Issues of Perception between Medieval and Early Modern Philosophy
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1 Department of Philosophy, University of Ostrava VIVARIUM Centre for Research in Medieval Society and Culture, University of Ostrava Czech Society for the Study of Aristotle The Conference Issues of Perception between Medieval and Early Modern Philosophy Problematika vnímání mezi středověkou a novověkou filosofií Ostrava, 6 th 7 th October 2016 COLLECTION OF ABSTRACTS Conference venue: University of Ostrava, University Library, Training center (2 nd floor), Bráfova 3, Ostrava The conference is held under auspices of the project Collective Identity in the Social Networks of Medieval Europe (IRP ).
2 Abstracts of the English Papers... 3 David Gonzalez Ginocchio 3 Scotus s on Sense, Medium, and Sensible Object... 3 Daniel Heider 3 The Internal Sense(s) in Early Jesuit Scholasticism... 3 Lukáš Lička 4 Attention, Perceptual Content, and Mirrors: Two Medieval Models of Active Perception in Peter Olivi and Peter Auriol... 4 Tomáš Nejeschleba 4 Valeriano Magni On Sensory Perception... 4 Lukáš Novák 5 More Aristotelian than Aristotle: Duns Scotus on Cognizing the Individual...5 Burak Şaman 5 The Certainty of Knowledge in Avicenna and Descartes...5 José Filipe Silva 6 Augustinianism-Averroisant and the activity in perception... 6 Apostolos N. Stavelas 6 Georgios Gemistos Pletho s Critique of Aristotle s Theory of Sense Perception... 6 Abstracts of the Czech and Slovak Papers... 8 Jan Herůfek 8 Recepce Cavalcantiho konceptu lásky u florentských platoniků... 8 František Medo 8 Locke o vnímaní vonkajšieho zmyslového objektu... 8 Marek Otisk 9 Proslogion 6: sentire non nisi cognoscere aut non nisi ad cognoscendum est... 9 Eva Peterková 9 Teorie vnímání Josepha Priestleyho... 9 Jakub Sirovátka 9 Kantova kopernikánská revoluce v teorii vnímání. K problematice teorie zkušenosti v Kritice čistého rozumu... 9 Daniel Špelda 10 Dalekohledy, mikroskopy a objevení disproporce člověka vůči přírodě Martin Žemla 10 Teorie extramise ve službách teologie. Valentin Weigel a jeho pojem oka... 10
3 Abstracts of the English Papers 3 David Gonzalez Ginocchio University of South Bohemia, České Budějovice (Czech Republic) / International University of La Rioja, Logroño (Spain) Scotus s on Sense, Medium, and Sensible Object This paper aims to examine some of Scotus s key notions to understand sensible knowledge: sense, medium, and object, on questions 1-10 of his Commentary on the De anima. Two particular interests will be at hand: first, Scotus s understanding and reception of his contemporaries philosophy of perception, and more particularly Grosseteste s theory of vision. On the other hand, the comparison between touch and vision may help to clarify some perspectives about the relation between object and faculty with regards, especially, to Scotus s theory of the will. Daniel Heider University of South Bohemia, České Budějovice / Institute of Philosophy, Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague (Czech Republic) The Internal Sense(s) in Early Jesuit Scholasticism The issue of the number of internal senses was a crucial topic in the early Jesuit discussion about the internal senses in general. While the first Jesuits, who wrote their Commentaries on Aristotle s De anima in the last three decades of the 16 th century, were doctrinally united in questions such as the nature of the distinction between the soul and its powers or the principles of cognitive operations (including the common Jesuit affirmation of intentional species), they differed significantly in their reductions of the classical five internal senses (common sense, phantasy, imagination, estimative or cogitative faculty, memory), which had been brought to the medieval discussion by the Arab philosopher Avicenna. In my paper, I will expound the theories of the number of internal senses in three representative Jesuits of the first generations of the Society of Jesus. They are Francisco de Toledo ( ), the Coimbran authors (the part devoted to the internal senses was written by Manuel de Góis ( )), and Francisco Suárez ( ). Each gives a different answer to the issue of how many really distinct internal senses there are and each lays emphasis on different criteria.
4 Lukáš Lička University of Ostrava, Ostrava (Czech Republic) 4 Attention, Perceptual Content, and Mirrors: Two Medieval Models of Active Perception in Peter Olivi and Peter Auriol The presentation focuses on two medieval models of active perception, i.e. the theories based on the presumption that our sensory powers are somehow active in the perceptual process. The first account developed by Franciscan thinker Peter Olivi (ca ) presupposes that every perceptual act demands a preceding focusing of our mind s attention. In describing the attention Olivi reinterprets the heritage of extramissionist theories of vision that postulate a visual ray coming out of our eyes. According to Olivi, there is no actual corporeal ray that would emanate from our eyes and travel through the surrounding medium to the object seen. However, the visual ray theory still provides a useful model for explanation of attention and attentional shifts. According to the second account propounded by another Franciscan thinker, Peter Auriol (ca ), the perception is active since it produces its content. Our senses not only receive an information from our environment, but also actively process it and produce perceptual content or, in Auriol s words, put the external object into apparent being. The peculiar feature of Auriol s conception is that he seems to endorse that the perceptual content is both dependent of our perceptual activity and outside of our senses. The merits and weaknesses of both Olivi s and Auriol s theories of active perception will be considered (besides other ones) in the context of the question of what it means to see a mirror-image of actual thing and how to explain such a visual experience. Tomáš Nejeschleba Palacký University, Olomouc (Czech Republic) Valeriano Magni On Sensory Perception Valeriano Magni analyses sensory perception in the initial chapters of his first philosophical work De luce mentium et eius imagine following the Augustinian-Bonaventurian tradition. Light, according to Magni, is the principle and condition of all knowledge. He consequently emphasizes vision as the only cognitive faculty by way of which one can grasp the object of sensory perception. Whilst the body is the object of vision, man can only attain knowledge of the properties of the body by means of other sensory faculties. Sensory perception for Magni is therefore merely a spur for a quick transition from sensory to intellectual knowledge, this being the proper subject of his philosophical work. Analogically to sensory perception, Magni understands intellectual knowledge by means of the concept of light as mental light, which is a principle and condition of intellection. Magni at a later point comes to a more positive evaluation of corporeal vision due to his experiments with a vacuum, which he views as demonstrations accessible through the vision. Magni has to
5 consequently answer a critique which is based on a common experience with visual illusions. Magni does not elaborate, however, his doctrine of sensory perception in order to solve these objections but once again emphasizes the role of mental light for knowledge. 5 Lukáš Novák University of South Bohemia, České Budějovice / Charles University, Prague (Czech Republic) More Aristotelian than Aristotle: Duns Scotus on Cognizing the Individual At least since Plato and Aristotle the hardly ever questioned common wisdom of the entire philosophical tradition was that while the universal is grasped by the intellect, the senses perceive the individual. Even in the moderately realistic Aristotelian-scholastic setting (perhaps best represented by Aquinas) where universals are situated in rebus, this axiom naturally generated the idea of two separated realms of objects of cognition individuals and universals whose ontological status, mutual relations etc. would, in turn, be philosophically investigated. In my reading, Scotus does not share this common preconception at all, but instead takes the position that ultimately there is just one single realm of cognized objects the individuals or particulars. Thus, although it may be argued that his theory of cognition does not represent any radical departure from the moderaterealistic, Avicenna-inspired paradigm of the 13th century, but rather its specific elaboration, in a closer look we can see that Scotus takes an entirely new perspective on the problem and reinterprets the old approaches from a new standpoint. And yet, this new perspective can at the same time be understood as merely being a consistent completion of the anti- Parmenidean and anti-platonic movement in philosophy initiated by Aristotle namely that of epistemic rehabilitation of the world of ordinary particular things. Scotus s epistemic thought thus can be described as being simultaneously consistently traditional and revolutional. Burak Şaman 29 Mayis University, Istanbul (Turkey) The Certainty of Knowledge in Avicenna and Descartes This work aims to study the question of the certainty of knowledge in Avicenna and Descartes. There are two ways to approach this issue: one is to discuss the epistemological and logical status of knowledge and certainty; the other is to show its possibility from a point of view of the theory of knowledge. This work chooses the second path and takes the distinction of soul and body as a basis, comparing the so-called cogito of Avicenna and Descartes. The cogito of both philosophers is not a deduction or reasoning but it is an intuition, an apperception, a kind of consciousness that makes possible self-reflection. What we conclude from our research is the distinction between the level of certainty and
6 the level of judgment. The cogito expressed by Avicenna and Descartes reveals that there are two levels of knowledge: a kind of knowledge that does not need any judgment and a kind of knowing that only functions by judgments. We defend that the cogito of Descartes and Avicenna expresses this first level of knowledge that is simple and without concept. Thus, the intuition of I exist becomes the ground of the certainty of knowledge for both philosophers, for it is freed from any judgment. 6 José Filipe Silva University of Helsinki, Helsinki (Finland) Augustinianism-Averroisant and the activity in perception Medieval Augustinians developed an account of perception based on what they took as the central theses of Augustine s philosophy of perception. According to this theory, the soul is the agent of its own perceptual acts, following an affection of the body. A difference strand of thought followed Averroes and the view that the existence of an agent sense is required to explain how perception and objects of perception have the nature they have. Reading latter accounts, however, one is struck by what seems to be the conflation of these two active models of perception. In my paper I wish to investigate if and how this comes about, and what it means for our understanding of the development of medieval theories of perception. Apostolos N. Stavelas Research Centre on Greek Philosophy, Academy of Athens (Greece) Georgios Gemistos Pletho s Critique of Aristotle s Theory of Sense Perception In Categories, 7 b Aristotle prioritized the object of sensual perception over the act of perception itself, observing that the revocation of the perceptible (αἰσθητόν) entails the cancelation of perception (αἴσθησις) as well, while the removal of the act of perception leaves the perceptible subsisting. This last point was for Plethon enough, in order to initiate his own critique, advocating that Aristotle did not seem to have endeavored a solid coalescence between problems raised in his theory of knowledge and issues elaborated in his Metaphysics. In an attempt to present these two fields of inquiry more agreeable to each other and to shed light on what he considered to be the weak points and contradictions of Aristotle s theory of knowledge, Plethon claimed that Aristotle s view seemed to disprove his own vision of omnia recte (καθόλου λόγος) especially as far as the category of relativity (πρός τι) is involved. Plethon conceived relativity as of a simultaneous and necessary character of the natural concurrence (ἅμα τῇ φύσει, Cat., 14 b 27 28) between the act and the object of perception. Thus, for him, Aristotle s approach should be thought of as false or, at least, as inadequate; first, because the object and the act of perception must always concur naturally and, second, because, in accordance with Metaphysics, 1010 b and De anima,
7 425 b 25, if sensible perception (αἴσθησις) is not substantiated or is withdrawn, the object (αἰσθητόν) of a non-subsisting sensible perception cannot subsist. On the other hand, if sensible perception is to subsist in the future, it is obvious that it will appear out of something potentially subsisting (δυνάμει ὑπάρχον). Thus, for Plethon, the object of sense perception is both potentially perceptible (δυνάμει αἰσθητόν) and perception in relation to its potency (πρὸς δυνάμει αἴσθησις). 7
8 Abstracts of the Czech and Slovak Papers 8 Jan Herůfek Ostravská univerzita, Ostrava Recepce Cavalcantiho konceptu lásky u florentských platoniků Ve své slavné básni Donna mi prega uvažoval Giudo Cavalcanti ( ) o experimentálním konceptu smysly vnímatelné lásky, která jakožto pouhý akcident (accidente che sovente è fero, ed è si altero) je jen zdrojem utrpení. Takové pojetí lásky stojí, dle některých interpretů, v naprostém kontrastu s Dantovými úvahami o metafyzické podobě lásky. Zásluhou Dina del Garbo ( ) na něj však bylo nahlíženo i prizmatem averoisticko-aristotelských koncepcí. Cavalcantiho pojetí bylo dále recipováno i v průběhu 15. a 16. století. Naše pozornost bude tedy upřena především na to, jak se s takovým typem filosofické lásky kriticky vyrovnávají a nechávají inspirovat i představitelé tzv. florentského platonismu: M. Ficino ( ) a G. Pico della Mirandola ( ). František Medo Univerzita Konštantína Filozofa, Nitra Locke o vnímaní vonkajšieho zmyslového objektu Význačnou charakteristikou Lockovho premýšľania o povahe ľudského poznania je posúdenie poznávania ako mnohostranného procesu, pričom jednotlivé stránky tohto procesu je potrebné čo najdôkladnejšie a v čo najväčšej miere pojmovo zachytávať. Pri prieskume Lockovho filozofického zamýšľania sa nad otázkou poznania možno ako jeho podstatnú zložku určiť vnímanie. Z hľadiska výkonov, ktoré myseľ pri získavaní poznatkov o vonkajších zmyslových objektoch realizuje, je vnímanie kľúčovou činnosťou mysle pôsobiacou pri vzniku poznania. Podľa mnohých komentátorov je však Lockovo hovorenie o vnímaní značne neisté, keďže Locke, podľa nich, nevymedzuje vnímanie dostatočne presne a koherentne. Odhliadajúc od špeciálnych čiastkových otázok súvisiacich s posudzovaním rozličných aspektov Lockovho popisu vnímania, budeme v predloženom príspevku sledovať teoretické konštruovanie procesu vnímania zmyslového objektu vonkajšieho sveta, tak ako ho Locke podáva vo svojej filozofii. Budeme pritom postupovať tak, že rozlíšime dva stupne vnímania ako procesu poznávania vonkajšieho sveta. Na prvom stupni ide o fyzický dej, ktorý nastáva vyvolaním impulzu, pokračuje prenosom pohybu v zmyslovom orgáne a vyúsťuje v mentálnej entite, tzv. idee. Na druhom stupni ide o psychický dej, v priebehu ktorého je idea ako zvláštny, na mysli závislý objekt mysľou vnímaná, pričom skutočné poznanie zmyslového objektu je konštituované až na tomto stupni až keď myseľ vníma ideu zmieneného objektu.
9 Marek Otisk Ostravská univerzita, Ostrava / Filosofický ústav AV ČR, Praha 9 Proslogion 6: sentire non nisi cognoscere aut non nisi ad cognoscendum est V odpovědi Gaunilonovi na vznesené polemické námitky k dílu Proslogion cituje Anselm z Canterbury Pavlovu epištolu Římanům (Ř 1,20), v níž se uvádí, že neviditelného Boha lze od stvoření světa spatřit skrze toto stvořené (Resp. ad Gaun. 8). V samotném spise Proslogion pak mj. rozvádí, jak je možné, že Bůh disponuje nejdokonalejším smyslovým poznáním, byť není tělesný a smysly podávají informace o tělesných věcech (Prosl. 6), nebo připisuje Bohu dokonalé vlastnosti typické pro smyslové vnímání (Prosl. 17). Příspěvek se proto pokusí blíže objasnit některé aspekty Anselmova výkladu smyslového vnímají a to nejen v kontextu Proslogia, ale také s využitím dalších Anselmových děl (zejména Monologion a De veritate). Hlavní pozornost se přitom zaměří na metafyzickoantropologickou důležitost smyslového vnímání v Anselmově myšlení a jeho metodologickou roli při cestě k poznání. Eva Peterková Ostravská univerzita, Ostrava Teorie vnímání Josepha Priestleyho Příspěvek se zaměří na teorii vnímání Josepha Priestleyho. Tento poměrně kontroverzní filosof 18. století se snažil schopnost vnímání vysvětlit pomocí tehdy velice oblíbené teorie idejí a zároveň chtěl tuto teorii skloubit s Newtonovou mechanickou teorií vlnění. Středem zájmu bude zejména Priestleyho užití pojmů imprese a idea a jejich role v této teorii. Cílem příspěvku bude zodpovědět dvě zásadní otázky. Za prvé, zda se Priestleyho vysvětlení procesu vnímání blíží spíše reprezentační teorii vnímání či alternativní adverbiální teorii a za druhé, zda je vůbec možné takové vysvětlení vnímání skloubit s mechanickou teorií vlnění. Jakub Sirovátka Jihočeská univerzita, České Budějovice Kantova kopernikánská revoluce v teorii vnímání. K problematice teorie zkušenosti v Kritice čistého rozumu Immanuel Kant ve své Kritice čistého rozumu (1781; ) provedl dle svých slov tzv. kopernikovský obrat v teorii vnímání, aby tak vyřešil spory mezi racionalistickým a empiristickým pojetím vnímání. Příspěvek se v rámci Kantovy teorie zkušenosti zaměří na koncepci apriorních forem smyslového vnímání (čas a prostor), na pojmy rozvažování (kategorie) a na vzájemný vztah smyslového názoru a pojmu skrze schémata obrazotvornosti.
10 Daniel Špelda Masarykova univerzita, Brno 10 Dalekohledy, mikroskopy a objevení disproporce člověka vůči přírodě Jaký jest tu poměr, zoufá si Blaise Pascal ve slavném fragmentu o disproporci člověka z Penseés. A pokračuje velmi působivým líčením zanedbatelnosti lidského postavení ve dvou nových světech totiž v ohromném světě hvězd a mnoha planetárních systémů, který člověku zpřístupnil dalekohled, a v mikroskopickém světě vší a roztočů, který člověku ukázala mikroskopická bádání. Pascalova reakce, nebo spíše reakce Pascalova libertina ztraceného v nekonečných dimenzích univerza, v zásadě vyjadřuje šok ze zjištění, že lidské smyslové vnímání postihuje pouze kontingentní výřez celku skutečnosti, protože větší části skutečnosti mu naprosto unikají. Toto překvapení bych ve svém příspěvku chtěl doložit i u dalších autorů 17. stol. (Gassendi, Descartes, Malebranche, Locke, Hooke) a současně i naznačit, jak se s ním na filosofické rovině vyrovnávali. Martin Žemla Univerzita Palackého, Olomouc Teorie extramise ve službách teologie. Valentin Weigel a jeho pojem oka Valentin Weigel ( ) je autorem první velké a v 17. století značně vlivné syntézy pozdně středověké německé mystiky v její reformační recepci a Paracelsových přírodněfilosofických i teologických děl. Přestože přírodně-filosofická témata hrají v jeho díle zejména v jeho vrcholném období významnou roli, hlavní Weigelův zájem je teologický. Jemu se podřizují také epistemologické výklady, které tvoří jeden z opěrných sloupů Weigelova myšlení. Weigel ve své epistemologii navazuje na paracelsovskou koncepci dvou světel (světla přírody a světla milosti), která sama vychází z Ficinovy metafyziky světla a s tím spjaté epistemologie. Její výrazné stopy najdeme i u Weigela, aniž by ovšem metafyzika světla hrála u Weigela přednostní roli. Typickou weigelovskou koncepcí (jež má ovšem svůj středověký předobraz v koncepci Hugona od Sv. Viktora či již u Augustina) je schéma trojího oka, které souvisí s Paracelsem vyzdvihovaným rozlišením člověka podle těla, podle ducha a podle duše. I vnitřní síly člověka se tak dělí na tři oči : prvním je oculus carnis, oko těla, jímž člověk hledí na svět a všechno to, co souvisí se zvířetem ; druhým je oculus rationis, oko rozumu, jímž člověk vidí, prokazuje a vynalézá umění a provádí všechna rozumná řemesla a povolání ; třetí a nejvyšší oko v člověku se nazývá oculus mentis seu intellectus, oko chápání, jímž člověk nahlíží Boha a anděly. Nejnižší, tělesné oko se dále dělí na vnější zrakový orgán a vnitřní oko, jímž je imaginace. Imaginace je pak, v souladu s Paracelsem, vnitřní člověk, siderický duch, hvězdy (Gestirn) v člověku, přičemž platí, že všechna umění, jež rozum poznává, pocházejí z hvězd. Imaginace je tedy jakýmsi průnikem mezi okem smyslovým a okem rozumu, které na
11 11 rozdíl od imaginace dokáže chápat věci v jejich vyvázanosti z času a prostoru; proto dokáže například nahlédnout, že svět se vznáší v nicotě a nespočívá na žádné místě (což je opět v rámci Weigelovy teologie významné, neboť podobně nelokální je také Bůh, ďábel, peklo i nebeské království). Tato metafora umožňuje Weigelovi formulovat subjektivistickou koncepci poznání. Weigel je v tomto směru zastáncem čisté teorie extramise, kterou výslovně staví do popředí svých úvah jako jedinou možnou (srv. např. spis Gnohi seauton). Z oka vychází paprsek, který se o předmět (Gegenwurff, objectum) odráží zpět, přičemž předmět je sice nutnou součástí tohoto procesu, nicméně nelze o něm vlastně vůbec nic říci, protože nevcházejí předměty do vnímajícího subjektu, nýbrž subjekt vystupuje sám ze sebe a vše chápe vždy po svém. Weigel tento poznatek z oblasti smyslového poznání, která sama o sobě nepředstavuje pole jeho eminentního zájmu, převádí i na sféru rozumu. Zde pak do důsledku dovádí myšlenku Tomáše Akvinského, podle nějž poznané je v poznávajícím po způsobu poznávajícího, zejména však opět navazuje na Boëthiovu Consolatio, podle níž vše, co se poznává, nechápe se podle své podstaty, nýbrž podle možností lidí poznávajících a vše, co poznává, užívá při poznávání spíše vlastní způsobilosti než věci poznávané. Tato zásada ovšem podle Weigela platí pouze pro obě poznání nižší, kde trvá subjektobjektové rozlišení, jež je příčinou toho, že lidé se liší ve svých názorech. Pro poznání okem nejvyšším je naopak příznačné, a to v souladu s eckhartovsko-taulerovskou koncepcí, že člověk zde zůstává trpný (leidenlich), pasivní, odevzdaný (gelassen). Zdrojem aktivního působení je zde Bůh, jenž okem mysli poznává sám sebe skrze člověka. Toto poznání je proto jediné ne-subjektivní, a tedy pravdivé a jisté. Naopak nižší, přirozené poznání se vyznačuje pluralitou interpretací, neboť předmět zde je pouhým podnětem vnímání, sám o sobě ovšem není poznán nikdy (proto mohl být ve Weigelově koncepci spatřován předstupeň úvah Kantových). Tento výklad užívá Weigel především ve vztahu k interpretaci Bible. Mrtvá litera slouží pouze jako varování, svědectví, poučení a napomenutí víry čili Ducha Božího v nás. Stejně tak ale i u všech vnějších věcí v souladu s Augustinovou teorií iluminace, podle níž vnější věci a lidští učitelé toliko navádějí k učiteli vnitřnímu, božskému, a v souladu s Augustinovým přesvědčením, že lpění na liteře je smrtí duše a duchovním otroctvím platí, že mají poukazovat k vnitřnímu základu a k bytí, z něhož vyplynuly, neboť jedině odtud přichází pravé poučení. Weigel tak na podkladě své (dosti schematicky pojaté) teorie vidění dospívá jednak ke koncepci jistého a pravdivého poznání, na druhé straně pak k uznání nutné plurality názorů zprostředkovaných okem rozumu, a tedy i k ideji tolerance.
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