NOTES AND REFERENCES

Transcription

1 NOTES AND REFERENCES I INTRODUCTION 1. Douglas Adams, The Hitch Hiker's Guide to the Galaxy (Pan Books, London, 1979), pp. 125, See below, p R. S. Peters, Education as Initiation (Evans, London, 1964) pp. 11, 15, 25, 30. Professor Peters' account of the concept of education was developed further in his Ethics and Education (George Alan and Unwin, London, 1966), Part I and 'Education and the Educated Man', in R. F. Dearden, P. H. Hirst and R. S. Peters ( eds), Education and the Development of Reason (Routledge & Kegan Paul, London, 1972). 4. To allow for e.g. postal teaching, teaching interactions might be better described as person-to-person rather than as face-to-face. 2 PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS I. Sir Ernest Gombrich, Art and Illusion (Phaidon Press, Oxford, 1959), p E. Sapir, 'The Status oflanguage as a Science', Language, 5 (1929), F. Waismann, 'Verifiability', in A. G. N. Flew (ed.), Logic and Language, first series (Basil Blackwell, Oxford, 1960), p John Locke: An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, abridged and edited by John W. Yolton 0 M. Dent, London, 1977), II, VIII, 12 (p. 59). All references to Locke's Essay give book, chapter and paragraph, followed by page reference in Yolton's abridged edition of the Essay. 5. Ibid., II, I, 24 (p. 44). 6. Ibid., III, II, 1, 2 (pp ). 7. In II, VII Locke argues that only our ideas of primary qualities (basically geometrical properties such as shape and size) resemble the qualities which give rise to them, in contrast to our ideas of secondary qualities (colours, sounds and tastes) which do not. Despite the importance of this distinction to Locke himself, I have assumed that it does not affect the basic picture of the mind as a mirror to nature. 8. L. Wittgenstein, Philosophical Investigations (Basil Blackwell, Oxford, 1953), Partu, pp W. G. Chase and H. A. Simon, 'Perception in Chess', Cognitive Psychology, 4 (1973), Plato, Republic, translated by Desmond Lee, second edn (Penguin, Harmondsworth, 1974), Plato, Book I, p. 70.

2 194 Notes and References II. Ibid, Book II, pp. l77ff. 12. John Locke, Second Treatise of Civil Government, ed. J. W. Gough (Basil Blackwell, Oxford, 1956). 13. Lock himself believed that 'the state of nature has a law of nature to govern it-... which... teaches all mankind who will but consult it... ' etc. (Ibid., Chapter 2, para. 6). This amounts to saying that man, as created by God ('men being all the workmanship of one omnipotent and infinitely wise maker... ') are already social beings. However, I have taken the view that this is a remnant of an earlier natural law tradition, which is not easy to reconcile with the newer view of man put forward in the Essay. 14. Locke, Essay Concerning Human Understanding, I, III, J. S. Mill, Utilitarianism(]. M. Dent, London, 1910), Ch. 4, pp This is the option Locke himselffavours in the Second Treatise, cf. note 13 above. 17. M. Oakeshott, 'Political Education', in Peter Laslett (ed.), Philosophy, Politics and Sociery (Basil Blackwell, 1963). Professor Oakeshott's lecture was originally delivered at the London School of Economics in As with Locke, what is described as the Gombrich point of view is put foward as a reasonable extrapolation of his explicit views as quoted earlier. 19. Mill, Utilitarianism, pp THE ORGANISATION OF EDUCATION 1. For a fuller treatment, see John Darling, 'Progressive, Traditional and Radical: a Re-alignment', Journal of Philosophy of Education, 12 ( 1978), p R. Descartes, Discourse on Method(]. M. Dent, London, 1912), Part 1, 3. I have previously explored the idea of a profession in Glenn Langford, Teaching as a Profession (Manchester University Press, 1978), Ch Cf. ibid., Ch. 3, section Cf. my discussion of educational problems in ibid., Ch. 1, sections 2 and 6. Cf. my discussion of educational theory in ibid., Ch. 4, section 5. 4 ACCOUNT ABILITY 1. Jeremy Bentham, 'Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation', in L.A. Selby-Bigge (ed.), British Moralists (Dover, New York 1965), p Trust seems to have received little philosophical attention, but see D. 0. Thomas, 'The Duty to Trust', Proceedings of the Aristotelian Sociery (1978-9). 3. Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan, ed. M. Oakeshott (Basil Blackwell, Oxford), pp TEACHERS AS OCCUPYING ROLES 1. Marylin Williams, 'Presenting Oneself in Talk: the Disclosure of Occupation', in R. Harre (ed.), Life Sentences (Wiley, Chichester, 1976).

3 .Notes and Riferences R. D. Laing, Self and Others (Penguin Books, Harmondsworth, 1971), pp Ibid., pp.lol Stephen Pile, The Book of Heroic Failures (Macdonald Futura, London, 1980), p E. Durkheim, The Rules of Sociological Method (Collier Macmillan, West Drayton, 1964), p. I. 6. J. P. Sartre, Being and Nothingness (Methuen, London, 1957), p Tom Stoppard, Rosencrant;;, and Guildenstern are Dead (Faber and Faber, London, 1967), pp. 11, 16, 28 respectively. 8. For example, in Noam Chomsky, Language and Mind (Harcourt Brace and World, New York, 1968), p TEACHING, LEARNING AND THE SOCIAL BASIS OF KNOWLEDGE I. Mervyn Peake, Gormenghast (Penguin Books, Harmondsworth, 1969), pp Professor Peters' attempt to provide such an account, in R. S. Peters, Ethics and Education (George Allen & Unwin, London, 1966), Ch. 5, has attracted much criticism, including Glenn Langford 'Values in Education', in Glenn Langford and D. J. O'Connor (eds), New Essays in the Philosophy of Education (Routledge & Kegan Paul, London, 1973). 3. Paul H. Hirst, 'What is teaching?', in Knowledge and the Curriculum (Routledge & Kegan Paul, London, 1974), p Antony Flew, 'Teaching and Testing', in Sociology, Equality f!nd Education (Macmillan, London, 1976), p Glenn Langford, 'The Concept ofeducation', in Glenn Langford and D. J. O'Connor (eds), New Essays in the Philosophy of Education (Routledge & Kegan Paul, London, 1973), section Communication is discussed more fully in Chapter 7, section II, R. Descartes, Discourse on Method U. M. Dent, London, 1912), pp. 5, 5 and 8 respectively. 8. Ibid., pp. 10 and 11 respectively. 9. Mary Shelley, Frankenstein, in Peter Fairclouth (ed.), Three Gothic Novels (Penguin Books, Harmondsworth, 1968). 10. Karl Popper, The Logic of Scientific Discovery (Hutchinson, London, 1959), Preface to the First Edition, 1934, p Cf. Chapter 2, section I. 7 EDUCATION, PERSONS AND SOCIETY I. Cf. Glenn Langford, Teaching as a Profession (Manchester University Press, 1978), Chapter 4, section IV. 2. Locke, Essay Concerning Human Understanding, 1, I, 1, p. I. 3. Agency was also discussed briefly in Chapter 3, section II, section II, 2 (c) and Chapter 4, section I. 4. Locke, Essay Concerning Human Understanding, II, XXVII, 9, p Ibid., II, VIII, 12, p. 59.

4 196 Notes and References 6. Ibid., I, I, 8, p Ibid., II, VIII, 2, p Grice's classic discussion of meaning is relevant here; see H. P. Grice, 'Meaning' in P. F. Strawson (ed.), Philosophical Logic (Oxford University Press, 1967). Grice's paper was originally published in Philosophical Review, 66 ( 1957). 9. Grice, 'Meaning', p. 44 makes a similar distinction between 'deliberately and openly letting someone know' and 'getting someone to think', on the one hand, and 'telling' on the other. 10. Cf. Glenn Langford, 'Persons as Necessarily Social', Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour, 8, No.3 (1978). 11. Edmund Burke, Riflections on the Revolution in France U- M. Dent, London, 1910), p Some ofthe objections considered here were made by Adrian Thatcher, 'Education and the Concept of a Person', Journal of Philosophy of Education, XIV, No.1 (1980); cf. also my response, Glenn Langford, 'Reply to Adrian Thatcher', Journal of Philosophy of Education, XIV, No.1 (1980). 13. Adrian Thatcher, 'Learning to Become Persons - A Theological Approach to Educational Aims', Scottish Journal of Theology, 36 ( 1983). 14. Locke, Essay Concerning Human Understanding, II, XXVII, 8, p R. Descartes, Discourse on Method U- M. Dent, London, 1912), PartlY, p Locke, Essay Concerning Human Understanding, II, I, 24, p J. L. Austin, 'A Plea for Excuses', in Philosophical Papers (Oxford University Press, 1961), p.l85.

5 Bibliography Adams, Douglas, The Hitch Hiker's Guide to the Galaxy (Pan Books, London, 1979) Austin,]. L., 'A Plea for Excuses', in Philosophical Papers (Oxford University Press, 1961 ) Ayer, A.]., Language Truth and Logic (Victor Gollancz, London, 1936) Bentham, Jeremy, Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation in L.A. Selby-Bigge (ed.), British Moralists (Dover, New York, 1965) Burke, Edmund, Reflections on the Revolution in France 0. M. Dent, London, 1910) Burroughs, Edgar Rice, Tarzan of the Apes (Random House, New York, 1983) Chase, W. G. and Simon, H. A., 'Perception in Chess', Cognitive Psychology, 4 (1973), Chomsky, Noam, Language and Mind (Harcourt Brace and World, New York, 1968) Darling, John, 'Progressive, Traditional and Radical: a Re-alignment', Journal of Philosophy of Education, 12 (1978), Descartes, R., Discourse on Method 0. M. Dent, London, 1912) Durkheim, E., The Rules of Sociological Method (Collier Macmillan, West Drayton, 1964) Flew, Antony, 'Teaching and Testing', in Sociology, Equality and Education (Macmillan, London, 1976) Gombrich, Sir Ernest, Art and Illusion (Phaidon Press, Oxford, 1959) Grice, H. P., 'Meaning', in P. F. Strawson (ed.), Philosophical Logic (Oxford University Press, 1967) Hardie, Charles D., Truih and Fallacy in Educational Theory (Teachers College, Columbia University, 1962) Hirst, Paul H., 'What is teaching?', in Knowledge and the Curriculum (Routledge & Kegan Paul, London, 1974) Hobbes, Thomas, Leviathan, ed. M. Oakeshott (Basil Blackwell, Oxford, 1951) Laing, R. D., Self and Others (Penguin Books, Harmondsworth, 1971) Lancaster, Joseph, Improvements in Education, ed. and introduced by David Salmon (Cambridge University Press, 1932) Langford, Glenn, 'Values in Education, in Glenn Langford and D. J. O'Connor (eds), New Essays in the Philosophy of Education (Routledge & Kegan Paul, London, 1973) Langford, Glenn, 'The Concept of Education', in Glenn Langford and D. J. O'Connor (eds), New Essays in the Philosopi!J of Education (Routledge & Kegan Paul, London, 1973)

6 198 Bibliography Langford, Glenn, Teaching as a Profession (Manchester University Press, 1978) Langford, Glenn, 'Persons as Necessarily Social', Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour, 8, No.3 (1978) Langford, Glenn, 'Reply to Adrian Thatcher', Journal of Philosophy of Education, XIV, No.1 (1980) Locke, John, Second Treatise of Civil Government, ed. J. W. Gough (Basil Blackwell, Oxford, 1956) Locke, John, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, abridged and ed by John W. Yolton a. M. Dent, London, 1977) Mill, J. S., Utilitarianism a. M. Dent, London, 1910) Oakeshott, M., 'Political Education', in Peter Laslett (ed.), Philosophy, Politics and Sociery (Basil Blackwell, Oxford, 1963) O'Connor, D.]., An Introduction to the Philosophy of Education (Routledge & Kegan Paul, London, 1957) Peake, Mervyn, Gormenghast (Penguin Books, Harmondsworth, 1969) Peters, R. S., Education as Initiation (Evans Brothers, London, 1964) Peters, R. S., Ethics and Education (George Allen and Unwin, London, 1966) Peters, R. S., 'Education and the Educated Man', in R. F. Dearden, P. H. Hirst and R. S. Peters (eds), Education and the Development of Reason (Routledge & Kegan Paul, London, 1972) Pile, Stephen, The Book of Heroic Failures (Macdonald Futura, London, 1980) Plato, Republic, trans. Desmond Lee, second ed. (Penguin Books, Harmondsworth, 1974) Popper, Sir Karl, The Logic of Scientific Discovery (Hutchinson, London, 1959) Sapir, E., 'The Status of Language as a Science', Language, 5 (1929) Sartre, J.-P., Being and Nothingness (Methuen, London, 1957) Scheffler, 1., The Language of Education (Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, III, 1962) Shelley, Mary, Frankenstein, in Peter Fairclouth (ed.), Three Gothic Novels (Penguin Books, Harmondsworth, 1968) Stoppard, Tom, Rosencrant;:, and Guildenstern are Dead (Faber and Faber, London, 1967) Thatcher, Adrian, 'Education and the Concept of a Person', Journal of Philosophy of Education, XIV, No.1 (1980) Thatcher, Adrian, 'Learning to Become Persons- A Theological Approach to Educational Aims', Scottish Journal of Theology, 36 ( 1983) Thomas, D. 0., 'The Duty to Trust', Proceedings of the Aristotelian Sociery ( ) Updyke, John, Couples (Penguin Books, Harmondsworth, 1968) Verne,J ules, T wenry Thousand Leagues under the Sea (Chatto & Wind us, London, 1956) Waismann, F., 'Verifiability', in A. G. N. Flew (ed.), Logic and Language, first series (Basil Blackwell, Oxford, 1960) Williams, Marylin, 'Presenting Oneself in Talk: the Disclosure ofoccupation' in R. Harre (ed.), Life Sentences aohn Wiley, Chichester, 1976) Wittgenstein, L., Philosophical Investigations (Basil Blackwell, Oxford, 1953)

7 INDEX actions 80-4 as free 82-3, 117 as involving self-awareness 81 as performed by agents 80 constraints on 91 criticism of 83-4 explanations of 90 justification of 90 unintended consequences of 86, 91 see also responsibility accountability 67, ofpersons 92-3 of social entities 93-6 accounts: as histories 85 as stories 84-5 content of 98-9 financial 84-5, 98 of a school 98, 99 parties to 91-2 personal involvement in 85-7 purpose of 89, 90, 96, 99 reactions to adults 66 agent-for-another 55 ambiguous figures 14 animals: as acting 81 as learning by imitation as not socially responsible 81, 83, 172 communication Fred's ferret 170, 144 apprenticeship 74, 157 atomistic view: ofideas 12 of society 12, 23 of teaching 135 autonomy 66 Ayer, Sir A.J. 2 behaviour: Gombrich account of 20, 73 Lockean account of 19, 20, 73 of animals 170 see also actions; science of behaviour behaviourist concept of man 73 beliefs 80, 82 awareness of 82 see also concept of a physical object; learning, cognitive Bell Telephone company 175 Bentham,]. 93,94 blackbirds 142, 143, 176, 177 Burke, E. 182 Burroughs, E. R. 182 bus service 110 Captain Nemo 152 Casaubon 153 Cavendish, H. 152,!53 Chase and Simon 14 chess, memory ofboard position14 children 48, 49, 51, 57, 92, 137, 145,160,161,167, 173, 189, 190, 191 feral 192 see also pupils chimpanzees 143, 145 Chomsky, N. 120 cogito argument 147, 148, 189 communication 120-1, 141-4,

8 200 communication -continued as transmission of information importance in human life 121, 175 community 60-l, 93, 143 see also human communication concept: application of a 172 ascription of a l 72 of a person 168, 171 of a physical object conceptual scheme 45 possessed by persons relation to a practice 45, 168 concern 87-9 being concerned about 88-9 concerning yourself with 87 improper 87 proper 88 required 89 simple 87 Constable,]. 8, 17-18,21,41,153 cost-benefit analysis 19 creativity 21 see also scientific discoveries curiosity 19 curriculum 74-8 planning 76-7 definitional stop 135 Descartes, R. ll, 47, 97, 147, 189 development: contrasted with learning 138, 188 ofknowledge 143 distribution of income as affected by relative bargaining strength 28 as fixed by market forces 27 doctors 18 Dr Frankenstein 152 Durkheim, E. Ill economic order 24 criticism of 24, 25 education: and teaching 4 and the individual 3, 184 and society 3, and value 163 and youth 183-4, 185 as backward looking as forward looking Index as having a social function 184 as learning to be a person 166 becoming educated 160,161, 165 continuing 183 formal and informal 'inverted comma' sense 163 Peters' account 2-3, 128, 183 philosophical account 165 scientific 154 thinking about 5 see also socialisation Emily Crusoe 167, 173, 179 examinations 77, 91, 98, 106-7, 131-2, 133 tests as assessment devices tests as teaching devices experience 11,20, 138,139,140 farming 162 fictitious entities 94 Flew,A ,163 Ford, G. 116 Fred ,171,177,178,180 his brother, Billy 177, 180, 181 his ferret 170, 180 Froebel, P. 49 function, the idea of 105, 107 Giotto 8, 9, 21, 41, 153 God: and practical principles 29 trust in 102 Gombrich, Sir Ernest ix, 3 Gombrich view 3, 4, 7 -ll compared with Lockean view Good Samaritan 89 government 22 group habits 173 see also social standards

9 Index Hardie, Charles D. 2 Harvey, W. 153 hidden hand 24, 25 Hirst, P historyofart 3,21 Hobbes, Thomas 101 human communication: as depending on reciprocal selfawareness 179 as intentional 177 as using symbols I 77 of beliefs see also communication ideas II Illich, I. 49 individuality 21 intentions 80 justice 26 Kant, I. 189, 190 knowledge common sense , 175 individualist view of knowledge: Descartes' 147-9, 157; Locke's 146, 157 of practical principles 27 of which is social!55; scientific procedures 155-6; linguistic convention!56 shared 141, 143 systematic enquiry 151-4,175 transmission of 141 two-tier structure of knowledge and skills 52-3 see also skills and techniques; knowledge Lancaster,]. 79 language: and norm of truth telling 101 and the growth of knowledge 143 and ways of seeing 10, 156, 167 as a social institution 156, 167 as facilitating communication 121, as structuring experience I 0 bodylanguage 142 compared with roles development of 142, 143, 144 Locke's account of ofart 9-10 written 143 see also communication; signals; symbols learning 74, 130, , 156 and teaching 145-6,!57 as intentional/non-intentional 130, 137 by experience 138, 139 cognitive 137 contrasted with development direct and indirect 140,!57 in animals 136-7, 144 kinds of! earning 137 man's learning ability 136 see also development learning robots I 09 Leonardo 153 Locke, John ix, 47,56 Locke's realism 13, 15 Lockeanview 3,4,5,11-14 compared with Gombrich view ofperception 176 man, see persons market mechanism 23, 24 and distribution of education 51 and distribution of income 24 inapplicable to justice 26 marriage: commitment to 116 rolesin trust in 102 medicine 4, 18 method of doubt 147 Mill,J. S. 28, 38 mind: Descartes' view of 148 Locke's view of see also persons monkeys 143, 144,171

10 202 moral agents moral community moral sense 27, 28, 29 Morris, D. 142 natural harmony of interests 24, 25 Neill, A. S. 46 New Testament 56 Nightingale, Florence 107 Oakeshott, M. 32 objectivity: in Gombrich's view 16 social 106 in the strong, Lockean sense 15 O'Connor, D.J. 2 overall purpose ix, 42, 160 see also professional purpose pain, see pleasure and pain painting 3 as a practical activity 17 history of 7 innovationin 7,8,9 Pasteur, Louis 153 patients 18, Ill payment 52 pedagogy 70 person: becoming a idealconceptofa 166,187 learning to be a 166, 188 philosophical account of 166 summary of concept of a 181 personal vision 3, 7, 13-14,20,21, 41,43 persons: andmencontrasted 188,191 as agents 80, 171 as aware of their beliefs and actions 81-2, 171 as co-operating 22 as having a conception ofthe physical world as having a conception of the social world as occupying roles as possessing a conceptual scheme Index 168 as possessing a spatia-temporal point of view as possessing the concept of a person 168, 171 as pursuing purposes 35 as rational individualists 19, 167 as responsible for their actions 80-4 as rivals 22 as self-interested 19, 25 as spatia-temporally located 169 as subjects of respect 189, 190 as the sum of their roles 119 by courtesy of others 191 Descartes' view of 189 relations between 23 uneducated 191 Peters, R. S. 2 philosophy, scope of 1 philosophy of education: a philosophy of education 5, 45-7,49-50, 165 philosophical foundation 3, progressive 48-9 radical 49 recent history of 2 the philosophy of education 1, 5, 46-7 traditional 47-8 physical objects: as independent of our perception ofthem 169 as spatia-temporally extended 168 Piestalozzi,J. A. 49 Plato 22, 47, 56, 174 pleasure and pain 19, 20 Popper, Sir Karl 153 practical principles: a priori 32, 36-7, 52, 56, 77 as abstracted from practice 35-6,37 as God's law for man 29 as guides to conduct 25, 36 as moral principles 31 as principles of prudence 31

11 Index practical principles-continued as social principles 31-2 desire to act on principles 28-9 knowledge of principles 27-8 the need for principles 24-6, 30, 32 principal 55 principle of utility 28, 37 profession: and the community 60-2 autonomy 60 ethosof 59 professional ideal of service 56-7 professional knowledge and skill 52 payment 52 recognition responsibility as agent 53-4 responsibility for purpose 54-7 responsible person 54 unityof 57-9 see also teaching as a profession professional detachment 112 professional purpose 55, 58, 59, 61, 58,92 pupils 4, 5, 109, 111, 112, 127 see also children rational individualist, see persons reality 13, 15 as a social construction physical 58 social 58 reason: means-end view of 19, 28, 30, 37-8 see also moral sense reciprocal self-awareness 58, 84, 106,151,173,175 relativism, as consistent with objectivity 16 responsibility: a responsible person 54 and trust I 00 as agent 53-4,80-4, 86 for purpose 51,54-6 social 54,81-4,86, Robinson Crusoe 147,167,172, 173, 179 roles: and social relations as having a function 107 as objective as related to each other 108 beneficiaries of 1 09 changing 116 conflict between 113 defined expression of personality in importance of 104 inplays 110,ll8-19 occupants of 105, Ill reality of 106 rights and duties of teacher's 117 Rousseau,J.J. 49 Royal Societies 152 rugs, made from a traditional design 21 Sapir, Edward 10 Sartre,J. P. 117 Scheffler, I. 2 schools 75, 95, 103, 105, 108 science ofbehaviour 73 science of society 31 scientific enquiry moving frontier of scientific knowledge 155 scientific discoveries social nature of seeing: according to a way of seeing 8, 13, as a source ofknowledge 16 as passive 12, 16 contrasted with acting 17 self-awareness 58,82 see also reciprocal self-awareness self-identity 104 Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Sartre's waiter 117 self-interest 30, 57

12 204 self-knowledge 96-7 Shelley, Mary 152 signals 142, 143 skills and techniques 9, l 7, 18 as neutral instruments 18, 39 as not neutral instruments 33 as shared 33 see also knowledge and skills social entities: as accountable 94-6 as being for a purpose 95 reality of l 05 social group 58 social identity 61, 184 social order 23 as open to criticism 31, 33 see also economic order social phenomena 46, 50, 58 scientific knowledge as a 152 social places l 09, Ill persons located in Ill social practices 3, 4 and social principles 35 directed towards others 4 overall point (or purpose) of 42-3, 159, 160 social standards 83-4, for the use of symbols 180 moral standards 174 see also group habits social tradition 3, 12, 13, 16,61 African 40 and the curriculum 77 as guiding behaviour 33 conservative 21-2, 34 critical 21-2, 34, criticised from within 41-3; rational criticism 36, 42 criticised from without 39-40; on Lockean view 39-40; on Gombrich view 40 criticised on grounds of efficiency 37-9 European 40 of scientific enquiry teaching as a critical 68-9, 77 tribalist 34 socialisation 162-5, 181 and education 183 see also education Index Socrates 18 soldiers ll5, 117, 121 spatio-temporal point of view 169 Steiner, R. 49 Stoppard, T. 118 style, the riddle of 7 syllabus 77-8 symbols 143, impersonal standards for the use of 180 systematic enquiry, see knowledge Taddeo 8, 9 teaching 4, 74 and assessment 131 and correction 131 and education 5 as an art 72 as an enterprise 128, as a profession 51, 52-67, 77 as a science 72-4 as a social practice 3, 4, 127, 159 as organised bureaucratically 50-2, 56, 67, 77 as synonymous with education 160 compared with gardening 129 content of teaching 74-6, 126 Hirst's two necessary conditions 130 is teaching a profession? 62-4 overall purpose 160, 163, 165 personal demands of 114 should teaching be a profession? 64-7 teacher-pupil model 4, 5, 51, teacher-teacher model 4, 5 teacher training 68-9, 73, 74 teaching method 126, 127,145, 146 technology of technology 70-4 medical 70, 71 religious 71-2 teaching 69-74

13 Index telling, see communication theory of education 68-9 trust in God 102 risk involved l02 Turner,J. M. 41 Updyke,J. ll6 values: as objective 27, 163 as shared 35,50, 128,163 personal and social professional 61 Sartre's view of ll7 social 61-2 Verne, J. 152 Waismann, Frederick lo Watson and Crick 153 ways of seeing 8, 9 and language 9 -l 0 and waysofdoing as shared 8, ll, 33,41 as social construction Wittgenstein, L