LYRICAL STRAINS: Elissa Mara Zellinger

Transcription

1 LYRICAL STRAINS: Elissa Mara Zellinger A dissertation submitted to the faculty of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of English and Comparative Literature. Chapel Hill 2013 Approved by: Robert Cantwell Gregory Flaxman Eliza Richards Alan Shapiro Jane Thrailkill

2 Previously unpublished material copyright (c) 2012 by the Edna St. Vincent Millay Society. Printed with the permission of The Permissions Company, Inc., on behalf of Holly Peppe, Literary Executor, The Millay Society, < The chapter Edna St. Vincent Millay and the Poetess Tradition originally appeared in Legacy: A Journal of American Women Writers and appears here by permission of the University of Nebraska Press Elissa Zellinger ALL RIGHTS RESERVED!! ii!

3 ABSTRACT ELISSA ZELLINGER: Lyrical Strains: (Under the direction of Eliza Richards) Following John Stuart Mill, one important strain of contemporary scholarship has understood lyric poetry to convey the voice of an overheard subject who expresses private thoughts and emotions, either to herself or to an unavailable other. This work thus assumes, with Mill, that the lyric speaker is a model liberal subject (self-enclosed, selfreliant, self-possessed) and that lyric poetry merely communicates this subject s natural, preexisting interiority. Lyrical Strains: , however, argues that lyric poetry does not merely reflect liberal subjectivity but also helps to construct it, fashioning what it means to be a self in the nineteenth century. Furthermore, because this was a dynamic, historically contingent process rather than a static given, lyric was constantly in crisis, bearing the strains of trying to create an unchanging, universal ideal of selfhood. By examining poetic efforts to fashion the self while assuming its stable existence, I demonstrate that lyric engenders its own impossibility. In chapters pairing Henry Wadsworth Longfellow and Stephen Crane, Walt Whitman and Edwin Arlington Robinson, Frances Sargent Osgood and Edna St. Vincent Millay, and George Moses Horton and Paul Laurence Dunbar, this project offers an insight into both genealogies of the modern self and an anticipation of its deconstruction.!! iii!

4 To my parents, Michael and Sandra Zellinger.! iv!!

5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I was lucky to enter the graduate program with a cohort of encouraging, kind, and fun colleagues. Of these, I d like to thank three outstanding people without whose friendship I would have been lost: Lauren Garrett for our amateur therapy sessions and frank discussions of our futures, Nick Gaskill for being an energetic and attentive friend when reading my work and blowing off steam, and Aaron Shackelford for massive amounts of support as we progressed side-by-side through grad school and the dissertation. A number of institutions have generously provided funding for research and writing. A Rebekah F. Kirby Dissertation Fellowship from Department of English and Comparative Literature at the University of North Carolina proved a much needed break from teaching. I am also grateful to the Department for being patient and understanding with students whose graduate careers are lasting far longer than they used to. The Stanley Paterson Research Fellowship from the Friends of the Longfellow House allowed me to conduct important research for current and future projects in the Longfellow archive. This work was greatly aided by the help of my outstanding dissertation committee. Robert Cantwell was a constant source of cheerful encouragement, undivided attention, and sage wisdom. I am grateful to Alan Shapiro for bringing the perspective of a real live poet to the project and for assuring me that yes, poems really do try to talk to people. Jane Thrailkill has served as a valuable mentor and a friend; her insightful!!v!

6 criticism, vast knowledge, and kindness during stumbles and successes alike have been of immeasurable benefit. I would not have made it this far had it not been for two people: Gregory Flaxman and Eliza Richards. I am eternally grateful that they saw some small, perhaps imaginary, spark of promise in me and worked so hard to draw it out and see it through. It is nearly impossible to state what they have done for me or express my gratitude for their help. Both have been available on a twenty-four hour basis, which bespeaks their amazing devotion to advising and mentoring. In addition to being an excellent reader and inspirational instructor, Gregory Flaxman has provided pragmatic advice on all matters. Eliza Richards s intellectual generosity extends well beyond her roles as a teacher and dissertation director. She has provided me with a standard of integrity that I will forever strive to reach, not just in my career, but in my life. I would like to thank my parents, Michael and Sandra, for telling me I was the best even when circumstances suggested otherwise. Their work ethic provided me with the drive to challenge myself. My brother, Boz, kept me grounded and, like my parents, provided unwavering encouragement. Finally, Ben Rogerson provided and put up with more than can be expressed here. I am blessed to have my best friend, colleague, coach, therapy dog, reader, and husband all rolled into one person who sits across from me all day every day.! vi!!

7 TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter INTRODUCTION: LIBERAL AND LYRIC SUBJECTS. 1 I. STEPHEN CRANE AND THE POETICS OF NOSTALGIA. 29 II. WALT WHITMAN, EDWIN ARLINGTON ROBINSON, AND ROMANTIC ADDRESS III. EDNA ST. VINCENT MILLAY AND THE POETESS TRADITION IV. LYRIC READING AND THE AFRICAN AMERICAN VOICE CONCLUSION: LYRIC FAILURE WORKS CITED ! vii

8 INTRODUCTION LIBERAL AND LYRIC SUBJECTS This dissertation chronicles the simultaneous and interdependent consolidation of the modern lyric and the liberal self from 1820 to In this period, lyric guided readers in self making, while the political, economic, and social pressures influencing the self shaped lyric expression. By investigating the reciprocal relationship between American lyric poetry and liberal selfhood, this project forges a new understanding of lyric studies that creates connections where current criticism sees division. Following John Stuart Mill s famous declaration eloquence is heard, poetry is overheard, one substantial trend in contemporary scholarship has understood lyric poetry to convey the voice of a fictional subject who expresses private thoughts and emotions, either to herself or to an unacknowledged other ( What is Poetry? 12). Sharon Cameron, for example, explains that lyric poetry possesses an imaginary speaker who plots out his concerns in the absence of both action and others ; this voice is solitary and generally speaks out of a single moment in time (22, 23). More recently, Mutlu Blasing argues that in lyric an I talks to itself or to nobody in particular and is not primarily concerned with narrating a story or dramatizing an action (2). Scholars who define lyric as such believe that these subjective musings evoke a timeless mode of artistic expression that constitutes a universally recognizable human subject. Jonathan Culler concurs that the historical study of different poetic practices should be joined to a!

9 revival of the idea of the lyric as a poetic activity that has persisted since the days of Sappho, despite lyric s different social functions and manifestations (202). Likewise, Blasing argues the lyric is a foundational genre, and its history spans millennia; it comprises a wide variety of practices, ranging in the West from Sappho to rap (4). A counter strain of modern scholarship argues directly against lyric s universality. Virginia Jackson, for example, finds that such transhistorical accounts of lyric are a modern construction projected backwards onto all poetry; she argues lyric is a retroprojection of modernity, a new concept artificially treated to appear old (Misery 8). By collapsing poetic genres with historically distinct purposes into the idea of lyric, this retroprojection enables critics to read all poems as a short, nonnarrative poem depicting the subjective experience of a speaker (Jackson Who Reads 183). Through the example of Emily Dickinson s poetry, Jackson shows that modern notions of lyric did not exist until the end of the nineteenth century. She finds that Dickinson s poetry, which has long been read as a contextless and self-enclosed lyric utterance, actually had a historically specific mode of address. For modern critics to call this work lyric is thus anachronistic, limiting, and incorrect. Rather than countering universalizing theories of lyric, Jackson and other scholars such as Michael Cohen, Mary Loeffelholz, Yopie Prins, Elizabeth Renker, and Eliza Richards historicize the communicative function of nineteenth-century poetic genres. Because twentieth-century scholarship has persistently linked lyric to a universal form, these scholars turn to nineteenth-century poetic genres and poetry more broadly in order to study the history of poetic communication as it changes over time.! 2!

10 While these critical positions appear to be diametrically opposed, they share significant common ground. By arguing for lyric s transhistorical self-enclosure, the first group of critics ignores the ways this model works differently in different historical periods. Meanwhile, historicist scholarship, such as Jackson s, disallows the possibility that lyric s ideal universality was a historical construction serving poets throughout the nineteenth century. Taking Jackson s insight that lyric was historically constructed, I argue that lyric was not just a late-nineteenth-century creation. I see this historicism as incomplete; by looking to an earlier period, I trace the historical development of lyric universality. In other words, both groups fail to take into account that lyric changes over time, and that these changes are related to changes in the idea of the self. I argue that the ideal of a universal, self-enclosed lyric subject is crucial to historical transformations of selfhood in the nineteenth century. Specifically, the consolidation of liberal selfhood in the nineteenth century is inflected by lyric s fantasy of transhistorical subjectivity. The lyric ideal communicates a historically situated form of liberal selfhood. Returning to Mill, it is then no accident that he provides the foundation of lyric theory in addition to the foundation of liberal political theory. But by overlooking the liberal subjectivity that Mill s definition of poetry presumes, contemporary scholars neglect lyric s important role in histories of the self. As Mill explains in On Liberty (1859), over himself, over his own body and mind, the individual is sovereign (Basic Writings 12). In order to foster the individual s sovereign right to self-construction, liberalism constructs and relies upon a strong definition of the modern subject as one who is free, autonomous, and capable of self-government and rational behavior (Dillon 2). Hence the overheard lyric presents an independent subject who, through this! 3!

11 expressive utterance, constitutes sovereign selfhood in private. Lyric s representations of self-enclosure and self-possession promoted liberalism s belief in the individual s fundamental right to construct and govern oneself. Likewise, liberalism s notion of sovereign privacy drew from the lyric expression of interiority. Yet by virtue of being overheard, this profession of privacy had to be staged in front of a readership who helped constitute the interiority of the speaker. Mill s formulation indicates a communicative exchange in which the speaker performs interiority for an unacknowledged eavesdropper in order to construct subjectivity. The self-enclosure of the lyric subject occurs through a seemingly inadvertent exchange with an unavailable addressee that reflects the self back to itself. The liberal self also relies on a social, public space to recognize and affirm the self s autonomous enclosure. When we recast Mill s overhearing as an excuse to draw the listener closer, we can see that lyric address implies that the self only exists through its tacit need for communication and recognition. Lyric thus communicates and is communicative of liberal selfhood. Through its profession of self-possession, evinced by the performance of interiority, lyric is the primary technology for shaping and transmitting liberal subjectivity. Yet recent scholarship in the pattern of Mill (Blasing, Cameron, Culler) discounts this communicative imperative in lyric poetry by instead accepting the fiction that lyric expresses a universal subject. While these works do not mention the liberal self, their model of universal lyric subjectivity is compatible with nineteenth-century philosophical understandings of liberal subjectivity. On the other hand, scholarship in historical poetics (Jackson et al.) employs lyric s historically specific communication of selfhood and in! 4!

12 doing so overlooks a model of selfhood that aspires to a timeless, impenetrable, selfcontainment. Mill s American contemporaries developed the longstanding relationship between the liberal self and the lyric subject. As participants in the so-called American democratic experiment, in which citizens fundamental equality presumably ensured the same fundamental right to freedom, American poets were especially invested in liberalism. They elaborated the self-enclosure of Mill s overheard lyric and liberal self by depicting a self-made subject impervious to social influences. This American self forged identity through the examination and expression of interiority. The power of liberal individualism in the United States created an ideology that privileges the individual; that imagines the private life as a protected zone of intimacy that is immune from politics; that assumes freedom of movement, contract, and belief; and that grants a shield of abstraction in the public sphere (Margolis 4). Like Mill, Ralph Waldo Emerson composed both a theory of poetry and a theory of liberal selfhood. Emerson s writings are at the center of both American literary traditions and American liberal philosophy. In Emerson, liberalism and lyric are always linked, yet scholarship has only focused on one side of the relationship. Whether they address poetry or personhood, Emerson s essays articulate a model of rugged American individualism. According to Neal Dolan, Emerson preached self-reliance because the self was the locus of reason as he understood it. It was only through the independent exercise of reason that one could free oneself from the falsehoods promulgated by tradition and come to grasp real truths about nature, the self, and the cosmos (13). In Self-Reliance, Emerson reaffirms the liberal subject s freedom to construct interiority by advising us to disregard external influences! 5!

13 and to believe your own thought, to believe that what is true for you in your private heart is true for all men (121). Like Mill, while Emerson encourages self-enclosure, he nevertheless retains the communicative imperative of lyric s overheard self. Originally delivered as public lectures, Emerson s essays were directed to an audience. Rather than apostrophizing to an imaged other, Emerson addressed people. As a result, his prose communicated a strong selfhood in order to assist you, his listeners. It was Emerson s civic duty to inspire the public s belief in the ideal, autonomous self. As George Kateb comments, the idea of self-reliance is everywhere present in Emerson s thought (1). We can locate the liberal subject of Self-Reliance in the lyric subject of The Poet, in which Emerson aggrandizes the Poet into the ideal expression of liberal selfhood. Poetry is, for Emerson, the primary technology for communicating autonomous individualism. Like the self-reliant liberal individual, the Poet knows and tells (185). By an ulterior intellectual perception, the Poet gives those symbols that name and deaden the world a power which makes their old use forgotten, and puts eyes, and a tongue into every dumb and inanimate object (189). By relying on his own perception, he constitutes himself through self-enclosure. Emerson s self is permeable yet circumscribed; the Poet sees the world as an extension of his sovereign self by maintaining boundaries between interiority and exteriority. As Emerson argues in Nature, I become a transparent eye-ball; I am nothing; I see all; the currents of the Universal Being circulate through me; I am part or particle of God (29). While transparent, the eyeball nevertheless creates boundaries to establish itself as an eye or I. Yet Emerson recognizes that communication is key to the creation of the self-possessed lyric and liberal self when he argues the man is only half himself, the other half is his expression! 6!

14 ( The Poet 184). The Poet s successful self-construction makes him representative. He stands among partial men for the complete man (184). The Poet thus communicates to audiences a model of autonomous selfhood that Emerson saw largely lacking in antebellum American life. In Self-Reliance, Emerson laments that we are become timorous desponding whimperers... Our age yields no great and perfect persons (131). Conversely, Poets are free, and they make free through their poetic expression ( The Poet 194). These liberating gods assert the liberty that makes strong selfhood possible ( The Poet 194). Responding directly to Emerson s call for an American bard, Walt Whitman made himself emblematic of the Poet s rugged individualism when he notably declared himself one of the roughs, a kosmos (Leaves 29). Whitman s work demonstrates the coincidence and codependence of lyric and liberal subjectivity. His Preface to the 1855 Leaves of Grass rearticulates an ideal poetic individuality that shares with Emerson s Poet a foundation in liberal self-possession and self-reliance: The greatest poet is a seer.... he is individual... he is complete in himself (v). Whitman uses lyric poetry as a technology to model the making of heroic selfhood for others. He forms and communicates this subjectivity by radically expanding the convention of lyric address. Whitman rejects the implicit eavesdropping of Mill s formulation; by directly and insistently addressing a you who is very much present, Whitman shatters the frame of performed solitude. The forcefulness of this address breaks through the fiction of an unavailable you to invoke the reader. His poetry nevertheless created a self-enclosed and self-possessed subject because he drew us into his I. Hence, Whitman famously declares in his opening lines to Song of Myself :! 7!

15 I CELEBRATE myself, And what I assume you shall assume, For every atom belonging to me as good belongs to you. (Leaves 1-3) Whitman s extension of lyric technology reveals that the self-enclosed subject constitutes itself through its reliance on a communicative function. In this poem, I assume[s] you ; in other words, the I generates subjectivity by adopting and enclosing you. The selfpossessed lyric I and the liberal subject both rely on an implicit exchange that reflects the self back to itself. In his study of how poems say you in order to invoke their readers, William Waters explains sounding us, poetry resonates within the particular quality of hearing we offer to it; moreover, it listens to our response. The unfamiliar idea here is that our response matters, that we are heard when we had thought to be alone, connected when we imagined ourselves separate (65). In order to celebrate his self, Whitman demonstrates that you matters, that you is as much a part of himself as the atoms composing his body. By assuming you into his self, Whitman created a community of believers in strong liberal selfhood that is exemplified, most notably, by his expansive lyric self. This Whitmanian recognition of you is important to this project. Since I focus on the lyrical communication of liberal subjectivity as a historical phenomenon, the you is not only implied but also necessary for communicating those particularities. So far, I have treated liberal subjectivity as a reality when in truth it was an unachievable concept. The self-enclosure and self-possession of liberal selfhood was unfeasible because the self was always permeable by influences beyond the individual s control. While the sovereign right to freedom was only really enjoyed by those white men who were politically recognized as equals, the perfect self-enclosure and self-possession! 8!

16 such liberty would ensure were unfeasible. The self was open through a constitutive, communicative exchange with others and always subject to powers exceeding the individual s command. Such paradoxes are especially poignant in the U. S., which championed the contradictory ideals of individualism and democratic union all while actually limiting these supposed universals, and the subjectivity that subtends them, to white men. Liberal subjectivity was not a universal right; in fact, its autonomous individualism was created by excluding women and slaves. Because they did not have access to the liberty that liberalism promised, they were not granted the status of selfhood. Through chapters that chart the development of the liberal self by depicting struggles to establish the boundaries of or gain access to this ideal, I demonstrate how lyric formally bears the marks of such strain. My project thus concerns Lyrical Strains : by examining poetic strains against and struggles to achieve ideal selfhood, I demonstrate that lyric shapes and transmits a socially useful fantasy of liberal individualism meant to encourage union. In order to depict this endeavor across the nineteenth century, I pair four turn-of-the-century poets Stephen Crane, Edwin Arlington Robinson, Edna St. Vincent Millay, and Paul Laurence Dunbar with figures not conventionally considered to be their predecessors Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, Walt Whitman, Frances Sargent Osgood, and George Moses Horton. These pairings reveal that nineteenthcentury poetry offered a subjectivity in dynamic relation to history. Antebellum Liberal and Lyric Selfhood Moving from the mutual constitution of liberal and lyric subjectivity, let us now examine how these subjects developed in response to antebellum historical influences. Lyric reveals an ongoing crisis of selfhood across the nineteenth century in which! 9!

17 fantasies of autonomous individualism were constantly under threat due to an ongoing tension between the sanctity of interior identity and marketplace pressure. This threat, in turn, contributes to the definition of lyric: lyric reflects the fantasy of liberal selfhood that was envisioned as a solution. Yet this problem was not new or unique to this specific historical period. By the end of the century, powerful changes in the U.S. public sphere continued to throw notions of the liberal self into doubt. The early- to mid-nineteenth century experienced economic, political, and social shifts that challenged inherited notions of self. Massive changes such as banking reform, the establishment of an industrial economy, and an economic crash in 1837 shook notions of individual autonomy. In the Jacksonian era in which Emerson emerged, market forces tend to undermine authority, thwart tradition, and throw the burdens once borne by these onto the individual. Once freed from such superegos, the self can be seen to be a rather contingent, arbitrary, and instrumental affair (West 26). Emerson s call for selfreliance may be understood as a response to this sense of lost control. An ideal selfhood that did not rely on market forces was imagined to combat this instability, constituting a fantasy of perfect privacy and enclosure. The shift from Republicanism s philosophy of public virtue and civic interest to liberalism s pursuit of individual interests at the beginning of the nineteenth century reflected this effort to envision a subject sheltered from external influences. Antebellum culture expected a public person to have a private side; nineteenth-century selfdefinitions... locate the individual in his or her interiority, in his or her removal from the marketplace (Brown 3). According to Milette Shamir, in the course of the eighteenth century, liberalism as a political philosophy reversed the republican hierarchy of public! 10

18 over private, elevating the private to a position of primacy and endowing privacy with its present meaning as a moral good, a natural right, and a constitutive condition of personhood (2). By the 1830s, middle-class values shifted from the common good to individual pursuit of happiness and from private homogeneity to private difference, protected by a political code of public noninterference (Shamir 233 note 4). Of course, the natural right to privacy that constituted selfhood did not apply to everyone. Thus the selfhood articulated by antebellum poets such as Emerson and Whitman was essentially identified with white, middle-class men who had a legal right to privacy and private property; according to Shamir the disembedded and disembodied public voice favored by liberalism, the privilege of abstraction afforded first and foremost to white, propertied men, meant that other voices, belonging to overembodied and excluded subjects, were privatized and silenced (15). African Americans under chattel slavery and women were denied full personhood, and while both groups composed poetry of the self, they had to contend with an ideal of selfhood only applicable to white men. Their literature asserted the right to embody full personhood by asserting the privacy that personhood supposedly entailed; [subaltern literature] simultaneously seeks to extend the right to privacy to those to whom it has been historically denied, realizing that the claim to full humanity involves the privilege to disappear from, not just to appear in public (Shamir 16). Yet fantasies of perfect privacy expressed by the antebellum lyrics of white men, women, and slaves evinced the constitutive influence of social, political, and economic pressures on the idea of the self. In other words, the antebellum self created a fantasy of enclosure and autonomy due to external energies influencing the epistemology of selfhood. According to Chris Castiglia, in the antebellum period society was diversified! 11

19 and at times disrupted by the often colliding ideological regimes and the resulting social associations of slavery, immigration, industrialization, urbanization, imperialism, market capitalism, and liberal humanism (4). Liberal selfhood emerged from these conflicts by creating a fantasy of enclosure that obscured the permeability of its boundaries because, regardless, the interior became a micro-version of the social, not simply as an individual s private realm of desires, affects, and appetites, but as a realm of disruption and attempted order (Castiglia 3). The ideal coherence and cohesion of the self-enclosed, self-possessed subject became increasingly desireable even as it was recognized as a fantasy. Castilgia argues few seemed to believe, in the antebellum period, that the divided interiors of the antebellum citizen could be integrated once and for all into an orderly and unified whole, a psychic e pluribus unum (4). While it inspired people to its achievement, the antebellum self became a myth of self-creation and self-reliance. Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, the poet professor, and Walt Whitman, the selftitled American bard, were two poets who believed in and communicated this mythical strong selfhood (Gioia 76, Whitman vii). Through these roles of representative personhood, they hoped to provide each reader with an individual national identity. Because Longfellow was adept at addressing the status of selfhood in an environment that appeared to threaten it, he was especially popular. For example, W.D. Howells, discussing Longfellow s popularity in the New York Times in 1907, comments:... when he first sang we were in our youth as a nation. Longfellow became at once the mouthpiece of this National efflorescence, the poet who, more than any other of his great literary contemporaries, was essentially of his time and of the American Republic whose message was awaited wherever there were human problems to be solved. Longfellow Centenary PS4! 12

20 Fulfilling his role as the poet professor, Longfellow s works instructed readers with examples of coherent, heroic selfhood drawn from an idealized American history. By engaging a national past, Longfellow encouraged readers to understand their own selfhood as connected to others through a shared history. In other words, Longfellow s poetry communicated belief in a strong selfhood through a nostalgic fantasy of cohesive and autonomous individuality. Longfellow s poetry modeled antebellum American subjectivity as it set up an ideal of self-reliant selfhood. Whitman likewise articulates this strong self, but while Longfellow taught readers how to cultivate it, Whitman declared that his readers possessed it. David Haven Blake argues that Whitman s declaration acts as an agent of conversion that instills individuality by drawing readers into Whitman s own self: the poems can inspire a miraculous rebirth, a transformation that will bring readers into a fuller sense of their own identity (7). Whitman enclosed his reader in a selfhood of his making, and such enclosure allows Whitman to foster a union of people under his I. As Peter Coviello argues, to be properly American is thus, as Whitman conceives it, to feel oneself related in a quite intimate way to a world of people not proximate or even known (87). Whitman cultivated a strong presence in his poetry in order to join all selves with his self; many individuals and groups thus achieve unity with one another not by themselves but only through Whitman s identification with all of them (Maslan 113). Despite Whitman s professed openness, the selfhood that he constructed modeled the enclosure that constituted an ideal liberal self. By declaring what I assume you shall assume, Whitman usurps the autonomy of you to enclose it within his own I.! 13

21 Although he joins all people together within his expansive I, Whitman addresses you in order to constitute his I. Addressing you reflects I back to itself; in a sense the lyric you is consumed to constitute I. Whitman circumscribed all other voices, speaking through and for them to create a nation of one. While Whitman encouraged the exchange between his self and others every atom belonging to me as good belongs to you this transference occurred within his own self. The poetic efforts of women and slaves simultaneously problematized the liberal selfhood that Longfellow and Whitman articulated. These groups posited models of selfhood that disputed the poetics of nostalgia and address that constituted Longfellow and Whitman s American subjects, revealing what Longfellow and Whitman overlooked. The constitutive privacy of selfhood proved problematic for women and slaves in ways it was not for white men. Because female identity was equated with private and domestic development, women lacked the ability to be recognized as public, autonomous selves. Meanwhile slaves were considered private property; as a possession, slaves could only constitute the selfhood of their owners. In order to locate a space for their selfhood, women and slave poets had to render public their perceived overabundance of privacy. Figures such as the poetess Frances Sargent Osgood and the slave poet George Moses Horton poetically exposed privacy in order to communicate a seemingly sincere and strong selfhood. But their public poetry was not the free expression of their innermost selves. Osgood s poetess poetry was subject to moral expectations of white, middleclass conduct, including the ideal of femininity as a site of untainted privacy (Rosenbaum 93). As a slave poet, Horton had to prove his possession of an emotional interior in order to try to maximize his appeal to multiple audiences, both Northern and! 14

22 Southern, white and black, military and civilian (Barrett 340). As Osgood and Horton used lyric to assert their personhood, they simultaneously employed lyric in order to illuminate the limits and problems of liberal subjectivity. In doing so their poetry articulates companion impetus that located not just a public space for their selfhood but a revised privacy that constituted their autonomy (Shamir 15). Instead of offering their privacy up for public consumption, they register the desire to find shelter from visibility and social identity, to carve out a niche of empowered privacy for the disenfranchised subject (Shamir 15-16). Osgood s poetess poetry reflected the vexed selfhood of antebellum women. A concealed core and psychological complexity were necessary in the construction of autonomy; however, female poets were required to reveal their interiors if they wanted to be published. According to Eliza Richards, women were imagined to be receptacles of emotion untainted by worldly concerns ; antebellum women who wrote poetry were portrayed as fonts of unmediated emotion.... Their poems were cast as identical offspring, incarnations of the poetess intimate feelings (Richards 16). Any sense that she was holding something back would suggest personal corruption. Such a public, poetic profession of her soul as dictated by the genre dispossessed the antebellum female poet of privacy precisely because she had to serve as a public figure for privacy. And yet this personal or individual privacy was necessary to create an abiding, autonomous literary figure. Nineteenth-century lyric expression was predicated on self-possession, on the understanding that a poet had sovereignty over the privacy he or she expressed. However, the poetess s privacy was consumable and forgettable.! 15

23 Osgood s poetry, however, tried to create a public space for female selfhood by alluding to a privacy that was not consumed, but existed beyond the page. She suggested that women poets could publicly acknowledge but not expose some of the privacy necessary in constituting the self. For example, in the poem To My Pen, the speaker scolds her pen to Let not a thought escape you lightly, / But challenge all before they go, / And see them fairly robed and rightly (Poems 14-16). By scolding her pen to robe her thoughts rightly, Osgood reinforces the fact that the proper female is not free to say whatever she wants in public. All this robing or concealing, however, conflicts with the sincerity expected of the female self. But Osgood is able to protect her privacy by attributing autonomy to the pen. Instead of offering the female poet s privacy for consumption by the reading public, Osgood instead offers the pen while concealing the contents of the private thoughts that the naughty pen would transcribe. On the other hand, Horton hoped to convincingly profess his privacy to prove his personhood. Horton wanted his poems to be read as reflection of his self in order to convince readers of his humanity, and therefore, his unjust enslavement. In other words, Horton required public recognition of his personhood in order to gain his freedom. While he was not freed until the Emancipation Proclamation, his early poetry had to model ideal selfhood in order to solicit the external recognition, or overhearing, that would hopefully result in his manumission. For example, the 1829 collection of his poetry, The Hope of Liberty, was prefaced by an Explanation confirming that the poems were in fact composed by Horton. This preface legitimates Horton by fitting him to ideals of liberal selfhood. Horton was self-reliant while possessing an emotional interior and; he was a faithful, honest and industrious and his heart has felt deeply and sensitively in! 16

24 this lowest possible condition of human nature (Hope 3). The funds raised by the collection, in addition to freeing Horton, were meant to send him to Liberia. As the Explanation details the work that he would do there, it outlines the myth of American self-uplift: in Liberia Horton hoped to apply his industry and mental abilities to the promotion of its prospects and his own (Hope 3). To prove Horton s personhood, the Explanation depicts Horton according to white, middle-class masculine ideals of interiority, autonomy, and (future) nationality. Indeed, Horton s poetry strives to assert these qualities, but his attention to the mediation of the page suggests an alternative model of liberal self-possession and selfenclosure. Thought of as a possession, not a person, Horton emphasized and exploited the conventions of the lyric voice in order to communicate autonomous individualism to readers. Building on the assumption that the poem is the spoken utterance of an imaginary person, Horton used the poem to affirm to his own selfhood. But Horton s poetry had to contend with the fictional status of this voice while employing voice as the tool to communicate his very real self. There is no literal voice in the poem, no person speaking, just words printed on the page. In order to overcome the dislocation of voice from the speaker due to the mediation of the page, Horton emphasizes embodiment and phenomenological experience in the lyric to communicate his selfhood. Horton s poetry thus draws his words back to his physical experience, revising liberal subjectivity to include the black body. Turn-of-the-Century Liberal and Lyric Selfhood These four poets offer insight to the historical development of liberal subjectivity as shaped and transmitted by lyric from the antebellum period to Reconstruction. At the! 17

25 end of the century, a new generation of poets takes up their examples in order to continue grappling with American individualism in the face of unmooring change. The crisis of selfhood extended to the end of the century, and the poetic practices that previously bolstered liberal self-possession and self-enclosure proved useless against the era s massive social, political, and economic changes. The self-doubt of the Gilded Age echoed many of the components causing antebellum instability; people still felt the power to affect one s own destiny had been removed from the individual, the family, and the local community and concentrated in a complex maze of interdependent, impersonal forces (Hilkey 8). The establishment of corporate capitalism by the late nineteenth century shifted the parameters within which Americans envisioned their selfhood. T. J. Jackson Lears argues as more and more people became enmeshed in the market s web of interdependence, liberal ideals of autonomous selfhood became ever more difficult to sustain. For entrepreneurs as well as wageworkers, financial rise or ruin came to depend on policies formulated far away, on situations beyond the individual s control ( From Salvation 7). In other words, the crisis of capitalism manifested... a deeper crisis of autonomous selfhood (Sklansky 138). A growing divide between individual moral agency and a material world that seemed increasingly governed by the impersonal laws of supply and demand and survival of the fittest suggested the world s indifference to heroic selfhood, warranting new definitions of the self (Sklansky 138). Instead of changing the political-economic system, notions of autonomy had to change in order to fit the material interdependence, abundance, and inequalities of the Gilded Age. To do so, culture looked backwards in order to move forwards.! 18

26 A nostalgic ethos affected Gilded Age institutions, from the public school system to academia, from popular publishing to the growing field of psychology. This was a culture that that speculated on the future even when it appeared to be mourning the past (Sorby xxiii). For example, W. D. Howells, discussing Longfellow at the centenary of his birth in 1907, commented that:... in those happy years before the great Civil War... men thought they had found the promise of all good in the lasting peace which was to be the solvent of every grief and every fear. The hard old creeds had softened from duty to God into duty to man; the affirmation of justice in the Judge of all earth had become the affirmation of love among men. Art 474 Howells articulates a characteristic nostalgia for antebellum social relations, but at the same time these supposedly lost nostalgic ideals were being imported into turn-of-thecentury American lyric. As demonstrated by the continued popularity of Longfellow s works in the Gilded Age, approaches to the future were bolstered by a stabilizing and exemplary ideal of the past. The solution to the crisis of autonomous selfhood appeared to leading American mental philosophers as a question of will power rather than labor power, much as it has in Emerson s Romantic psychology of self-reliance (Sklansky 138). Turn-of-the-century culture relied on a nostalgic look backwards, presenting liberal selfhood as existing in the idealized past in order to inspire individual American autonomy in the present. Selfhood was constituted through what was thought to be oldfashioned action, practice, and willpower (Sklansky 141). For example, success manuals echoed the strong and inspirational self articulated by Longfellow and Whitman. Judy Arlene Hilkey argues that success manuals:... articulated a moralistic view of the world that projected the values and virtues of an earlier preindustrial era as the means to success in the new age of industrial capitalism. By the diligent application of virtues such as honesty, frugality,! 19

27 industry, reliability, and loyalty, buttressed by the force of character and true manhood, any poor boy could find a way to win. 5 Because lyric and liberal subjectivity were caught up in each other, poetry was likewise believed to be in crisis. According to contemporary critic Edmund Clarence Stedman, the death of many of the elder poets, created a cry of foreboding (787). Conservative literary elites mourned the death of Fireside figures such as Longfellow and in doing so, articulated a nostalgia for the ideal selfhood illustrated by their poetry. Noting a period of decline, in 1885 Stedman dubbed the era the twilight of the poets in his essay of the same name (787). Yet the reason for the perceived twilight of poetry was not merely the loss of great poets; the crisis affecting poetry was the same one affecting selfhood at the turn of the century. Stedman explains that: the influences... which brought poetic aims and methods into doubt included the radical change in the course of imagination, enforced by the advance of science, the disturbance of tradition and convictions, the leap from romance to realism. We must allow, too, for the diversion of genius to material conquests, adventure, the creation of fortunes. 787 Stedman s concern about the current influences affecting poetry echoes the current influences affecting the autonomous self. The period was not an era of decline for all poetry, however, just for a particular elite definition of the genre (Renker 136). Elizabeth Renker explains that the twilight simulacrum that Stedman created from his highbrow perch in fact bore little relation to the lively life of poetry in other spheres of literacy... the genre of poetry was vital to American culture at all social levels during this era (136). Stedman was a member of a group of literary elites who had created and tried to continue a genteel culture that was entering its own twilight. Genteel taste sought to preserve a morality and propriety in literature that seemed under threat after the Civil War; the genteel endeavor was to! 20

28 create a culture for the public... Above all it was a reflexive culture, a culture thrown up in defense against the mobility of America (Tomisch 24). The genteel endeavor was adamantly conservative; not a single major development in American society was reflected in the literature of the genteel tradition; it remained in 1900 what it had been in 1850 (Tomisch 120). Thus, Stedman s perception of a twilight indicated the decline of genteel values and genteel ways of thinking about the self. The twilight that Stedman lamented actually indicated a period of innovation and realism in poetry, in which poets rearticulated the ideal, genteel self in order to fit it to the modern era. Indeed, Gilded Age poets expanded inherited notions of liberal subjectivity to accommodate the social, political, and economic influences of turn-of-the-century life. By examining how these poets conserve and rearticulate their poetic predecessors, we can trace a genealogy of nineteenth-century selfhood in the decades that usher in the Modernist era. Ignored by Modernists and subsequent critics alike because they retain traces of nineteenth-century conventions, they make legible an overlooked continuity of lyric selfhood. Directly preceding and even coexistent with Modernism s poetics of rejection and innovation, these poets inherit and conserve nineteenth-century poetic practices in order to keep working out a strain of the ideal American self. Stephen Crane and Edwin Arlington Robinson revealed that the heroic self that Whitman and Longfellow thought achievable was in fact a fantasy with problematic limitations. Nevertheless, they found the fiction socially useful. By emphasizing the understanding implicit in Longfellow and Whitman s poetics that the self cannot exist in isolation, Crane and Robinson employed the illusion of strong selfhood to foster poetic fraternity in a modern environment that appeared to ruin human connections.! 21

29 Rather than Longfellow s shared past, Crane demonstrated that people had in common a shared fantasy of nostalgic selfhood. Crane expanded Longfellow s nostalgic selfhood to make room for the acknowledgement of nostalgia s fantasy. Yet Crane upheld Longfellow s strong selfhood because it helped people find comfort and community in the face of the world s indifference. For example, in this fragment from Crane s uncollected poems, he parodies the opening of Longfellow s Psalm of Life : Tell me not in joyous numbers We can make our lives sublime By well, at least, not by Dabbling much in rhyme. (Poems 81) While it has been read as a wholesale indictment of Longfellow, the fragment does not dismiss Longfellow s ethics of the self. Rather, Crane takes issue with dabbling in rhyme, or the conventional meter and rhyme of nineteenth-century lyric. Indeed, Crane s innovative free verse poetry may reject Longfellow s form, but not his epistemology of selfhood. In this fragment, Crane preserves the ideal of sublime selfhood but argues that rhyme is not the way to achieve it. Such strong selfhood helps parry the world s dangers and indifference by creating a shared fantasy of the self that joins others in a human fraternity. When Crane conserves Longfellow s poetics of the self, he also conserves a shared sense of community that Longfellow s nationalism hoped to create. Crane thus expanded Longfellow s strong self to acknowledge the mutual recognition that constitutes selfhood. The surprising tenderness and concern for the human condition in Crane s poetry reflects the fact that no self is created in isolation. Crane and Robinson s poetry possessed an investment in community inherited from their antebellum predecessors. Hence Robinson and Whitman index a struggle across the nineteenth century to create union through poetic communication. While! 22

30 Whitman essayed to constitute a democratic union of disparate individuals, Robinson is concerned with the interpersonal relationships between these individuals. Whitman expanded his I to attract and encompass all voices within a poetic union of his making. However, Whitman recreated an enclosed lyric self by circumscribing all other voices, speaking through and for them to create a nation of one. Robinson takes Whitman s power to assume and shows that it has the power to usurp, rather than create, selfhood. Whereas Whitman s poetic I encompassed all in one, Robinson disassembles this self into limited, flawed characters, who break the speaker s solipsism because they speak not for but to other voices. He revises Whitman s capacious voice by condensing it, limiting the scope of I and you : I is no longer capable of speaking for and channeling you. In the spirit of Whitman s democratic union, Robinson thus revises the terms of address, shifting I to we. We illustrates the position of Whitman s unified poetic self, but warns against the tyranny of the I s ability to speak for others as an act of selfenclosure. This innovation expands the ideal of the enclosed self by allowing the voices that Whitman speaks for to speak for themselves. Whitman inspires in Robinson a faith in the lyric self: despite ideals about the self s enclosure, consensus and connection are possible While Crane and Robinson expressed a concern for community, the union they depict was not as easily achievable for minorities at the turn of the century. Edna St. Vincent Millay and Paul Laurence Dunbar addressed the selfhood of women and African Americans who still did not quite fit into a union of American selves. Their poetry registered the recent historical past as they traced a genealogy from antebellum nonpersonhood to their struggles in the Gilded Age to secure this personhood.! 23

31 Millay complicated the privacy associated with women in order to deflate the expectation that a private interior underpins the self s composition. To do so, Millay conserved the expectation that the poetess offered public access to her supposed private self. This expectation continued to burden poets such as Millay; antebellum understandings of the poetess and her transparent soul supplied the preconditions for the twentieth-century female poet. Millay directly addressed this tradition by mobilizing the model of the poetess presented by Osgood in order to confront the impossible and selfdiminishing practice of professing privacy. By complicating Osgood s examples of female privacy and sincerity, Millay demonstrated that that privacy is a fantasy promised by the lyric. She deployed the poetess s conservative form and ostensible open spirit to illustrate the emptiness of privacy in a genre that staked itself on the public presentation of the private. Millay picks up on Osgood s coy and flirtatious poetess figure, but revised it so that the poetess only appears to offer her interior to her readers. While Osgood s poetry argued that a private female self could exist and struggled to assert that space for selfhood in her poetry, she could not locate that privacy due to the poetess s complete transparency and consumablility. By the early twentieth century, Millay demonstrated that the perfect privacy that constituted selfhood is a fantasy. She thus revised notions of selfhood for the modern era, demonstrating that the self is a permeable entity in which the distinctions between public and private, interior and exterior, blur. For example, in the sonnet Not in this chamber only at my birth, the lines never shall one room contain me quite / Who in so many rooms first saw the light uses the metaphor of a room to expose the ideal of interiority in constituting selfhood (Poems 6-7). The poem explains that the constitution of a self that does not rely on the privacy of one interior space, but multiple! 24

32 public places and people. Beginning the poem with her own birth, the speaker declares that the chamber into which she was born did not constitute her interior. Thus, the interior space is not in fact the creative space of female selfhood. The speaker explains, I cried, but in strange places, steppe and firth / I have not seen, through alien grief and mirth indicating that perfect privacy does not constitute expressive selfhood (Poems 4-5). Instead, experiences outside the self are necessary to birth. The female poet transverses other people and other places in order to create a permeable selfhood instead of a pure, private, and singular interior. Like Millay, Dunbar complicated the inherited ideals of liberal selfhood. Whereas Millay illustrates the emptiness of the privacy associated with the female self, Dunbar demonstrated that the sincerity necessary in constituting the African American self was a fantasy. Dunbar s poetry revised the practice of earlier slave and black poets such as Horton who had to convince readers of their personhood by being perceived as sincere and authentic. Horton struggled to associate the page s dislocating textual mediation with his personal voice. For Dunbar, the voice was a fiction and a limitation; he wrote lyrics with disappearing speakers or polyvocal fictional characters who did not correspond to an actual self. Dunbar did this in order to avoid the restriction of his identity to page, demonstrating that the self is not singular, but polyvocal and permeable. The real self is not apparent even to one s own self, and Dunbar used this ambiguity to avoid the rigid essentialization of authentic race. Dunbar s poetry exposed hypocritical evaluations of turn-of-the-century racial identity by writing poetry about the oppressive masks, cages, and rigid fictions of race. In this era, both legal and social identifications of racial essence relied on a performance! 25

33 of racial signifiers; in the 1880s... the belief that language can be representational allowed for the construction of a language supposedly representative of race. The negro dialect came to signify a self-evident and homogenous speech community (Birnbaum 37). Dunbar wrote poems in this vernacular dialect, minors, to trouble the speech that supposedly signifies race, depicting a double voice in his own poetry with larger implications for the double voice of lyric. The printed voice of the poem doubles because the absence of clearly indicated sound from the silence of the written word creates a double nature in printed poetry, making it both itself and something other (Griffiths 60). Through this doubling, Dunbar dislocated selfhood from the poem s printed single voice in order to prove that the authentic African American self could not be reduced to a linguistic signifier. Lyrical Strains Each chapter in this project documents efforts to refigure the poetic self by identifying a lyric convention that struggles against itself. Thus strain takes on a dual significance a struggle with selfhood, as well as a struggle against poetic convention. Chapter One pairs Crane and Longfellow to discuss the ability of lyric to ground ethical norms that contributed to the constitution of the self. I introduce nineteenth-century heroic selfhood as modeled by Longfellow, whose Paul Revere s Ride and Psalm of Life employed chivalric values to exemplify moral, inspirational selves. By the end of the century, Crane picked up on Longfellow s nostalgic chivalry to assert that, despite individual aspirations to goodness, such heroism was a fantasy because all selves contain cowardly, malicious sides. While recognizing that Longfellow s nostalgia created fictions, Crane s poetry implied that its figments served a crucial communicative! 26

34 purpose: the constitution of human fraternity despite the failures of ideal selfhood. Chapter Two pairs Whitman and Robinson to discuss the inheritance of the lyric I as it extends beyond Romantic understandings of the solitary, self-enclosed speaker. By rejecting lyric s eavesdropping in order to directly address, and thereby encompass, his readers, Whitman erased difference to include all within the union of his expansive I. The chapter then turns to Robinson, who recognizes that the self can never be circumscribed because it is defined by the actions of others, thereby disassembling Whitman s all-consuming I into limited characters who are always in the process of being formed. By trying to create order from a problematic model of the self, Longfellow and Whitman employed lyric as a productive technology to inspire a nation of self-reliant individuals. Their turn-of-the-century counterparts recognized that their efforts were not blind, idealistic attempts by articulating both the impossibility and the social utility of such beliefs. In the next two chapters, I move from the production of the national liberal self to the poetics of the excluded, discussing women and slave poets who were socially denied the status of selfhood. Because slaves and women poets were considered overly private figures in the antebellum period (indeed, private possessions in the case of slaves), they were deemed incapable of rational and autonomous participation in the public sphere, and were thus denied the full status of liberal subjectivity. Because these expectations adhered to women and African Americans in the years following the Civil War, these groups engaged lyric s technologies across the nineteenth century in order to create a space for selfhood that renegotiated the division between private and public. Chapter Three explores how Osgood s poetry navigates the paradox of publically! 27

35 performing the social imperative of feminine privacy. I then discuss how Edna St. Vincent Millay later revamps this model in order to prove that the essential gendered self never existed in the first place; the public performance of female privacy was only ever a consumable fiction. While Chapter Three examines how gender revealed the false promise of the ideal self s privacy, Chapter Four examines how race exposed the fantasy of the self s authenticity through the perception of a racialized voice. Chapter Four focuses on the perception of a voice in poetry to question the lyric ideal of communicative sincerity. Horton s slave poetry deployed the illusion of his own voice speaking through the printed page in order to convince readers that he was not a possession but self-possessed. At the end of the century, Dunbar likewise engaged the poetics of voice in order to create a national subjectivity that embraced a new generation of African Americans. Dunbar, however, strove to divorce voice from sincerity in order to prove that the seemingly sincere self proven by the printed lyric was a fiction. African American selfhood was not subject to the enclosing and enslaving power of print. My conclusion addresses these fictions of selfhood to examine instances of lyric failure in which poetry fell short of and struggled with unattainable self-enclosure. Despite its impossibility, these poets contend with a shared ideal of selfhood in order to encourage a communicative union. The juxtapositions examined here create a variant of American exceptionalism in which failure constitutes the grounds of a meaningful human fraternity.! 28

36 CHAPTER 1 STEPHEN CRANE AND THE POETICS OF NOSTALGIA Although repeatedly singled out for its anticipation of the modernist movement, Stephen Crane s poetry participates, I argue, in a nineteenth-century tradition of longing for heroic selfhood. In fact, the subjects of Crane s poetry bear a distinct resemblance to those in Henry Wadsworth Longfellow s works. While this might seem an unlikely pairing, Longfellow s late-nineteenth-century ubiquity provides the grounds for the comparison. 1 Although he died in 1882, Longfellow, one of the most widely recognized and revered nineteenth-century poets, remained highly popular well into the twentieth century. Longfellow s works were in Crane s Sussex house library (Hoffman 32). Among Crane s uncollected lines, moreover, is a brief parody of Longfellow s platitude-heavy A Psalm of Life, in which the speaker insists that we can make our lives sublime in spite of contemporary cynicism and disillusionment. Crane riffs on Longfellow s opening, Tell me not in mournful numbers / Life is but an empty dream before directly quoting his most exhortatory line: Tell me not in joyous numbers We can make our lives sublime By well, at least, not by Dabbling much in rhyme. (Poems 81) A number of critics have understood this parody as a wholesale rejection of Longfellow s poetic project, arguing that Crane condenses the message of Longfellow s metered, optimistic poem in order to refute it. Judith Saunders, for example, argues that this piece

37 reveals that Crane s poetry strives for genuine rather than contrived sublimity, and that a preoccupation with the melodious effects of meter and rhyme tends to undermine indeed, impede the expression of harsh truths or tragic insights (186). I want to argue, in contrast, that while Crane may reject Longfellow s formal practices, he actually embraces his nostalgia for the sublime self. By not dabbling much in rhyme, Crane develops new formal strategies in order to resurrect the strong individualism that Longfellow s Psalm hoped to inspire. Here I take issue with the critical tendency to equate Crane s formal innovation and, indeed, formal innovation more generally with a depersonalized, proto-modern sensibility. In Crane s case, the opposite is true: his formal innovation continues commitments to sentimental longing for sublime selfhood that we associate with Longfellow s poetry. Because he breaks with formal traditions of nineteenth-century poetry that seemed outmoded by the 1890s, Crane has been too easily understood as a harbinger of modernist depersonalization. The 1890s, the decade in which Crane published his two poetry collections, were considered a problematic period in American poetry by late-nineteenth and twentieth-century critics alike. Noting a period of decline, in 1885 Edmund Clarence Stedman dubbed the era the twilight of the poets in his essay of the same name. The term twilight spread rapidly through literary culture and became an almost instant catchphrase, a sensationalist coin that writers enjoyed trading amidst their broader discussions about the degraded literary status, or status in general, of the modern era (Renker 135). Stedman thus coined a characterization with important ramifications for how critics have since thought about late-nineteenth-century American poetry: if poems weren t evidence of decline then they were, like Crane s works, proto-modernist,! 30

38 breaking with nineteenth-century practices to herald the modernists salvation of the American poetic tradition. As Sarah Ehlers has recently pointed out, however, twentieth-century critics tended to read the narrative of US poetry s turn-of-the-century decline too literally (38). By examining the era s poetry and literary criticism, recent scholars have dispelled the myth of a poetic breakdown between the nineteenth and twentieth century. 2 Rather than charting a genteel decline or identifying protomodernist exceptions to the trend, they have demonstrated that the poetry and criticism of the late-nineteenth and early-twentieth centuries illustrate an important dialectical relationship between the old and the new (Ehlers 39). US poetry did not die in the 1890s, nor did Modernism revive and rescue American poetry: works within the twilight period reveal that the American poetic tradition was both more complicated and continuous. By adapting nineteenth-century conventions to a modern poetic landscape, the era s poetry generated a newness that did not necessarily presage modernism s innovations. 3 So far, this trend in recent criticism to explore and chart the continuities between nineteenth- and twentieth-century poetry has bypassed Crane. Because of his formal innovations, scholars continue to consider him an exception to his turn-of-the-century poetic milieu. 4 Saunders characterizes Crane as an important precursor to the generation of the modernists, and Keith Gandal even claims that Crane s raucous wanderings and his visionary poetry are a sort of prophecy of something new and disturbing in American life (Saunders 185, Gandal Autopsy 506). Understanding Crane s avantgarde forms to communicate emotional objectivity, critics perpetuate the assumption that formal and emotional innovation go hand-in-hand. Max Cavitch suggests as much when! 31

39 he notes how remarkable then to recognize in the irregular form of Crane s In the desert what may already be in what was one of the first volumes of free verse ever published in the U.S. a kind of immanent critique of free verse as a manifestation of identity and personal freedom (38). Yet by asserting the proto-modern exceptionality of Crane s works, such scholarship implicitly upholds the notion of a death or twilight in late-nineteenth-century poetry. When we read Crane not as a prophet introducing modernist salvation but as a poet bridging the supposed gap between nineteenth-century poetic traditions and modernist practices, we can see that his formal innovation does not necessarily entail a break with the emotional imperatives of the nineteenth century. On the contrary, Crane s formal innovation signifies an effort to conserve Longfellow s insights about nostalgia. Precisely by puncturing the numbers, Crane commits to a nostalgia for the strong individual. In the case of Crane, in other words, I contend that the reflexive relationship between formal innovation and modernist depersonalization should be severed. Crane is writing at the moment when the definition of nostalgia shifts from a medical condition to an aesthetic term. Previously an ailment common in young soldiers who suffered from a homesickness so severe it was believed to cause death, nostalgia takes on its more poetic meaning around 1900, when it begins to allude to the useless yearning for a world or for a way of life from which one has been irrevocably severed (Clarke 253, 270-1; Starobinski 101). While his parodic fragment may express nostalgia for the strong individualism invoked by Longfellow s poetry, Crane rejects Longfellow s poetic forms in order to acknowledge that this sublime way of life never existed in the first place. For Crane, Longfellow s yearning for individualism signified a nostalgic! 32

40 romance with one s own fantasy in which the loss that initiates nostalgia has no basis in experience (Boym xiii). The loss is real because people feel it, but nostalgia can only exist for that which cannot and did not exist. Put simply, absence is the necessary precondition for nostalgia. As Susan Stewart argues, nostalgia is sadness without an object that seeks a past with only ideological reality (23). At the end of the century, Crane renovates a nostalgic poetics that not just Longfellow, but all so-called Fireside Poets William Cullen Bryant, John Greenleaf Whittier, Oliver Wendell Holmes, and James Russell Lowell practiced. Of course, the Fireside Poets did not use the word nostalgia, since the etymological shift occurred at the turn of the century, but its constitutive elements were present, if inchoate, in their ethos of yearning. Still popular at the end of the nineteenth century, Fireside poetry created an idealized American past that provided readers with emotional and national stability in a quickly modernizing and expanding country; it summoned an imaginary past to mobilize the present. 5 Crane s poems radically condense what were by his time identified as nostalgic practices in order to lay bare and confront nostalgia s reliance on fantasy. Indeed, Crane s reinterpretation of Longfellow s most famous poem recognizes nostalgia s false promise, the comforting yet unreal selfhood that nostalgia offered. At the same time, however, Crane was nostalgic for nostalgia, for a time when its illusion could still inspire readers to aspire to the heroic individualism summoned by Longfellow s poetry. While Longfellow s poetry trusted in the power of the illusory past to institute the dauntless selfhood of a bygone era, Crane admitted that heroic individualism would fail: his nostalgic poetics foreground the absolute absence that initiates the desire for a heroic ideal of selfhood. But Crane! 33

41 nevertheless promoted the fantasy, because despite its emptiness, the nostalgic self generated a fraternity whose usefulness outweighed its impossible origins. While recognizing that nostalgia created fictions, Crane s poetry implies that its figments served a crucial communicative purpose: the creation of human fraternity despite the failures of selfhood. While recent criticism reads a pessimistic determinism into his proto-modernism, older studies have recognized what Crane himself described as a commitment to Human Kindness. 6 Calling pessimism ridiculously cheap and the cynical mind an uneducated thing, Crane declares: I strive to be as kind and as just as may be to those about me and in my meager success at it, I find the solitary pleasure of life (qtd. in Wertheim 180). 7 David Halliburton explains that Crane has... a passion for earthly fraternity, and something even beyond that, while Daniel Hoffman claims that despite his passivity, his crippling introspection, Crane s ultimate commitment is to an heroic ideal (Halliburton 321, Hoffman 10). Crane only displays this belief in human tenderness, however, in the midst of catastrophic conditions, barren landscapes, and the seeming absence of all hope. In what follows, I return to A Psalm of Life in order to trace a genealogy of Crane s nostalgic poetics. Longfellow s poem inspires heroic selfhood by encouraging readers to take or have heart. By recalling illusions of heroic individualism from an idealized past, A Psalm of Life models the discovery of an inner courage. In turn, I discuss the strategies by which Crane translates Longfellow s hearts into his own poetry. While Crane condenses and exploits Longfellow s use of heart in order to reveal nostalgia s historical emptiness, he employs this emptiness for a socially useful purpose analogous to Longfellow s original goal: the constitution of a meaningful human! 34

42 fraternity via a shared ideal of selfhood. Despite what Crane regarded as its excesses, nostalgia generated the fantasy of a shared past capable of combating modernity s dislocations. Thus, Crane s poetry produces the unexpected; his nostalgia for nostalgia renovated Longfellow s attempts to establish bonds between people in the face of isolation and helplessness. In Crane s case, a fantasy of the self becomes a comforting, if not therapeutic, solution to modern life s absurd indifference to the human condition. Nostalgic Hearts Crane participates in a tradition of poetry that appeals to heroic individualism as a salve for doubts about stable selfhood in a modernizing, industrializing world. He employs a nostalgic poetics in order to represent an imaginary self in his poems, and I will trace how these works expand nineteenth-century poetic considerations of socially useful selfhood. The projection of a poetic self in nineteenth-century poetry has been the subject of recent work on lyric poetry. Literary critics and editors since the second half of the nineteenth century have defined lyric as a short, nonnarrative poem depicting the subjective experience of a speaker (Jackson 183). Indeed, according to Virginia Jackson, this has become the normative definition of all postromantic poetry, resulting in what she has recently termed lyricization (183). In this mode of reading, the stipulative functions of particular genres are collapsed into one big idea of poems as lyrics (Jackson 183). Lyricization constitutes a culturally removed, idealized subjectivity at the expense of poetry s historical specificity. While my investigation of Crane s projection of a poetic self may appear to participate in such idealizing of a transhistorical subjectivity, I do not read Crane s poems as a means of establishing the subjective experience of a speaker ; rather I discuss how their engagements with nostalgia revise the formation and! 35

43 communication of nineteenth-century conceptions of the self. While poetry is not always the lyrical expression of a self, it can be used to discuss or question what the self is. While Crane eventually produces poetic selves distinct from those imagined by Longfellow, both poets use nostalgia to assuage the tensions produced by a political economy that threatened the self s constitution and expression. The antebellum period was marked by changes such as massive banking reform, the establishment of an industrial economy, an economic crash in 1837, and the consolidation of Presidential power. Some American thinkers and authors reacted by reflecting on a past ideal of the civic-minded, self-reliant man free from the entanglements of money and politics. Longfellow and Emerson s Jacksonian contemporaries considered themselves heirs to the Jeffersonian tradition ; in order to combat fears of a world out of control, these men appealed to the yeoman ideals of the Old Republic (Gilmore 21). 8 By regarding an idealized strength-in-simplicity as historical reality, these thinkers employed a nostalgic logic in order to cope with those forces they could not regulate. They identified moral agency with the inner self rather than with political and economic sovereignty (Sklansky 37). Indeed, Longfellow s poetry does no less when it draws upon yeoman ideals to inspire a heroic self-reliance capable of embracing messy markets and economic factors beyond the individual s control. This reaction would be repeated at the turn of the century when the crisis of capitalism manifested... a deeper crisis of autonomous selfhood (Sklansky 138). While a corporate economy had established itself by the Jacksonian era, corporate capitalism appeared even more pervasive and problematic at the century s end (Sklansky 3). Hope! 36

44 for a spirit of free agency, for a sovereign self that could exist beyond the market s reach, affected literature and psychology alike (Sklansky 143). When William James tried to account for the self s constitution in his Principles of Psychology (1890), he attributed the central part of the Self to an abstraction of the stream of consciousness, one distinct from the social or material self ( ). Other thinkers, contrary to James who maintained belief in a unified self that was impervious to social and material conditions returned to the power of nostalgic fantasy that Longfellow and his peers had explored decades earlier, in a parallel situation. Popular authors applied nostalgic strategies in order to figure autonomous self-reliance; by privileging the diligent application of virtues such as honesty, frugality, industry, reliability, and loyalty, success manuals book-length, non-fiction, didactic works, popular between 1870 and 1910 articulated a moralistic view of the world that projected the values and virtues of an earlier preindustrial era as the means to success in the new age of industrial capitalism (Hilkey 5). Here Crane s nostalgic poetics generates its critical salience. Without believing that the self could be restored, he nevertheless used nostalgia to evoke a traditional poetic emphasis on heroic self-creation and self-reliance, even as he acknowledged that such ideals do not exist. Crane saw that the nostalgia supporting Longfellow s heroic selves emerged from an empty and imaginary past. Regardless, for Crane, sustainable notions of the self can be staked on fantasy. While Crane s deployment of nostalgia differs from Longfellow s, a nostalgic tradition works through both. Indeed, the popular reception of Longfellow registers a genealogy of nostalgia from the antebellum era to well within the twentieth century. Longfellow was popular across two centuries because his poetic nostalgia encouraged! 37

45 readers to take heart in an economic environment that seemed persistently indifferent to the individual s actions and desires. By relying upon an ideal of past unity and autonomy, Longfellow s poetic hearts allowed readers to fortify their sense of self by projecting that figured past into the present. But precisely because Longfellow encouraged such a fantastical vision of the self, his poetry unravels the very fortification it would build. While Longfellow s nostalgia inadvertently revealed its own imaginary past to readers, the force of its solacing construct obscured the emptiness underpinning nostalgia s promise that is, until Crane s reinterpretation exploited that same imaginary past. Let us again place Crane s work in relation to Longfellow in particular, A Psalm of Life, the poem Crane parodies in order to better understand how Crane rearticulates Longfellow s inspirational fantasy. With its subtitle What the Heart of the Young Man Said to the Psalmist, A Psalm of Life is framed as an imaginary but earnest outburst from the very depths of the self. The poem s inspirational message contributed to its persistent popularity across the nineteenth century; it attempts to dispel existential doubts and fears with a call to action. It was successful in doing so: the New York Times special section commemorating the Longfellow Centenary in 1907 commented that the poem s moral lesson, conveyed in simple but musical verse, was accepted by its readers as the teaching of their own experience which they had failed to formulate for themselves. It was a help and an encouragement to depressed souls and a stimulus to the ambitious and the hopeful ( Longfellow Centenary PS2). In the absence of convincing moral interpretations of life s purpose, the poem s inspirational message secularizes religious rhetoric about otherworldliness in order to inculcate heroic! 38

46 individualism. Rather than the promise of a reward beyond, the poem proves this world s worth by encouraging action, progress, and self-reliance in the present moment: TELL me not, in mournful numbers, Life is but an empty dream! For the soul is dead that slumbers, And things are not what they seem. Life is real! Life is earnest! And the grave is not its goal; Dust thou art, to dust returnest, Was not spoken of the soul. Not enjoyment, and not sorrow, Is our destined end or way; But to act, that each to-morrow Find us farther than to-day. (Selected Poems 1-12) The speaker the speaking heart refuses the claim that life is but an empty dream, or that the real life is to be lived beyond this one. He instead insists that the grave is not its goal or the destined end ; rather, life is authentic and earnest in the moment it is being lived. By focusing on the present moment, the opening suggests that a nostalgic emphasis on the past can have no place in subsequent stanzas. However, these stanzas actually propose a real life that hinges on a nostalgic ideal of autonomous individualism. Although he denies nostalgia, Longfellow invokes longing for a time when the promise of the afterlife motivated us to act with integrity in the present. He de-emphasizes Christianity s immortal reward while maintaining that right action in this life will imbue the present s empty dream with noble possibilities. The repulsion of a figured past becomes more pronounced as the poem progresses; yet Psalm employs nostalgia to motivate its insistence on to-day. Through their appeals to the past and present, stanzas six and seven clarify the strategies! 39

47 of Longfellow s nostalgic poetics. Stanza six, the exclamatory climax of the poem, reemphasizes the present moment: Trust no Future, howe'er pleasant! Let the dead Past bury its dead! Act, act in the living Present! Heart within, and God o'erhead! (Selected Poems 21-24) By rallying readers to embrace the moment and act, the speaking heart appears explicitly to reject poetic nostalgia. The past is dead, or vacant and meaningless, so we must take heart within the living Present. While the speaker tells us to ignore the past in order to be a hero in the bivouac of Life, this heroic self draws upon a past religious righteousness in the service of the present (Selected Poems 19, 18). Longfellow resurrects the right action that the afterlife used to inspire and reattributes it to God s watchfulness in the present. Longfellow thus conflates God s powers with the power of the heart in order to summon an individualistic ideal. No longer a judge determining immortal reward, God s role has been retooled to a guardian assuring the rewards of this life. Indeed, the past is resurrected when stanza seven urges readers to recall the example of great men in order to make our lives sublime. Because these monumental figures depart[] or die, they leave an emptiness that serves to enliven the present: Lives of great men all remind us We can make our lives sublime, And, departing, leave behind us Footprints on the sands of time; (Selected Poems 25-28) The heroic self that Longfellow hopes to inspire in the present depends on a dead and empty past on footprints on the sands of time. Lives of great men create a memory of heroic individualism that inspires us to make this life, not the afterlife, sublime. Faith in their example resurrects the certainty of belief that was formerly located in religion and! 40

48 harnesses it to an emphasis on acting in the moment. Our sublimity may imprint history, thereby enabling a life after death based on human fraternity instead of the bygone reliance on religious reward. Longfellow tells us to bury the past just one stanza earlier because doing so permits its re-projection as a self-generated and self-generating fantasy. Nostalgia must first empty the past before it can instill or fortify heart in readers. Hence loss the loss of religious reward, the loss of great men, the loss of that footprint s creator is the very condition of the return of heroic individualism. Much of the poem s language consists of platitudes and clichés hearts, footprints, and, in the next stanza, shipwrecks that have figurative significance across the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. These phrases signify nostalgia because their intuitive meaning is based on absence. Stanza eight invokes the Crusoe-like image of a shipwrecked man: Footprints, that perhaps another, Sailing o'er life's solemn main, A forlorn and shipwrecked brother, Seeing, shall take heart again. (Selected Poems 29-32) Romantic shipwreck imagery, from Coleridge s Mariner to Longfellow s Hesperus, hearkens back to nostalgia s homesickness and homecoming. The word combines the Greek nostos, homecoming, and algos, pain (Boym xiii). Existentially shipwrecked brothers and readers alike, longing for a time when lives were sublime, heed the footprints and understand that they too can rediscover an inner will power. Footprints on sand are a commonly understood symbol for erasure or instability, and yet Longfellow uses them to trigger the heart s fortitude. To regain the heart through loss demonstrates the permanent absence that generates nostalgia s power. By looking to transient! 41

49 impressions for inspiration, Longfellow predicates possession on dispossession, grounds strength in instability like building on sand. We can detect the decades-long popularity of Longfellow s Psalm, and the culture-wide longing for a strong self that it both responds to and cultivates, as an influence on Crane s poetry. By appealing to nostalgic strategies elaborated by Longfellow, Crane s poems address how the fantasy of the heroic self can survive in a modern universe that appears to have no sense of obligation to acts of greatness (Crane War Is Kind 36). 9 A number of Crane s poems take up the heart, exaggerating Longfellow s meaning in order to clarify the ideal of courageous selfhood the heart represents. By the turn of the century, life seemed to Crane and others less sublime and more indifferent to the human condition than ever before. Crane s poetry empties the heart of its inherent goodness in order to adapt the self to this modern era; however this is not a pessimistic maneuver to reflect a pessimistic outlook. Instead, Crane upholds heroic selfhood at the end of the nineteenth century by demonstrating that it does not necessarily emerge from the virtuous heart, in turn extending the possibilities of the self s composition. While Longfellow stressed the purely good self that nostalgia could constitute, Crane believed that the existence of such righteous individualism was impossible. He thus revises the modern heroic self as one who possesses the courage for honest self-scrutiny and understanding; recognition of one s own devilishness becomes the paradoxical source of the courageous heart. The strong, admirable self is the one who can recognize the inherent rottenness of people and the world and still seek positive community in the wake of that admission. Crane upholds Longfellow s nostalgic selfhood by using its fantasy to reveal what is absent in us, that is, a perfect goodness. By! 42

50 employing nostalgia to acknowledge the dark side that exists in all selves, Crane adapts nostalgic fantasy to a modern era. In foregrounding the virtuous heart s impossibility, Crane preserves the usefulness that Longfellow identified: the heart still supplies a shared fantasy that fosters comfort and community in the face of the world s indifference. In XLVI from Black Riders, Many red devils ran from my heart, Crane retains the convention that the heart is the font of self-expression, but complicates the conviction that locates courageousness therein. He extends Longfellow s ethics of the heart in order to make possible a courageous self conceived without Longfellow s didacticism: MANY RED DEVILS RAN FROM MY HEART AND OUT UPON THE PAGE, THEY WERE SO TINY THE PEN COULD MASH THEM. AND MANY STRUGGLED IN THE INK. IT WAS STRANGE TO WRITE IN THIS RED MUCK OF THINGS FROM MY HEART. (Black Riders 55) By housing devils there, Crane dislodges the virtue associated with the heart. In contrast to Longfellow s Psalm, what emerges from the heart is not good but demonic, not sublime but tiny. Crane renders this expression of the demonic strange or disorienting in order to question the assumed transparency of the heart to its owner: this speaker is separate from and baffled by his devilish interior. Despite the addition of two surprises not typically associated with the heart ignorance of its contents, and the housing of devils in the font of goodness Crane maintains the ability of Longfellow s hearts to inspire courage, just not by drawing on the supposed virtue therein. In fact, the author performs a heroic act by recognizing the devils that dwell in his heart. Mashing devils with a pen does not constitute bravery; rather acknowledging and inscribing one s devilishness onto the page indicates a courageous heart.! 43

51 Crane s hearts do not work to communicate a fantasy of the heroics abiding in every self. As opposed to a heart that symbolizes a nostalgic integrity, his are bitter, devilish, and selfish because they are nostalgic. Poem III of Black Riders, In the desert, strains the normative meaning of the heart that Longfellow drew upon in order to prove that nostalgia secures the self through strange and destructive acts: IN THE DESERT I SAW A CREATURE, NAKED, BESTIAL, WHO, SQUATTING UPON THE GROUND, HELD HIS HEART IN HIS HANDS, AND ATE OF IT. I SAID, IS IT GOOD, FRIEND? IT IS BITTER BITTER, HE ANSWERED; BUT I LIKE IT BECAUSE IT IS BITTER, AND BECAUSE IT IS MY HEART. (Black Riders 9) Crane condenses the multiple clichéd interpretations of heart depicted by Longfellow s poem having heart, taking heart, and assumptions about the heart s inherent goodness and humanness into a scenario that distorts their common meaning. By making a disgusting creature a friend who not only has heart but also is also capable of taking heart, literally, in his hands, the poem overturns the traditional association of heart with human integrity. In order to refute the assumption that the heart contains heroic goodness, Crane then renders the good ambiguous: the creature s heart could be good because it is virtuous or merely because it is tasty. Emphasizing the breakdown of cliché s intuitive meaning, the creature s repetition of the word bitter supports the same two interpretations: a comment on magnanimity (or lack thereof) or a comment on flavor. Yet where Crane sees cliché, he also sees an opportunity to rearticulate Longfellow s poetic meaning by extending nostalgic selfhood not only to distressed humans but grotesque creations. Nostalgia for the heart s lost goodness simultaneously points out our common! 44

52 beastliness, thereby creating fellowship through shared nostalgic belief and shared depravity. Crane collapses nostalgic logic the creation of the self through negation into a single action, the eating of one s heart. In the conventional sense, to eat one s heart out means to suffer silently. 10 Jean Starobinski comments that for the Romantic, nostalgia was a disease which could neither be cured nor assuaged... the nostalgic did not stop eating his heart out; the wound did not heal (94). The nostalgic consumes his heart because such suffering endlessly eats away at a person. In the context of the poem, the creature s self-consumption thus indicates nostalgic self-constitution. But in the act of reinternalizing his core, the creature destroys the heart he attempts to re-gain, replaying the loss that is nostalgia s generating mechanism (Stewart 23). By rearticulating Longfellow s hearts, Crane reveals that nostalgic self-making destroys the very selfhood one seeks to regain. Yet this paradox allows Crane to revise the ethics of Longfellow s heroic selves. Crane extends the making of the heroic self to embrace the ugly, the violent, and the masochistic. The creature physically eats his heart, but he does not seem miserable in fact he enjoys it. He like[s] to consume it, he like[s] to destroy this core. By exploiting nostalgia s illogic, Crane renders these acts of self-destruction good ; nostalgia s self-consumptive self-constitution is absurd, but its pain creates pleasure, its sacrifice creates satisfaction. Crane situates this poem at the very frontiers of nineteenth-century selfhood, echoed in the poem s desert wasteland. But can we even claim that this creature is or becomes a self? Does this creature struggle to reconceive its selfhood or exhibit faith in a nostalgic past? On the one hand, granting this creature a heart and hailing him as a! 45

53 friend suggests his humanity; on the other, his strange actions strain prevailing definitions of human selfhood. In other words, the creature may make it possible to read this poem as estranging, not reclaiming, the concept of selfhood. Cavitch suggests as much, arguing that the autocardiophagic creature points out the curse of the illusion the mirage of individual consciousness (37, 38). 11 Discussing epizeuxis (the repetition of bitter bitter ), he explains the creature is there to remind us that we are incapable of the authentic production of the same, of re-production, or simple repetition, but that we are nonetheless constantly falling back on what seem to be the best rhetorical resources the figures of repetition enabled by our fictive lives of stable individuation (Cavitch 41). For Crane, indeed, stable individuation had always been a nostalgic fiction, as demonstrated by Longfellow s Psalm which performed the same shoring up over fifty years earlier. Yet even if the various forms of repetition in In the desert underscore the self s unreality, Crane implies that the illusion of selfhood for man and creature alike is worth retaining due to the comforts of the construct. The poem relies on a nostalgic falling back or faith in order to communicate its fiction of strong individualism. Destroying his heart in homage to his very self, the creature s autocardiophagia constitutes a strange act of sacrifice. Susan Mizruchi, discussing ritual in everyday life, explains that sacrifice is the quintessential ritual form, and its mark or signature is its articulation of nostalgia (467-8). Sacrifice signals a token of authentic belief: where there is sacrifice, there is faith (Mizruchi 468). In other words, autocardiophagia is an act of sacrifice symbolizing a nostalgic belief in the self. Like Psalm, this poem concerns a belief that is not explicitly religious, but implies the fellowship that faith entails. The creature s sacrifice implicates a community of, if not believers, then at least! 46

54 witnesses. 12 Hence, Crane creates an I who bears witness to this act of sacrifice. While the creature s self-consumption nearly obscures all the other conditions and considerations of the text, we should not lose sight of how Crane situates this bizarre tale through an I who hails the creature and relates his conversation. By witnessing and then relating the event, the I recognizes the creature as a self, demonstrating that selfhood is not created in isolation. Thus the poem creates what Halliburton calls a spontaneous sense of fraternity in the first-person exchange with the creature (279). Like the footprints of shipwrecked sailors or the exemplary lives that great men leave behind, the nostalgic self relies on recognition by another. While Crane depicts the inadvertent self-destruction that results from the nostalgic pursuit of self-completion, nostalgia s fantastical self nevertheless fosters fraternity through the recognition of a shared ideal. Nostalgic Knights In the desert reinterpreted the courageous heart by constituting heroic selfhood through a grotesque act of self-cannibalization. The heart, however, was only one among many nineteenth-century tropes symbolizing strong individualism. 13 Of these, I will focus on one nostalgic device deployed by both Longfellow and Crane to define heroic selfhood: medieval chivalry. With its emblematic image of the knight and all his attendant heroics, chivalry evoked nostalgia in the same way as the heart : by looking back to an ideal selfhood to inspire autonomy in the present. Both appeal to an imaginary past, but employ different images and themes. By the turn of the century, bourgeois American culture had resurrected a fantasy of the Middle Ages that signified a time of authentic virtue and heroic self-reliance. 14! 47

55 People looked to medievalism s childlike simplicity in order to revise the perceived complexities and artificiality of overcivilized modern life; according to T. J. Jackson Lears, wearied by struggles with religious doubt, impatient with the vagueness of liberal optimism, Americans hailed the childlike faith of the Middle Ages... Admiration for the sincerity of the medieval peasant was tied to longings for real life (No Place 150). Chivalry encouraged people, especially the young, to stay hopeful and look within for power. In Twentieth Century Knighthood: A Series of Addresses to Young Men (1900), Louis Albert Banks commented that while young readers might not possess the physical attributes of knights, the higher deeds of the loftier chivalry, of upright thinking, of pure conduct, of self-denying devotion, are within each and every one of us (qtd. in Lupack 197). Writers revised medieval aristocracy by locating chivalric righteousness within every individual, rather than those with material wealth or noble bloodline (Lupack 197). As Banks s revisions make clear, the chivalric craze did not draw upon the historical realities of the middle-ages. Instead, the medieval period was subjected to sanitized and generic cultural re-productions in forms based on literary rather than historical examples (Lupack 197). Popular texts in the 1880s included Lord Alfred Tennyson s Idylls, Sidney Lanier s The Boy's King Arthur, and reprintings of Thomas Malory's Morte Darthur in 1868, 1876, and 1889 (Bowden 198 note 5). The Tennyson and Lanier texts presented moralizing and romantic depictions of the Arthurian tale, and readers focused on the optimistic and noble messages of this literature instead of the dark historical events they effaced. Yet, according to Betsy Bowden, Morte Darthur in its entirety stands solid witness against any Golden Age of childlike innocence... the alleged glory days of British chivalry provide no admirable heroes, no moral or ethical! 48

56 standards, no inspirational ideals hence the popularity of the Lanier version, which explicitly targeted young people, excluded the violent parts, and included illustrations (180). In addition to these reprintings and reproductions of chivalric literature, chivalry influenced the era s fiction. For example, popular Civil War literature resurrected knights and distressed damsels in the conflict between north and south; David Blight explains that an unheroic age could now escape to an alternative universe of gallant cavaliers and their trusted servants (222). Crane s Red Badge of Courage (1895) and Mark Twain s A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur s Court (1889) explicitly addressed the themes and images of chivalry, while Henry Adams s The Dynamo and the Virgin (1907) staked the medieval Virgin against modern machinery. Moments in works such as W. D. Howells s The Rise of Silas Lapham (1885) in which Lapham recalls Civil War heroics at the Bromfield Corey s dinner party, and the jousting scene in Charles Chesnutt s The House Behind the Cedars (1900) suggested the ubiquity of chivalry even when war or the Middle Ages were not the explicit subject of the text. Cultural nostalgia for medieval simplicity and chivalric virtue created a pedagogy paralleling the Fireside poets message of hard work, patience, and progress. Longfellow s afterlife was thus inflected by chivalry s popularity. In addition to its inspirational nostalgia, A Psalm of Life was repurposed according to chivalric themes; the poem was reproduced as a book by E.P. Dutton and Co. in 1892, with illustrations by noted Boston artist H. Winthrop Peirce. Notably, all of the edition s illustrations couched Longfellow s words in idealized medieval settings. For example, stanza four, in which the speaker explains, Art is long, and Time is fleeting, and our hearts like muffled! 49

57 drums, are beating / Funeral marches to the grave, is followed by an illustration of an artist painting a mural in the foreground, while behind him a procession winds out of view (see fig. 1). 15 Fig. 1. H. Winthrop Peirce, A psalm of life (New York: Dutton, 1893). Art is literally long, represented by the size of the mural, and time flees, just as the procession disappears into another room. Peirce or the publishers felt that Longfellow s sentiment lent itself to a medieval context. The painter is dressed in what would be understood as medieval garb. 16 In addition, Peirce depicts an alcove behind the artist that contains the sarcophagus of a fallen knight, his family crests above him. As demonstrated by this reproduction, Longfellow s poetry was well suited to chivalric reinterpretation because it assisted in nineteenth-century endeavors to heroicize the self. Hence, poems like A Psalm of Life and Paul Revere s Ride remained popular well after Longfellow s death because they contained an embedded chivalry that inspired selfhood! 50