic character is not an individual but a type. While tragedy presents ideal persons. Comedy presents personified ideals. Artistotle says comedy should be an organic unity. It must be complete and whole. It should produce the effect proper to comedy ie, the catharsis of laughter. It should also have plot, character, thought, diction, melody and spectacle. Plot is the prime concern. The laws of probability or necessity should be observed. The function of comedy is to bring pleasure. There is also the imitation of men in action. Presence of discovery and Reversal of fortune may be needed to heighten the comic spirit. Language plays a very important role in comedy. Here we get ambiguous words unexpected turns of speech, puns and literal interpretation. The emotions connected with comedy are anger and envy. They may be excited by a judicial employment of surprise. The best form of humour is that which depends for its success on the elements of surprise which arises when an anticipation is deceived or when we take the words in a sense different from that intended. Comedy excludes personal satire and ill. So in comedy we have the purgation of the troublesome emotions like envy or anger, or of laughter itself. It may be said that comedy is an imitation of an action, that is ridiculous, purgative of emotions constructive of life, moulded by laughter and pleasure. It embrace fiction of the affairs of everyday life and the aim is to move the hearer to laughter. Thus comedy is meant to laugh, when established roles or patterns are altered, and someone behaves like a good, animal, an inanimate object, or like someone very different from himself. Comic characters are freer than we are. We often laugh at comic eccentricities and suspend judgement about their morality because of our delight in their freedom. Comedy is not meant to instigate pain. 'One should use laughter as one uses salt' says Socrates. Comedy deals with - Human follies Comedy moves on avoiding - The heroic, the pathetic is the representation of the universal - Comedy

3 Tragedy presents ideal persons, whereas comedy presents - Personified ideals Comedy produces the Catharsis - Laughter The function of comedy is to bring - Pleasure Emotions connected with comedy are - Anger and envy Comedy avoids and - Personal Satire and ill An estimate of Aristotle's views on tragedy Aristotle's 'The Poetics' is devoted to the consideration of Tragedy in all its aspects and constituent parts. Chapters VI to XXII seventeen chapters out of Twenty Six deals with the discussion of Tragedy and these chapters form the main body of the whole work. Chapters I to V contain an introductory discussion of Tragedy, epic and comedy. Chapter IV gives the original development of tragedy. Aristotle begins to pile up his view by pointing out that imitation is the common basis of all the fine arts which however differ from each other in their medium of imitation, their objects of imitation and their manner of imitation. Thus poetry differs from painting and music in its medium of imitation. Poetry divides into epic and dramatic on the basis of its manner of imitation. The epic narrates while dramatic represents through action. Dramatic poetry divides into comic and tragic. Tragedy imitates men as better and comedy as worse than they really are. Thus Aristotle establishes the unique nature of tragedy. He defines tragedy as "the imitation of an action, serious, complete and of a certain magnitude in a language beautified in different parts with different kinds of embellishment, through action and not narration and through scenes of pity and fear bringing about the catharsis of these (or such like) emotions". This definition had wide implications. Aristotle examines the plot of the tragedy. The plot should be a logical and inevitable sequence of events. The action must be complete ; it must have a beginning a middle and an end. The beginning is that from which further action flows out, and which is intelligible itself and not consequent or dependent on any previous situation. A satisfying, end is that which follows inevitable from what has gone before., It marks the completion of tragic action. The middle is that which follows inevitable upon what has gone before and also leads on to an inevitable conclusion. Thus Artistotle emphasises that the tragic action must be in accordance with the laws of probability and necessity. The action of a tragedy must be of a certain magnitude and must be long enough to permit an orderly development of action to a catastrophe. Neither should it be too long nor it should be too short. The action should be proportionate in the relation of the different parts to each other and to the whole. He divided the plot of tragedy into two kinds, simple and complex. He calls a plot simple when the change in the fortunes of the hero takes place without peripety and discovery and the plot is complex, when it involves one or the other or both. Simple plot eg : Aeschylus's 'Prometheus Bound', complex plot- sophocles 'Oedipus Rex', peripety is the change in the fortunes of the hero and the discovery (anagnorsis) is a change from ignorance to knowledge. Highest kind of tragedy is the tragedy of errors - Hamartia. There is the tragedy of suffering in which the effect depends on the depiction of suffering ie; torture, murder, and the like on the stage. Artistotle prefers a complex plot for it startles and captures attention. Aristotle lays great emphasis on the probability and necessity of the action of trgedy. There must be a connection between the various events and incidents and they must follow each other naturally and inevitably. The events introduced must be probable. He emphasizes unity of action, he is against plurality of action as it weakens the final effect of tragedy. He speaks of verse in the dialogue and through song in choric parts but Aristotle does not regard them as essential. Of function of tragedy, it is to present scenes of pity and fear and thus to bring about the catharsis of these emotions. He then enumerates the six formative elements of tragedy : plot, character, diction, thought, spectacle and song. Plot is most important, there can be a tragedy, without character, but none without plot. It is so framed that it arouses the emotion of pity and fear among the spectators which is the function of trag-

4 edy. The best plot is one which shows a good man but not a perfectly good one, suffering as a consequence of some error or fault, Hamartia - on his part. It is the soul of the tragedy. The plot unlike a living organism, its parts properly related to each other, it must be neither too short nor too long. It must have unity, play of chance may be allowed. Song is found in the choric parts, which is one of the sources of pleasure of tragedy. The spectacle or scenic effects have more effect than song. Thought is the power of saying whatever can be said, it is the intellectual element in a tragedy. This brings out the importance of language or diction in tragedy. Language gives the thought and feelings of the various characters so it must be unusually expressive. The length of the tragedy should be within a single revolution of the sun'. Metaphors are the source of beauty so it is valuable. The language should be clear, dignified and elevated. Regarding character, four essential qualities is needed. The character must be good, they must be appropriate, must be life-like and must have consistency. Wicked characters may be introduced, if required. Of ideal tragic hero, he must be neither too good nor too bad. He is a man of ordinary weaknesses and virtues occupying a position of eminence and falling into ruin from there because of his Hamartia. Aristotle putforths some rules regarding the three unities. He is against plurality of action as it weakens the tragic effect as for unity of time, it must be with in the single revolution of the sun. And it is desirable to confine the action to a single place. The end of tragedy is to give pleasure which is caused by the catharsis of the emotions of pity and fear. Both these are painful emotions; fear is aroused when we see someone like us suffering and apprehend that a similar fate might befall us. Pity is caused by the sight of undeserved suffering of others which we might expect to befall us also. Both these are reciprocal and painful. This mixed emotions are the effect of katharsis. Diction, spectacle are other sources of pleasure. Such are the views of Aristotle on Tragedy. He discussed his views on the basis of Greek drama, particularly 'King Oedipus' by Sophocles. Plot is the of Tragedy according to Aristotle - Soul The Greek term for 'tragic flaw' is - Hamartia The critical moment of recognition or discovery in a Greek tragedy is termed - Anagnorisis The six requirements of tragedy according to Aristotle are plot, character, diction, thought, spectacle and - Song In Greek tragedy, the reversal of fortune is called - Peripeteia The short coming or defect in the tragic hero which leads him to ignore the warning of Gods and to transgress their commands - Hubris The punishment or what overtook and befell the tragic hero - Nemesis According to Aristotle is superior to epic - Tragedy The first character in tragedy was introduced by - Thespis The second character in tragedy was introduced by - Aeschylus Third character and scenery in tragedy was introduced by - Sophocles In 'Poetics' chapters VI to XXII seventeen chapters out of twenty six are devoted to - Tragedy 'Prometheus Bound' is an example of - Simple plot An example of complex plot - King Oedipus According to Aristotle, 'King Oedipus' is an example of - Ideal tragedy Tragedy imitates through verse in - Dialogue

5 Tragedy imitates through song in The three unities are - Chorus The five divisions of the plot are - Unity of action, unity of place and unity of time - Exposition, Rising action, Climax, falling action, conclusion. and are two devices in drama to reveal character - Soliloquy and aside According to Aristotle, a play is intended for - A single hearing An important feature of Greek drama was - Chorus SHORT NOTES 1. Function of Poetry :- Aristotle envisages pleasure as the end of poetry. The two instincts of imitation and of harmony and rhythm are indulged in for the pleasure they give. From the Aristotlian and Greek point of view, the pleasure it gives is an enduring pleasure, an aesthetic enjoyment which is not divorced from civic ends. 2. Emotional appeal of poetry :- Aristotle believes that poetry makes an immediate appeal to the emotions. Tragedy, the highest form of poetry arouses the emotions of pity and fear. These emotions are aroused with a view to their purgation or catharsis. In tragedy, people find a full and free outlet to pour their fear and pity in life. Doing so, they emerge nobler than before. So the emotional appeal of poetry is health giving and artistically satisfying. 3. Define Tragedy : -"Tragedy is an imitation of an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude ; in language embellished with each kind of artistic ornaments, the several kinds being found in separate parts of the play, in the form of action, not of narrative; through pity and fear effecting the proper purgation of these emotions. 4. Catharsis :- It is a medico-psychological term. This is derived from the Greek word 'Kathaiein' meaning to cleanse or purify. Aristotle uses this to describe the effect of tragedy in the purgation or purification of emotions. The term signifies any kind of emotional discharge which causes moral or spiritual renewal from tension and anxiety. The process of catharsis saves us from psychological distress by providing an emotional outlet. 5. The constitutent parts of tragedy :- There are six constituent parts in tragedy - plot, character, and thought which it imitates or represents, diction and song which are the medium it employs to imitate the objects, and spectacle which is its manner of imitating them. 6. Simple plot :- In a simple plot the hero's fortunes pass direct from happiness to misery or vice - versa. The action continuously moves towards catastrophe without Reversal of the situation and with out Recognition. eg : Aeschylus's Promethus Bound'. 7. Complex Plot :- In a complex plot there is a climax or turning point at which some sort of discovery leads directly to the change of fortune, ie; peripety, a sudden reversal of fortune's wheel. eg : Sophocles's Oedipus Tyrannus. 8. Anagnorisis :- An integral part of the plot of tragedy is anagnorisis which means recognition or discovery. This discovery is a change from ignorance to knowledge. The most effective form of discovery is that which is accompanied by reversal. The recognition should arise from the very nature of incidents, when an astounding revelation comes about from probable antecedents. 9. Peripeteia :- Peripeteia is reversal, of social status, wealth etc. A complex tragedy depends entirely on 'reversal'. It reverses the social or economic status of the tragic hero ie, from prosperity to misery. eg : Oedipus Rex. 10. Hamartia :- This is the tragic flaw. It is the tragic error, related to the character of the hero, but in a successful plot it is so closely worked into the plot as to be inseparable from it. The miscalculation of the hero causes a chain of incidents which result in that change from good fortune to bad. It is

6 primarily an error of judgement which may arise from ignorance or some moral shortcomings. 11. Chorus :- It should be regarded as one of the characters. It should assume a share of action in Greek tragedies. Chorus consists of wise old men, advises and foretells the coming events. 12. The criteria of Aristotle in regard to the criticism of the poetic art : - When one criticizes a poem one certain criteria is needed. 'Aristotle' prescribes, criticisms that touch poetic art (1) Directly (2) Indirectly (3) As they were or are (4) as they are said or thought to be (5) as they ought to be ; and criticisms that bear on (6) strange words (7) metaphors (8) pronunciation (9) punctuation (10) grammatical ambiguity (11) custom of language (12) different meanings of the same word. 13. Ideal tragic hero :- (1) He should be a man of mixed character, neither blameless nor absolutely depraved (2) His misfortune should follow from some error or flaw of character short of moral taint (3) He must fall from the height of prosperity and glory. 14. His views on Epic :- According to Aristotle epic resembles tragedy in its nature but different in form. It is also an imitation of a serious, action, whole and complete, with a beginning, a middle and an end. It imitates life by narration, admits much length, no use for song and spectacle, and communicates its meaning in mere reading. To him tragedy is superior to epic. According to Aristotle is the end of poetry - Pleasure is the highest form of poetry - Tragedy Tragedy arouses the emotions of and - Pity, fear Emotional appeal of poetry is - Health giving and artistically satisfying Tragedy is defined as - "An imitation of an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude, in Catharsis means language embellished with each kind of artistic ornaments, the several kinds being found in separate parts of the play, in the form of action, not of narrative, through pity and fear effecting the proper purgation of these emotions. - To cleanse or purify Effect of tragedy is the of emotions Catharsis is a - Purgation - Medico - Psychological term Catharsis provides an emotional outlet and saves us from Constituent parts of tragedy - Psychological distress - Plot, character, thought diction, song, spectacle. In the hero's fortunes pass direct from happiness to misery or vice - versa - Simple plot Aeschylus's 'Prometheus Bound' is an example of - Simple plot In a complex plot there is a climax that leads to - Peripety Sophocles's is an example of complex plot 'Anagnorisis' means - Oedipus Tyrannus - Recognition is reversal of fortune - Peripeteia Reversal of fortune is the integral part of a is tragic flaw - Tragedy - Hamartia is an inevitable character in a Greek tragedy - Chorus

7 The Greek chorus consists of - Wise Oldmen The function of chorus is - To present the past, tells the present, foretells the coming events. Ideal tragic hero is - A man of character, his misfortune is the result of tragic flaw, falls from the height of glory to nothing. According to Aristotle tragedy is superior to Longinus - Epic The identity of Longinus, the author of the extraordinary treatise Peri Hupsous translated into English as On The Sublime is still shrouded in mystery. That he was a Greek and rhetorician in either case is beyond dispute and he was unquestionably "the first romantic critic." Longinus On the Sublime is a critical document of great significance and worth. It is written in Greek and has come down to us in an incomplete form. At least one third of the original is missing. He was highly influenced by Plato. Before Longinus, the admitted function of poetry was "to instruct and to delight, "and the object of the orator or prose writer was"to persuade". But Longinus discovered the true function of literature. He found that the highest type of poetry, which is lofty and sublime, has the effect not of mere pleasure, or instruction or persuasion, but of ecstasy, and transport. He defines sublimity as " The sublime consists in a certain loftiness and consummateness of languages, and it is by this and this only the greatest poets and prose writers have won pre-eminence and lasting fame." Longinus believed in the theory of inspiration and discovered that it is here that the strange power of the poet and this art lies. The test of great literature is its capacity to move the reader to ecstasy, caused by an irresistible magic of speech. So compelling is the power of speech when it is sublime that it not only pleases but excites, moves, transports, elevates. And it does so not once but every time it is heard or read. The word 'sublime' also means 'height ' or 'elevation'. To be sublime is the ultimate justification and function of literature. A great and gifted writer, who is endowed with the nobility of soul, can create sublime effects. Longinus says " sublimity is the echo of a great soul". Homer's epics are conspicuous for sublimity. Explaining the nature of the sublime, Longinus compares the true sublime with the false sublime. The false sublime is characterised by timidity or bombast of language. It is characterised by puerile, tawdry and frigid expressions. The false sublime results when there is a cheap display of passion. The literature of the age of Longinus was falsely sublime. The true sublime, on the other hand, consists in a certain distinction and elevation of expression. It pleases all and pleases always. Longinus believed that for a critic, judgement of literature is the long delayed reward of much endeavour. He also insisted that the poet must study to master the technique of his art. Nature and art the utmost exactitude is admired but the grandeur is admired in the works of nature, and that it is by nature that man is being gifted with speech. He wants that even the greatest poets should continuously avoid blunders in their works. Also must avoid the use of bombast affection and conceits. He insists on the choice of words, the ornament of style and dignity of composition. The sources of the sublime, which according to Longinus are five in number, flow both from nature and art. (1) grandeur of thought (2) capacity for strong emotion (3) appropriate use of figure (4) nobility of diction and (5) dignity of composition. The first two are largely the gift of nature and form the rheumatic contents of literary creations and the remaining three are the gift of art and form the technical aspect of literary works. By grandeur of thought he means that the thoughts of the author must be noble and sublime. Sublime thoughts alone can produce sublime effect. Sublime thoughts are innate, but they can also be acquired by proper discipline chiefly by dwelling constantly on whatever is noble and sublime and by following the examples of great masters. Longinus asserts that nothing contributes more to loftiness of

8 tone in writing than genuine emotion. He has not been dealt with this aspect in detail, which he intended to deal with in a second treatise, which is missing. He thinks of emotions as an integral factor in sublimity that is why he prefers Iliad to Odyssey and Demosthenes to Cicero. Longinus differs with Plato who underestimates and distrusts emotions. Aristotle justified them for their Cathartic effect but Longinus considered them primarily for their aesthetic importance. Therefore artistically. Longinus' explanation of emotional appeal of literature is higher than that of Aristotle. The figures of speech play an important part in making a sublime piece of literature. Longinus' primary concern in oratory in which a happy or unhappy use of figures of speech makes all the difference. He says "A figure is most effective when the fact that it is a figure happily concerned, and it is concealed by splendour of style'. A figure therefore, is effective only when it appears in disguise. His main contention is that figures properly treated are a valuable means of giving emotional quality of style. The figure noticed by Longinus are asundeton (absence of conjunctions) huperbaton (inversion) changes of number, person, tense, periphrasis (a roundabout way of saying something, rhetorical question.) Suitable and striking words, according to Longinus, have a moving and seductive effect upon the reader. It is words that breathe voice into dead things. Longinus approves homely and racy expressions in proper place. Among the ornaments of speech he considers speech and hyperbole. As for the arrangement of words, it should be one that blends thought, emotion, figures and words themselves into a harmonious whole. The harmonious and dignified composition appeals to the soul and enables the readers to share in the emotions of the author want of harmony spoils the sublimity of a literary work. One should avoid the over rhythmical writing and superficial polish. Triviality of expression is apt to disfigure sublimity. Longinus was a great original critic, who discovered something new and different from what Plato and Aristotle had discovered. His manner of presenting his view point is also enthusiastic, subjective and lively. His great treatise on the sublime is characterised by sincerity, generosity of judgement, clarity of expression, broadness of vision and scholarly modesty. 'On the sublime' is the work of - Longinus Longinus is an exponent in - Practical criticism The excellence in classical works is called - The sublime is the echo of a great soul - Sublimity The chief figures that make for sublimity are - Rhetorical question, asyndeton, hyperbation, periphrasis is a speech in which words or clauses are left unconnected Hyperbation is - Asyndeton Round about way of speaking is - The inversion of the normal order of words, under emotional strain - Periphrasis The five sources of sublime are Factors that mar sublimity are - Power of forming great conceptions. - Inspired and vehement passions, formation of figures, noble diction, dignified composition. - Bombast, frigidity, puerility, ill-timed pathos. Sublimity :- Sublimity consists in certain distinction and consummate excellence in expression from which the greatest poets and prose writers have gained their eminence and immortal fame. The five principal sources of the sublime are grandeur of thought, capacity for strong emotion, appropriate use of

9 figures, nobility of diction and dignity of composition or a happy synthesis of the preceeding qualities. Dryden Dryden occupies a significant place in the galaxy of English critics. He has been called 'the father of English criticism'. His contribution to English criticism has been considerable and lasting. Dryden is said to have been the first in English literature to use the term 'criticism'. Literary criticism (poetry) can be of three kinds-legislative, theoretical and descriptive. In legislative criticism the critic assumes the role of teaching the writer how to write and of prescribing for him the rules which should guide him in literary composition. Theoretical criticism is concerned with the abstract questions of literary aesthetics. In descriptive form, the critic places himself in the position of a mediator between the writer and the reader. Dryden has given his works descriptive criticism of considerable extent. What he had to say on criticism is contained in the prefaces to his own poetical works. Dryden upholds Aristotle's definition of poetry as a process of imitation. And agrees with Sydney that poetry imitates not only things which are mere copies of their ideal pattern, but the idea pattern itself. He was familiar with the native tradition and the classical. He believed that the final end of poetry was delight and transport rather than instruction. Delight holds the first place and instruction comes only the second. The poet is not a teacher and imitator but a creator. He produces a new work of art with life or nature as raw material. His work bears the hall mark of his creativity and genius. According to Dryden dramatic poetry is more interesting. French drama observed unities in their plays and tragic and comic elements were avoided. Scenes harrowing to sight was reported rather than acted. In all these aspects the English stage appeared inferior in comparison. Dryden wrote the 'Essay of Dramatic Poesy' to those who unjustly prefer the French. In the person of Neander, Dryden closely scrutinizes the classical rules of drama. He opines that the purpose of drama is well served by the English drama as by the classical and the French. Dryden There is an appeal from the classics to the laws of nature. A scene of mirth mixed with tragedy brings relief. It is more appealing than a tragedy, devoid of comic elements. Dryden prefers to keep death scenes away from stage but nothing wrong in presenting duels, battles etc. It was the French who made the unities of time and place on the stage. When strictly followed these unites lead to dearth of plot and narrowness of imagination. Dryden shares the same view of Aristotle regarding tragedy. He differs a little in the interpretation of the result pity and fear - Here he follows the French critic Rapin. Aristotle says that these emotions are aroused with a view to their purgation or catharsis. But Rapin opines that pride and hardness of heart are the vices of human being. Punishment of vice and reward of virtue are the most adequate ends of tragedy. Pity and fear have to be moved to bring us to virtue and hatred of vice. Dryden follows Aristotle and Horace in his remarks on the tragic hero. The tragic hero must be capable of exciting pity and fear virtuous enough to excite pity for his misfortune. He should be noble and the tragic flaw in him brings him down. Following Aristotle Dryden calls comedy, a representation of human life in inferier persons and low subjects to create laughter. The prime function of comedy is delight and secondly instruction. Dryden wanted English comedy to be more refined than it was. It should evoke refined laughter than coarse one ridiculing eccentric traits in individuals. Dryden considers epic to be superior to tragedy. Tragedy is comparatively shorter and has to leave out much to reduce its length. But epic makes a deep impression in us as it works slowly. Tragedy can be seen as well as read. But stage is not big enough to show war, armies, which the epic beautifully picturises in words. We have time to digest what we read in the epic, and can go through it again which is not possible in a stage performance. So epic is the greatest work of human nature. Dryden disagrees with Aristotle in insisting on a moral for the epic. The style of epic should be heightened from that of natural speech. According to Dryden Satire is a species of heroic poetry. It is Roman in origin. It should have unity of

10 design. The satirist should choose a weakness or folly for his target. Fine raillery should be the manner of satire to severe chastisement. Dryden is considered to be the father of English criticism. There was no critic learning before his period. Inspite of the scattered nature of his ciriticism, no literary problem of his age escaped his attention. He inaugurated the comparative method in criticism. His criticism is a follow up of the concepts of Aristotle. He learnt a respect for rules from him, preferred epic to tragedy like the French neo-classicists and to Longinus and Evremon he owned respect for his own judgement. He liberally adjusted the rules of the classics to the need and genius of the period. Preface to the Fables' is an example of criticism - Comparative Father of English Criticism - Dryden is the first to use the term 'Criticism' in English - Dryden Essay of Dramatic poesy' was written by - Dryden In legislative criticism the critic assumes the role of a - Teacher In descriptive criticism, the critic places himself as - Mediator Theoretical criticism is concerned with - Literary aesthetics Dryden agrees with the concepts of Aristotle in - Poetry, tragedy and comedy Dryden considers to be Superior to tragedy - Epic SHORT NOTES 1. Dryden's views on Tragedy :- Dryden's definition of Tragedy is the same as Aristotle's but he follows the French critic Rapin in his interpretation of the operation of pity and fear. According to Rapin, pride and want of commiseration (hardness of heart) are the predominant vices of mankind. Punishment of vice and reward of virtue are the most adequate end of Tragedy. 2. His views on Epic :- Dryden considers the epic to be superior to tragedy. To him, epic makes a deep impression like the tragedy, and works leisurely. We have leisure to digest what we read in the epic. The stage is handicapped to show many things like battles, armies, which the epic beautifully renders in words. Longinus wrote - 'On the Sublime' Principal sources of the sublime are - Grandeur of thought, capacity for strong emotion, right use of figures, nobility of diction, dignity of composition. Dryden follows the French Critic Rapin in - The interpretation of result of tragedy According to Rapin punishment of vice and reward of virtue are - The suitable end of Tragedy Dryden considers to be Superior to tragedy - Epic The frame of is endless whereas of tragedy is limited Dr. Johnson - Epic Dr. Johnson's contributions to literary criticism are found in the short essays or papers appeared in 'Rambler'. Dr. Johnson They are essays on social, literary and moral topics. His remarks on poetry is seen in 'Rasselas', 'Preface to the plays of shakespeare' and the 'Lives of the poets'. The literary period of which Johnson is a principal representative was pre-eminently an age of prose. By Johnson's time the new style of clear, plain and short prose was eminent which demanded regularity, precision and technical prefection invaded in poetry also.

11 Dr. Johnson is an historical critic. He believed that literature is conditioned by the writer's age and environment. Dryden and Pope mentioned it. According to him, to judge an author correctly, we must transport ourselves to his time and examine the wants of his contemporaries and his means of supplying them. Johnson took it for granted that the kind of poetry which flourished in his own time was the best kind. So Dryden and Pope received his highest praise. To a correct evaluation of a writer's performance, conformity to nature and reason, his opportunities and limitations is to be considered. Historical estimate is an important factor in judging the real talent of an author. As an example Johnson points out the violent scenes in Shakespearean plays. Those scenes reflected the primitive tastes of his audience, as he wrote them for their enjoyment. The descriptions of nature in Johnson's favourite poets are purely literary and epigrammatic reflections on life were to him the best type of poetry. His blame of genuine poets like Milton and Gray, his over praise of artificial poets like Pope are the utterances of a man who worked for an age of Prose. Yet even on poetry Johnson's opinions are valuable because they are great, original. For him poetry is the art of uniting pleasure with truth by calling imagination to the help of reason. Poetry imitates truth or life and its function is to give pleasure. Truth, to be poetic, has to be pleasure giving. He says that the moral purpose of poetry is to instruct by pleasing ; He formed his view based on Horace and the French neo-classic writers and he developed this view in his 'Preface to Shakespeare'. Johnson had high opinion on Shakespeare and his plays because he was the poet of nature and gave his readers a faithful vision of manners and life. They are imitations of life presenting not the particular, but the universal. His characters are genuine, common men which could be found anywhere in the world. So the truth of poetry in universalisation. Here the reader identifies himself with the characters, crying and cheering along with them. Such oneness, is the pleasure of enjoying a work of art and it pleases long. Johnson believes that a poet's duty is to make the world better. Shakespeare did it with ease and he never tried to enforce morality on his readers. Following the French neo-classicists he considered the epic superior to all other forms of verse. Epic poetry teaches the most important truths in the most pleasing ways. To Johnson the pastoral and the Pindaric odes are not impressive. The pastoral pleased the ancients but in the modern age it is only a convention. So he condemned Milton's 'Lycidas' as' easy, vulgar and disgusting. The pindaric ode is not suited to the modern age, with its irregular rhyme and stanza pattern. To him the great pleasure of verse arises from the known measure of lines, uniform structure of the stanza and regular metre. He considered rhyme as essential to English verse and in rhyme he preferred the heroic couplet to all other stanza forms. The heroic couplet should not be disturbed by other stanza forms. Blank verse is not advisable as it is verse only in appearance. All words are not fit for poetical use, too familar words and unfamiliar words destroys a poetic work. Similes must both illustrate and elevate the subject. Johnson in his criticisms of poetry, employs the standards of an essentially prosaic age. His words indeed are often long and pompous but the structure of his sentences are modern. Johnson says that, drama must be a faithful mirror of manners and life. It should present human sentiments in the language of the common man. It needs to be the story of all men in all ages. Shakespeare excels in this area. Regarding unities, the unity of action, alone is justified by reason because if event did not naturally lead to the probable end it would be disastrous. He does not agree with the reasons for the unities of time and place. Johnson agrees with the power of stage illusion. The stage can represent any place and the lapse of years can be conceived by the passage of hours. His comments on tragi-comedy are completely realistic. He believed that tragedy and comedy are part of life, nature does not keep sorrow and joy separately. Life is such an amalgam of both, tragi comedy pleases the audience and the result is all that matters. Johnson's critical works show wisdom, common sense and power. He was indeed one of the most talented writers of the time. The memory of Johnson keeps many of his works alive. He was always honest and independent. He was too original that he stick to pedantic submission to the rules of correct writing. "Even when Johnson's criticisms are grossly unjust, sometimes, they are never silly but truth. They are the judge-

12 ments of a mind trammeled by prejudice and deficient in sensibility but vigorous and acute." Lives of Poets' is a work by - Dr. Johnson Dr. Johnson's essays appeared in - Rambler - (Macaulay) The literary period which Johnson belong was an age of - Prose To Johnson is an important factor in judging the real talent of an author - Historical estimate Johnson considered superior to all other forms of verse - Epic Johnson says that, must be a faithful mirror of manners and life - Drama Johnson admired Shakespeare and his plays because - He was the poet of nature and gave a faithful vision of manners and life Johnson condemned Milton's Lycidas' as disgusting because - Pastoral odes are not impressive Johnson over praised the artificial poets like Pope because - He favoured prose To Johnson the moral purpose of poetry is - To instruct by pleasing SHORT NOTES 1. Historical approach :- Johnson is considered to be the true father of historical criticism in English. He says that to judge an author correctly, we must transport ourselves to his time and examine what were the wants of his contemporaries and what were his means of supplying them. Conformity to nature and reason is the basic test of literary excellence. But a consideration of the writer's opportunities and limitations is also indispensable to a correct evaluation of his performance. In short, the historical estimate is an important factor in the real estimate of an author. 2. Characteristics of Neo-classicism :- Neo classicism laid stress on correctness, reason and good sense. Rules were to be followed in a slavish manner. Fancy and emotion were controlled by the exercise of reason and good sense. The head was considered predominant over the heart, style and diction were given serious attention. The language of poetry should be noble and elevated. Virgil was chosen as the model among the classical poets. Personification and circumlocution were practised for imparting elevation and sublimity to the diction. Mythological characters were introduced in literature. Thus an artificial poetic diction came into vogue. The rules prescribed by the ancient masters were scrupulously followed. Certain general rules were formed for composing poetry and certain special rules for each literary branch. Artists were asked to write according to these rules. Clarity in style was important 3. Romantic Criticism :- Romantic criticism disregards the rules laid down by the classical writers. Works of literature is judged on the basis of the impression they produce. The theory of poetry, the process of poetic creation, the nature of poetry and its function are given great importance. Romantic criticism stresses emotion and imagination, rather than reason and good sense. Romantic poetry is poetry of the heart. Poetry is regarded not as imitation or invention, but as emotion recollected in tranquility. Poetry should originate from inspiration and intention and not from adherence to rules. The function of poetry is pleasure. Imagination is supreme in the field of creation and judgement. Shakespeare is regarded great because his plays are imaginative. Romantic criticism is creative in the sense that critics express their judgement after analysing the spirit, thought and feelings of the artist whose works they judge. Simplicity is

13 emphasised both in theme and treatment and the conception of poetic theory and versification underwent drastic changes. Johnson's Preface to Shakespeare was published in is considered as the father of historical criticism in English - Dr. Johnson and is the basic test of literary excellence - Conformity to nature and reason is an important factor in the real estimate of an author - Historical Estimate The neo-classicists chose as the model among the classical poets - Virgil is an important feature of neo classicists Wordsworth - Clarity of style Wordsworth is one of the great romantic poets of the early 19th century. He inaugurated the romantic movement in English poetry. A close and long enduring friendship with S T. Coleridge resulted in the publication of 'Lyrical Ballads' in 1798, which marked the revival in English poetry. Wordsworth was basically a poet and not a critic. Coleridge's share was directed towards illustrating the naturalness of the supernatural and Wordsworth was to show that the natural, the ordinary and the obvious had its poetry, and its super naturalness. His 'Preface to lyrical Ballads' (1802) paved the way for Romantic criticism. He wanted to change the then existing poetic theory and practice. He voted for simplicity in theme and treatment and modernised the English critical tradition. The preface explains the objective of Romanticism directing the Romantic movement in the right direction. Wordsworth He defines poetry which is the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings, takes it origin in emotion recollected in tranquility which mean that poetry originates from internal feelings. It flows natural without any conscious effort, when the poet is in the proper mood. Poetry must flow out voluntarily and willingly from the soul of the poet. As the writing of poetry is connected with strong feelings, is not an intellectual process. Wordsworth stands supreme as a poet of nature and he gave it an independent status in poetry. He believed in the divine spirit prevading all-objects of nature. His 'Tintern Abbey' is one of the greatest poetic tributes to nature in any language. According to him, poets have greater capacity to capture sense impressions and retain them. They are easily enchanted by nature, express their emotions and convey the joy to others. He differed from other poets in his attitude to nature. Each flower, stream and hill had for him a peculiar character. The liveliness of stream, meadow, blue sky, threw him into a transport. At the sight of the rainbow, his heart leaped up in joy. In the first book of 'prelude', the description of the winter snows and skating is unparalled in literature. The mystery of moonlight and the magic of stream were enough for him. So he does not depend on any external circumstance to add charm to nature. Daffodils tossing their heads in sprightly dance gives him joy. The music of the solitary reaper leaves him in rapturous ecstasy. All these emotions are spontaneous. But good poetry is not always an immediate expression of powerful feelings. It is the result of long deep meditation.' According to Wordsworth, the real function of poetry, is to give pleasure. While composing, the poet too experiences joy, and he shares his pleasure to the readers through his poems. But the aim of the poetry is not giving pleasure alone but in giving morality too. He is a true poet and therefore makes it clear that the language is adopted from rustics, purified indeed from what appear to be its real defects. He was fully aware of the greatness and the responsibility of his vocation. His poems deal generally with low and rustic life and his own personal relationship with nature. The lan-

14 guage is simple but revelatory. The naturalness of his diction and the vocabulary of the simplest peasant used have sincerity and directness of experience. He criticised the poetic diction of the 18th century poets, according to him cannot be spontaneous and genuine. The language in everyday use among people not corrupted by civilization can bring out with life and vigour the feelings of the poet. The spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings differ from those of primitive poetry. He said that there is no essential difference between the language of prose and the language of poetry. The poet must be faithful to their objects and he has one restriction of giving pleasure which is a direct human experience. He was of the opinion that the poet possesses an inward eye which vividly recaptures bygone incidents. Wordsworth was not a philosopher or thinker like Coleridge but he has a clear perception of what he has to say. His definition of poetry :- Wordsworth defines poetry as the spontaneous overflow of powerful emotions. In other words, poetry originates from internal feelings. When the poet is in a proper mood, it flows naturally without any conscious effort. Poetry must flow out voluntarily and Willingly from the soul of the poet. has been called the high - priest of Nature - Wordsworth Romantic movement in English poetry is inaugurated by - Wordsworth Wordsworth collaborated with in the publication of Lyrical Ballads - S.T.Coleridge Lyrical Ballads was published in modernised the English critical tradition - Wordsworth Words worth's is one of the greatest poetic tributes to nature - Tintern Abbey Wordsworth's poems deal generally with - Low and rustic life 'Lucy Poems' are the best lyrics written by - Wordsworth 'I wandered lonely as a cloud' is a second title to the famous by Wordsworth - The Daffodils Wordsworth is one of the greatest poets of England - Lyric 'The prelude' is the of Wordsworth Romanticism is against - Spiritual autobiography - Classicism Romantic criticism stresses - Emotion and Imagination is the poetry of the heart - Romantic poetry is regarded great by the romanticists - Shakespeare Wordsworth defines poetry as - T h e Spantaenous overflow o f powerful emotions Coleridge Between Wordsworth and Coleridge as critics one cannot deny the superior powers of the latter as a thinker, systematic Coleridge and methodic with a better analytical mind and ability to prove into fundamentals of concepts. He was more interested in the creative process than in the finished product. His definition of the primary and secondary imagination and the distinction he makes between imagination and fancy are permanent contributions to literary theory. Romantic poetry is characterised by a marked disposition for imagination. For Coleridge, poetry is an act of imagination. His poetry reveals his intense imaginative power superbly controlled by an unerring artistic

15 sense. The 18th century philosophers Locke, Hobbes had reduced the human mind to a blank tablet, but Coleridge sharply reacted against this concept. He also made a distinction between imagination and fancy. He wanted poetry to be governed by the principles of imagination and not by those of fancy. To him imagination was an organising and integrating principle in the absence of which no great poetry could even be written. Coleridge examines the very nature and genesis of imagination. He finds two forms of imagination - the primary and the Secondary. The primary imagination is simply the power of seeing the objects of sense - persons, places, things - in their parts and as wholes. The mind thereby forms a clear picture of the object seen by the sense. The secondary imagination is the conscious use of this power, a composite faculty of the soul. It is more effective than the primary imagination. The secondary imagination dissolves, diffuses, dissipates in order to recreate, so imagination is a unifying power. It unifies the faculties of the soul, identifies the mind with matter and matter with the mind. The secondary works more powerful than primary. In the conception of imagination Wordsworth and Coleridge shares almost the same view. Wordsworth was concerned with practice and Coleridge with theory. According to Coleridge fancy is not a creative power. It just combines the things into pleasing shapes. The original materials are offered in a new combination by fancy. Coleridge is one of the greatest critics of Shakespeare. He delivered periodic lectures on Shakespeare and other poets. He revolutionised the whole concept of Shakespearian criticism. He revealed the immense range of Shakespeare's genius. He denounced the classical doctrines and stressed the organic unity of Shakespeare's plays. He proved that Shakespeare is not only a poet but also the greatest poet the world has ever produced. His lectures are impressionistic romantic criticism of the highest order and hailed Shakespeare as a born genius. Coleridge could be rightly called as the ancestor of critics like A.C. Bradley and Wilson Knight. A considerable portion of Coleridge's 'Biographia Literaria' is devoted to the criticism of Wordsworth's theory of poetry as expounded in his preface to the Lyrical Ballads. His idea was to explain and justify his own style and practice of poetry, art, fancy and imagination. Wordsworth argues in the 'preface' that poetry should be written in the real language of men; carrying all the emotion the words are meant to carry and the subject matter should be from the incidents and situations from common life. The real spirit behind the 'preface' was Coleridge. Later he differed from Wordsworth on his subject. When the 'preface' published Coleridge wanted to change the popular impression that the language of the 'preface' represented his views too. He expressed his views in 'Biographia Literaria.' While discussing, the origin and genesis of 'Lyrical Ballads' Coleridge used the expression 'Willing Suspension of disbelief' (Chap XIV Bio.Lit). He and Wordsworth were to compose two different sorts of poems. In the one, the incidents and agency were practically supernatural. For the second the subjects were to be chosen from ordinary life. Wordsworth was to give the charm of novelty and Coleridge was to deal with persons and characters supernatural and make them appear credible. The expression indicates the nature of dramatic illusion. It sums up Coleridge's view of how fiction poetic or dramatic pleases the reader. In order to enjoy it, the reader or spectator willingly suspends his disbelief in it. Coleridge has his own views against Wordsworth's poetic theories. Regarding Wordsworth's choice of rustic characters and life, Coleridge observes that Wordsworth himself has not selected them properly. They are neither low nor rustic in the real sense. Their language and sentiments are not from their living environment. Coleridge disagrees with Wordsworth again on the language. He said that the vocabulary of the rustics is very poor and are able to express only the barest facts of nature. For him the best form of language derives from education. Regarding poetic diction, he disagrees with his friend's view that the language of poetry is the very language of men and language of Prose and poetry is one. Coleridge refutes this, saying that everyman's language differs, depending on his knowledge, individual pecularities and the qualities proper to the class he belongs etc. In the same way the language of the prose and poetry are not one but of two different type just as reading differs from talking, the language

16 of prose needs to be different from the language of conversation. Coleridge, of whom Wordsworth remarked, 'the only wonderful man I ever met' was indeed one of the most original minds of the 19th century. His concept of organic imagination influenced the New critics to a great extent and his approach to Shakespeare led to the Bradleyan school of Shakespeare criticism in the modern century. SHORT NOTES 1. Coleridge on Imagination :- According to Coleridge, poetry is an act of the imagination. Coleridge finds two forms of imagination-the primary and the secondary. The primary imagination is simply the power of seeing the objects of sense, persons, places, things - in their parts and as wholes. The mind thereby forms a clear picture of the object seen by the sense. It is an involuntary act of the mind. The secondary imagination is the conscious use of this power, a composite faculty of the soul. 2. As a shakespearian critic :- Coleridge is credited with the honour of emancipating Shakespeare from the shackles of neo - classicism. He is one of the greatest critics of Shakespeare. He delivered periodic lectures on Shakespeare and other poets. He revealed for the first time the immense range of Shakespeare's genius. He denounced the classical doctrines and stressed the organic unity of Shakespeare plays. He demonstrated that Shakespeare is not only a dramatist but also the greatest poet that England or even the world has ever produced. 3. Biographia Literaria : - 'Biographia Literaria', is a critical work of miscellaneous character. To begin with Coleridge's idea was to explain and justify his own style and practice of poetry, art, fancy, and imagination and so on. A considerable portion of the book is devoted to the criticism of Wordsworth's theory of poetry as expounded in his 'preface to the Lyrical Ballads'. 4. Dramatic illusion :- The expression 'willing suspension of disbelief is used by Coleridge in chapter XIV of Biographia literaria. The term indicates the nature of dramatic illusion. It sums up Coleridge's view of how fiction, poetic or dramatic, pleases even when it is known to be fiction. The reader or spectator knows well that it is a tale or a play. But to believe what the poet says to have a faith in his fictitious world, he willingly suspends his disbelief in it for the duration of his reading or its performance in the theatre. Only by doing so can he derive any pleasure from a tale or play. The distinction between fancy and imagination was a key element in - Coleridge's theory of poetry For Coleridge poetry is an act of - Imagination is one of the greatest critics of Shakespeare - Coleridge Coleridge's expression 'Willing Suspension of disbelief' indicates - The nature of dramatic illusion Coleridge differs from wordsworth in - Poetic theories, language poetic diction 'Biographia Literaria' is the autobiography of - Coleridge A considerable portion of 'Biographia Literaria' is devoted to - The criticism of wordsworth's theory of poetry as expounded in his Preface to Lyrical Ballads. According to Coleridge is not a creative power - Fancy The one and only wonderful man I ever met' was the opinion of Wordsworth on - Coleridge Coleridge's approach to Shakespeare led to - Bradleyan School of Shakespeare Criticism According to Coleridge poetry is - An act of the imagination

17 The two forms of imagination are Primary imagination is - Primary and Secondary imagination - The power of seeing the objects of sense in their parts and as wholes empancipated Shakespeare from the neoclassicism - Coleridge is one of the greatest critics of Shakespeare - Coleridge The publication of Lyrical Ballads is in 'Preface to Lyrical Ballads came in Preface to Lyrical Ballads paved the way for Dr. Johnson is a - Romantic Criticism - Historical critic Dryden introduced method in criticism - Comparative Matthew Arnold Matthew Arnold's criticism may conveniently be studied under three heads (1) Those observations on the nature and function of poetry which he made in his letters to Clough (2) those that he delivered as lectures (3) those pieces were collected and published under the title 'Essays in Criticism'. According to Arnold poetry is a criticism of life under the conditions fixed for such a criticism by the laws of poetic truth and poetic beauty. Like Aristotle he believes that it is not the function of poetry to present life as it is. The poet has to add to it something of his own. It is this addition that makes all the difference between life and poetry. It is the poet's criticism of life and is different from the teachings of science and morality. It appeals to all the faculties of the soul and to the wholeman. It is a voice from his inmost soul. Poetry therefore exists to make life richer and fuller by applying itself to the question 'How to live'. It is therefore essentially moral, conforming to the highest ideals of truth, goodness and beauty. Arnold was of the view that high quality of poetry could be tested in a simple way. Specimens of poetry of the highest quality should be selected and used as touchstone for judging the merit of the poetry to be tested. He was against the historical and personal estimates of a work of art. Longinus had applied the same test to the determination of sublimity in nature. The most useful method is to have always in one's mind lines and expressions of the great masters and to apply them as a touchstone to other poetry. He points out different passages from Homer, Dante, Milton and Shakespeare and how they impress alike by their poetic quality. According to Arnold Homer was the grand master of the grand style. The grand style ennobles poetry and it ennobles life. In the preface of 1853 Arnold had alluded to the superiority of this style of the Greek over the colourful style of the Spasmodics (English). The grand style arises in poetry when a noble nature, poetically gifted, treats with simplicity or severity a serious subject. He finds only three masters of the grand style, Homer, Milton and Dante. Arnold is an interested over praised critic. His interests were cultural and social. He expected both the poet and the critic to make the best prevail. Therefore there is a strong moral bias in his critical utterances. Judged historically he rendered great service to criticism. He believed and made others believe that in criticism there is creative activity. He based his criticism on classical and continental literature. T.S. Eliot rightly remarked that Academic literary criticism, was formulated by Arnold. No English or American critic after Coleridge had a more extensive influence than Arnold. He taught others how to criticise, laying down certain clear principles. He could not conceive of poetry as something apart from life. It was a serious preoccupation with the art of living itself. In the same way he admits that the critical faculty is lower than the creative. He believes that for the creation of master work of literature two powers must concur, the power of the man and the power of the moment. It is the happy coincidence of creative power with creative epochs that produces great

18 works of literature. He says that criticism is a three fold activity. It is personal culture - to learn the best that is known and thought in the world; it is a service to society - to propagate the same and a service to literature - to establish a current of fresh and true ideas. A real estimate of poetry rises above the personal predilections and prejudices. He urged the necessity of comparative 'criticism of literature with an acknowledged masterpiece' as the model. He also waged a relentless battle against the intrusion of personal, religious or political considerations in the judgement of authors and works. He raised criticism to a higher level than was even thought of by making it the caretaker of literature in epochs unfavourable to its growth. His 'Essays in criticism' is a land mark in the history of English literature. In his 'Preface to 1853 poems' Arnold boldly expresses his frank opinion about Shakespeare wanting in architectonic quality. T.S.Eliot severely criticises Arnold, dubbing him a propagandist. In fact he had his limitations as a critic. He has emancipated criticism from an unworthy intellectual interest and bind it more tightly to spiritual interest. Eliot does not consider Arnold to be a great critic. Arnold, says Leavis, was not qualified to be a critic or poet to direct English poetry. There are reasons for this too. Arnold's criticism sometimes tends to be vague and unscientific. He speaks too much about moral effect and high seriousness in poetry, but left its aesthetic pleasure. He is a learned scholar but he failed in collecting the data required for analysis. He is incapable of maintaining connected reasoning. He prescribes rules for assessing a work by total, impression but contradicts himself by introducing the Touchstone method. He was in favour of biographical criticism, at the same time he was against historical method of criticism. SHORT NOTES 1. Arnold's theory of Poetry :- Poetry, observes Arnold is a criticism of life under the conditions fixed for such a criticism by the laws of poetic truth and seriousness of substance and matter ' felicity and perfection of diction and manner. Arnold believes that poetry does not present life as it is, but the poet adds something to it from his noble nature and experience. This something contributes to his criticism of life. It is a voice from his inmost soul. Poetry thus exists to make life richer and fuller by applying itself to the question how to live'. 2. Touchstone method :- Arnold says that specimens of poetry of the highest quality should be selected and used as touchstone for judging the merit of the poetry under reference. He is strongly opposed to the historical and personal estimates of a work of art. He wants a realistic assessment by learning to feel and enjoy the best work of the real classic and appreciate the wide difference between it and the lesser works. Arnold 's method is similar to that of Longinus. According to Arnold is the Criticism of life - Poetry Arnold's three estimates are the historical, the personal and the - Touchstone method Essays in criticism is a critical work of - Arnold Arnold was against historical and estimate of an author - Personal Arnold's literary criticism is seriously concerned with - Life From the best poetry Arnold demanded - Grandstyle, high seriousness, criticism of life, the application of ideas to life. Arnold's poetry is seen at his best in his - Elegies Thyrsis is written to commemorate Arnold's friend - The poet Arthur Hugh Clough 'On Translating Homer' is of Arnold - A series of lecturers delivered at Oxford 'The strayed Reveller' was a collection of poems by - Arnold Arnold based his criticism on - Classical and continental The contribution of Arnold to criticism is - He taught others how to criticise, laying down clear

19 principles Arnold voted for - Comparative Criticism of Literature Arnold's is a landmark in the history of English literature - Essays in Criticism The autobiography of Coleridge is called - Biographia Literaria According to Arnold was the grand master of the grand style - Homer observes poetry as the Criticism of life - Arnold Arnold finds only three masters of the grand style they are - Homer, Milton, Dante Academic Literary Criticism was formulated by - Matthew Arnold Touchstone method is the contribution of T.S. Eliot - Matthew Arnold T.S. Eliot is one of the significant figure in the field of literature. His criticism is significant both for what it is in itself and for the influence it wields in academic and literary circles. It is what in Eliot's own words may be called workshop criticism. 'Tradition and individual Talent' throws light on the kind of poetry he wrote in the first stage of his poetic development. His critical views change as he grows and develops. According to him tradition is not something handed down to be followed by the succeeding generations but as something of much wider significance. It lives through individual talent. It is a sense of past which he calls it the historical sense. Which is a sense of the timeless as well as the temporal and of the timeless and temporal together. Tradition cannot be inherited It has to be acquired with hard labour with the cultivation of the historical sense. T.S. Eliot One who has the historical sense feels that the whole of the literature of Europe from Homer down to his own day, forms one continuous literary tradition. The creative artist values both the temporal and the timeless and this quality makes him really traditional. Just as the past directs and guides the present, the present alters and modifies the past. The poet must be aware that the awareness of tradition sharpens the sensibility which is important to poetic creation. Shakespeare acquired more essential history from Plutarch, than most men can from the British museum. It is by surrendering to the past that the poet can depersonalise himself. It is in this depersonalization that art may be said to approach the condition of science. Eliot tells us how honest criticism and sensitive appreciation is directed to the poem and not to the poet. His impersonal theory relates the poem to its author. He opposes the romantic theory of poetry. He cites an analogy from science. When oxygen and sulphur dioxide are mixed in the presence of platinum they form sulphuric acid. This chemical reaction is possible only in the presence of the catalyst platinum. Even as the platinum shred brings the chemical change and yet leave no trace on the compound formed. The poet's mind operates upon the man's experience and is responsible for the creation of the poem yet leaves no trace of his own personality on the poem. The poet's mind is the platinum shred. The elements transformed are emotions and feelings, may give rise to independence of the poet's personality or experience. The poet's mind is a receptacle for seizing and storing up all kinds of feelings, images etc which remain there, till they unite to form a new compound. This leads to Eliot's total condemnation of Wordsworth's statement that poetry is emotion recollected in tranquility as inexact. Eliot affirms that poetry is not a turning loose of emotion but an escape from emotions. It is not expression of personality but an escape from personality. The individual talent of the poet is in the deliberate extinction of one's personality. It is in the technique, the craft with which he expresses the impersonal artistic emotion which he gets on submitting himself to tradition and allowing the platinum shred of his mind to

20 operate on emotions and feelings. The poetic process demands concentration. Many of his critical terms have entered, English language, 'Objective correlative' is one among them. He used it while discussing 'Hamlet'and his problems. Emotion cannot be simply transmitted from the mind of the poet to the mind of the reader. It should be turned into something concrete to evoke the same emotion in the readers. The object in which emotion is thus bodied forth is its external equivalent or objective correlative. To convey the full sense of Lady Macbeth's mental malady in the 'sleep-walking scene', Shakespeare merely makes her 'do' over again what she had done before. This conscious repetition of her past actions is the objective correlative of her present mental agony and the agony is made object here. 'Dissociation of sensibility' is anothere phrase used by Eliot, to point out the fault of the poetry of the later 17th century. It was used against 'unified sensibility'. Unified sensibility means a sensuous apprehension of thought or a recreation of thought into feelings. Thought is transformed into feeling to reach the reader's heart. The union of the two constitutes unified sensibility. When the poet is unable to convert thought into feeling, the result is dissociation of sensibility. A poet may wish to convey great ideas but may fail to bring forth as feelings. Eliot stands for orderliness both in art and in criticism. According to Eliot classical is the right approach. Classicism follows the principle of allegiance to an outside authority. Men cannot get on without giving allegiance to something outside themselves. Fact finding is the function of criticism. This is best done when the critic has something outside himself to guide him. Eliot's greatness as a critic is not in the views themselves but in the mind behind it. His phrases are included in Webster's Collegiate Dictionary. The expressions describe what is true and relevant to literary expressions and response. His influence on other critics is far reaching. F.R. Leavis bases all his insights on Eliot's criticism and creative work. Without Eliot the course of English poetry and criticism could have been different. SHORT NOTES 1. Eliot's Classicism :- Eliot stands for orderliness both in art and in criticism, classicism follows the principle of allegiance to an outside authority. According to him, the right approach is the classical. 'Men cannot get on without giving allegiance to something outside themselves. Fact finding is the function of criticism. This is best done when the critic has something outside himself to guide him based on tradition and the accumulated wisdom of time. 2. Impersonality theory :- Eliot opposes the romantic theory of poetry as self expression. He advanced his own theory of Impersonality in Art. He affirms that poetry is not a turning loose of emotions, but an escape from emotions. It is an escape from personality. The poetic process is a continual extinction of personality, a surrender of personal emotions to the emotions of art. He cites an example from science. When oxygen and sulphur dioxide undergoes chemical reaction in the presence of the platinum piece in it, they form sulphuric acid. The reaction is possible only in the presence of platinum which acts as a catalyst. The mind of the poet likewise acts as a catalyst and remains unaffected. 3. Objective Correlative :- It is an expression used by Eliot while discussing 'Hamlet and his problem's to explain how emotion is best expressed in poetry. Emotion cannot be simply transmitted from the mind of the poet to the mind of the reader. It should be turned into something concrete to evoke the same emotion in the readers. The object in which emotion is thus bodied forth is its external equivalent or objective correlative. eg : Lady Macbeth's mental malady is powerfully shown by Shakespeare by making her 'do' over again which she had done before. This unconscious repetition of her past actions is the objective correlative of her present mental agony. The agony is made objective here. 4. Dissociation of sensibility :- It is a phrase used by T.S. Eliot pointing to a characteristic fault of the poetry of the later 17th century. Its opposite is 'unified sensibility' which he uses to distinguish good poetry from bad. Unified sensibility means a sensuous apprehension of thought or a recreation of thought into feelings. When the poet's thought is unable to convert itself into feeling, the result is dissociation of sensibility - a split between thought and feeling.

21 The term 'dissociation of Sensibility' is associated with the critic - T.S. Eliot 'Art for Art's Sake' is the Slogan of Eliot's criticism is called - Aesthetic movement - Workshop criticism Eliot's relates the poem to its author - Impersonal theory According to Eliot, Tradition lives through - Individual talent Fact finding is the of criticism - Function Unified sensibility means - A sensuous apprehension of thought or a recreation of thought into feelings. The union of and constitutes unified sensibility - Thought and feeling The inability of a poet to convert thought into feeling is called - Dissociation of sensibility Eliot prefers both in art and Criticism T.S.Eliot stands for - Orderliness - Classicism According to Eliot is the function of criticism - Fact finding advanced impersonality theory To Eliot poetry is - T.S. Eliot - an escape from personality Mind of a poet acts as a in the poetic process - Catalyst Objective Correlative is a phrase from Eliot's essay - Hamlet and his problems Eliot used the classical chorus effectively in his play - Murder in the Cathedral A sensuous apprehension of thought into fellings is called - Unified Sensibility When a poet's thought is unable to convert itself into feeling, the result is F.R. Leavis - Dissociation o f Sensibility F.R. Leavis F.R. Leavis, a teacher - critic, was "the most influential British- born critic of the twntieth century". His famous works are New Bearings in English Poetry (1932), Revaluation (1936), The Great Tradition (1948), and The Common Pursuit (1952). These works contain the most explicit exposition of his critical beliefs and practice. He also wrote For Continuity (1933), Education and th University (1944), D.H. Lawrence : Novelist (1955) and he was the co-author with Denys Thompson of Culture and Environment (1933). He also edited a quarterly review Scrutiny from May 1932 to October The criticism of Leavis is often based on the response of his students to the class room. Leavis came under the influence of T.S. Eliot when The Sacred Wood was first published. He tells us in one of his essays that he brought a copy of The Sacred Wood, and for "the next few years I read it through several times a year, pencil in hand". Leavis's view of literature is quite comprehensive. It is not just an accumulation of work possessing a purely literary value but an important element in the same process of promoting "humane living" or culture. Leavis's primary concern is culture. In Culture and Environment he writes that these ideals have degenerated in the industrial age. The tastes nd habits of people have degenerated and they are formed by films, newspapers, advertisements, popular fiction-, all of which, in

22 their self-interest, exploit "the cheapest emotional responses" of the people. Literature is not only " language charged with meaning to utmost possible degree," as Ezra Pound defines it, it is also, as Leavis remarks "the storehouse of recorded values." Literature, according to Leavis, is not just an aesthetic experience but one dictated by the writer's profoundest interests in life. Like his illustrious predecessor, T.S. Eliot, Leavis believed in tradition. A critic's aim, therefore, is to study the past and notice a continuous development and the union of the past and the present. Leavis point out in The Great Tradition that tradition has a significance in the works of Jane Austen, George Eliot, Henry James, Conrad and D.H. Lawrence. Leavis has evolved a critical idiom in which he expresses his views with remarkable precision and exactness. Enactment and Realisation are two important words in his critical vocabulary. The former implies that good poetry embodies or enacts a valuation of, a reality at once inner (spiritual) and outer ( social or sensuous). Leavis praised Keats' poetry because it enacts inner reality which results in self-realisation or self- recognition. He finds in Keats' poetry "maturity, manifested in technique, of feeling in relation to thought, of imagination and desire in relation to actuality." Leavis emphasises the importance of Reality and sincerity, which are almost synonymous terms. Leavis's main concern is with emotion in poetry and its association with particularity, concreteness. Like Eliot, he also uses the term impersonality to define the nature of emotion in poetry. But he uses the word " impresonality" in a different sense. Leavis believes that poetry is the expression of an integrated person. He criticises the poetry of both Shelley and Tennyson because it is overburdened with emotionalism and lack in particularity and feelings for objective reality. Emotional and spiritual wholeness inevitably go together, and intelligence operates fully when it is the agent of this wholeness. Leavis advocates for the presence of the ethical quality in literature. He believes that "works of art act their moral judgements. Morality, according to Leavis, is embodied in the total structure of the poem. To him "literature matters vitally to civilization". Leavis has no norms, rules and theories of art. For, subject to the above assumptions, he judges a work "as in itself it really is." In such a judgement there can be no place for any outside norms, rules and theories of art. In short, a critic should be " concerned with the work in front of him as something that should contain within itself the reason why it is so and not otherwise. Leavis insisted on an unprompted, firsthand judgement of a work, based on a close analysis of it. Leavis's critical method is based on analysis. His critical approach disturbs many an old reputation to establish new ones. In Revaluation Milton is reassessed and found "unexhilarating". Carew was held superior to Herrick; and Pope restored to his rightful place. Shelley is deficient as a poet because his work shows an open divorce between thought and feelingm, a deliberate insistence an emotion which becomes emotionality, and a "rejection of the past", a failure to find his way into his real place in a living tradition. In New Bearings in English Poetry G.M. Hopkins, W.B. Yeats, Ezra Pound and T.S. Eliot are adjudged as the most 'significant' of the modern poets - those who have restored the contact of poetry with life. In The Great Tradition Leavis selects Jane Austen, George Eliot, Henry James, Joseph Conrad, and D.H. Lawrence as "the pre-eminent few" belonging to "the great tradition of the English novel". It is, therefore, "the business of the critic to prerceive for himself, to make the finest and sharpest relevant discriminations, and to state his findings as responsibly, clearly and forcibly as possible". Criticism, to Leavis, is not merely the kind of analysis suggested above - "the scrutiny of the words on the page in their minute relations, their effects of imagery and so on" - but "an interest in man, society and civilization. Leavis's most remarkable contribution to criticism is the relation he establishes between it and "an interest in man, society and civilization". Literature, which does not enrich man's cultural heritage, does not belong to "the great tradition". His criticism has a peculiar flavour. "The best features of academic ciriticism are combined with the best features of periodical criticism and then the amalgam is refined and ennobled with a master's touch. " F.R.Leavis's first book was

23 - New Bearings in English Poetry Double plots are successfully used in - Elizabethan Drama signifies the selection of words in a work of literature - Diction The need to distribute earthly rewards and punishments at the close of a literary work in proportion to the virtue or vice of characters is called - Poetic Justice The foundation of all good and lasting work in literature is - Sincerity The are those works which please and plese always - Classics The word 'Criticism' means - Judgement Criticism has two functions they are According to Leavis literature is - Interpretation and Judgement - Not language charged with meaning but the store house of recorded values has a pervasive influence on feeling, thought and standards of living - Literature I. A. Richards ( ) IVOR ARMSTRONG RICHARDS the pioneer of the new criticism, is one of the major critics of the twentieth century. His important critical works are Principles of Literary Criticism (1924), Practical Criticism (1929) and Coleridge on Imagination (1935). He also wrote The Foundation of Aesthetics (1922) in collaboration with C. K. Ogden and James Wood, and the Meaning of Meaning (1923) with Ogden. Richards was the first critic who realised the importance of psychology and the impact it made on the I. A. Richards reader and society. He is the first great critic since Coleridge who has formulated a systematic and complete theory of poetry and his views are highly original and illuminating. He was a man of wide learning. He was widely read not only in literature, but also in psychology, philosophy, aesthetics, the fine arts and the broad principles of various sciences. He harnessed his stupendous learning for the compounding of an amazingly new and original theory of poetry. The Nature of Poetry In order to determine the nature of poetry Richard first examines the working of the human mind, which, according to him is "a system of impulses". Impulses may be defined as the reactions produced in the mind by some stimulus and culminating in an act. Until the stage of action arrives they pull in different directions, each pressing the others to act in the way suited to it. The mind experiences a state of poise only when they organise to follow a common course. With each new experience, however, they are disturbed and remain so until they have readjusted themselves into a new poise, with the result that the mind remains in a disturbed state, ideal state of poise is one in which all the impulses are able to satisfy selves to the full when stirred into activity by some stimulus, but as this is seldom possible, the maximum satisfaction of the maximum number impulses, with the minimum frustration to the rest, in all that can be hoped for. The value of art or poetry is that it enables the mind to achieve poise or system more quickly and completely than it could do. By poetry Richards means all imaginative literature. Mind organises or systematizes different impulses. The conduct of human life is throughout an attempt to organise impulses "so that success is obtained for the greater number or mass of them, for the most important and weightiest set. Richards defines a poem as a collection of experience of an artist. But no single experience can make a poem. Concerning the judgment of a poem, Richards says that only that reader can judge a poem "whose experience approximates in this degree to the standard experience'.