Joseph Keola Donaghy. A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy University of Otago, Dunedin New Zealand

Transcription

1 The Language Is the Music: Perceptions of Authority and Authenticity in Hawaiian Language Composition And Vocal Performance Joseph Keola Donaghy A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy University of Otago, Dunedin New Zealand

2 ii Abstract This thesis presents the results of an ethnographic inquiry into haku mele (Hawaiian language composition) and modern Hawaiian vocal performance practice. It hypothesises that there are elements and characteristics in Hawaiian language compositions and vocal performance that are valued above others by composers, performers and audiences today, and that certain individuals are viewed as authorities in Hawaiian language composition and vocal performance. This research was conducted by engaging seventeen practitioners of haku mele and performers who sing in the Hawaiian language in k!k"k!k" (discussion) and an examination of recorded mele (Hawaiian poetic compositions) of their choosing. Using a dialogic rather than interrogative approach, we identify and discuss those elements and characteristics of Hawaiian language compositional and vocal performance practices that are perceived to be authentic, and those individuals perceived to be authorities in these fields. I argue that these perceptions are influenced by older mele and vocal performances that become models by which listeners compare contemporary compositions and performances. This model historically constructed, individually experienced and expressed, and socially maintained directly influences the continued development of Hawaiian language composition and vocal performance today. I will examine and discuss the role of the individual, Hawaiian conceptualization and perception, the use of language in compositions, and finally, the vocalisation of mele by using four exemplary recordings as points of entry for discussion.

3 iii Dedication This thesis is dedicated to!"lei Beniamina, Haunani Bernardino and all of the composers and performers whose art inspired this research: n" k!puna and n" haku mele of the past and today; those known to us by name and those who remain anonymous.

4 iv Acknowledgements This thesis would not have been possible without the support, encouragement and aloha of the individuals, institutions and organisations that freely shared their knowledge, expertise and opinions. I must first thank my family, my wife Marie Elena, son Palani and daughter M#lia for their patience and aloha as I embarked on this journey, as they have throughout my extended pursuits in academia. I also thank my parents Joseph and June Donaghy and my siblings Robert, Kirk and June for their unconditional love and support in every endeavour that I have ever undertaken. I extend my deep mahalo and admiration to my supervisors Dan Bendrups and Henry Johnson who agreed to accept me as a graduate student, and guided me through the process of identifying and refining the subject and scope of this research. Their enthusiasm for this research and their own work ethic was a source of constant inspiration. I am also indebted to Shelley Brunt and Robert Burns for the friendship, guidance and mentoring they provided during my residence in Otago, and generously sharing their own work with me. I am also grateful to have had the chance to interact and exchange ideas with other graduate students at the University of Otago, including Oli Wilson, Tia Solomona, Farina Miyazawa-Lim, Daniel Milosavljevic, and Holly Fleck. I am also grateful to Alan Davison, Dorothy Duthie and Mary-Jane Campbell in the music department for their assistance and administrative support during my time at Otago, and the Leoni wh"nau who treated my family and I like ohana during our time in Aotearoa. My journey into higher education and the course that I took would not have begun had it not been for the inspiration of individuals who comprise the four corners of the kahua (foundation) upon which everything else I ve learned about the Hawaiian language and culture has been built: H$k%lani Holt, K&!ope Raymond,

5 v Frank Kawaikapuokalani Hewett and Keali!i Reichel. Mahalo piha i" #oukou p"kahi me ke aloha palena #ole. Every individual I have studied and worked with at Ka Haka!Ula o Ke!elik$lani College of Hawaiian Language has profoundly influenced my life and this research. The mahalo and aloha I feel for them cannot be adequately expressed in words they have and will continue to be as much #ohana as they are colleagues: Keiki Kawai!ae!a, Kalena Silva, Larry Kimura, Pila Wilson, Kauanoe Kaman#, Haunani Bernardino, Hiapo Perreira, Kale Langlas, Iota Cabral, Kaliko Beamer- Trapp, Kainani Kahaunaele, Keoni Kelekolio, Makalapua Alencastre, Alohalani Housman, Ku!ulei Kepa!a, Kaulana Dameg, M#healani Kobashigawa, Kamuela Miller, Liko Puha, Keao NeSmith, Lokahi Antonio and Kapulani Antonio. I gratefully acknowledge those scholars whose feedback and continuous engagement with my work has been invaluable: Puakea Nogelmeier, John Charlot, and Albert Schütz at the University of Hawai!i at M#noa, Amy Ku!uleialoha Stillman at the University of Michigan, Manulani Meyer at the University of Hawai i at Hilo, and Suzanne Romaine of Oxford University, also an adjunct faculty at the University of Hawai!i at Hilo. I must thank my hoa k!k"k!k" who freely shared their knowledge and opinions. I thank Mahi Beamer,!"leialoha Beniamina, K&hei De Silva, Hailama Farden, Kainani Kahaunaele, Dennis Kamakahi, Larry Kimura, Ku!uipo Kumukahi, Aaron Mahi, K&hei N#hale-a, Puakea Nogelmeier, Pueo Pata, K&!ope Raymond, Keali!i Reichel, Aaron J. Sal#, Kalena Silva, and Taup$uri Tangar$. I pray that this research honours and does justice to their contributions, and accept full responsibility for any misinterpretations or other shortcomings as my own.

6 Abstract... ii Dedication...iii Acknowledgements... iv List of Figures...viii List of Tables...viii Introduction... 1 Research Hypothesis...4 About The Hawaiian Language...6 Haku Mele: Hawaiian Language Composition...8 Methodology...13 Research Design Preparing For and Conducting The K%k#k%k# Sessions Analysis Chapter Arrangement and Structure...19 Chapter Outline, Scope and Limitations...20 Chapter 1: A Chronology of Language Shift in the Music of Hawai!i Pre-Contact Oli and Hula: Native Speech in Composition (Pre-1820)...25 H&meni: Decontextualization of Hawaiian Language in Composition (1820)...28 Later Mele Forms, Continuity of Hawaiian Expression (ca )...31 Hapa-Haole: Further Language Shift in Composition (ca. 1900)...33 A Near-(Language)-Death Experience (ca )...35 Hawaiian Renaissance: Reversal of Language Shift (ca. 1970)...36 Conclusion: Language in the Music of Hawai!i Today...38 Chapter 2: Literature Review and Theory Language About Music...43 Language in Music...45 Authority...48 Authenticity...55 Metaphor...64 Vocal Performance...70 Summary...74 Chapter 3: The Ethnographic Process Locating The Researcher...79 Pre-K%k#k%k# Session Preparations...82 The K%k#k%k# Sessions...83 Reflexive Practice...89 Data Analysis Process...89 The Selection of Songs and Alignment With Theory...92 Writing Process...94 Biographies...97 Mahi Beamer... 98!"lei Beniamina K&hei De Silva Hailama Farden Kainani Kahaunaele Dennis Kamakahi Larry Kimura Ku!uipo Kumukahi Aaron Mahi K&hei N#hale-a Puakea Nogelmeier Pueo Pata vi

7 K&!ope Raymond Keali!i Reichel Aaron J. Sal# Kalena Silva Taup$uri Tangar$ Chapter 4: Ke Kanaka K" Ho!okahi The Individual and Authority Introduction Transcription of Mai Lohilohi Mai!Oe Overview of Mai Lohilohi Mai!Oe Composer Biography: Lena Wai!ale!ale Machado Recognition of Cognitive Authority Native Speaker Status As Authority In Composition Elder Status As Authority Younger Speakers and Second Language Learners as Cognitive Authorities Conclusion Chapter 5: Ka No ono o Hawaiian Conceptualization and Perspective Introduction Transcription of Ku u Lei L&lia Overview of Ku!u Lei L&lia Composer Biography: Bill Ali!iloa Lincoln A Matter Of Perspective Avoiding Negative Thought Differentiating Metaphor and Kaona Identification of Metaphor Reconstruction of Metaphor Interpretation of Metaphor Conclusion Chapter 6: Haku Mele Hawaiian Language In Composition Introduction Transcription of Paniau Composer Biography: Helen Kapuailohia Desha Beamer Overview of Paniau Visual Imagery and Memory Image Specificity of Word Choice The Other Senses Present Tense, Tenseless Verbs and Noun Phrases Syntax, Grammar and Terseness Linking Devices Lists and Repetition Conclusion Chapter 7: Puana Ia Mai: Expression Through Vocal Performance Introduction Transcription of Pua!Ala Aumoe Overview of Pua!Ala Aumoe Composer Biography: Jean!"leialoha Beniamina Sung Pronunciation of Syllables and Disyllables Variation in Text and Musical Performance The Grain of the Hawaiian Singing Voice Perceptions of Performer Understanding Conclusion Conclusion Bibliography vii

8 viii List of Figures Figure 1: Rice s Model... 5 Figure 2: Kahi Mele ( A Song ) Ka Nonanona, July 6, Page Figure 3: Verse 1, Line 1 of Pua Ala Aumoe Figure 4: Verse 1, Line 2 of Pua Ala Aumoe Figure 5: Verse 1, Line 3 of Pua Ala Aumoe Figure 6: Verse 1, Line 4 of Pua Ala Aumoe Figure 7: Verse 4, Line 2 of Pua Ala Aumoe Figure 8: Verse 4, Line 3 of Pua Ala Aumoe Figure 9: Comparison of 1935 and 1962 recordings of Mai Lohilohi Mai!Oe List of Tables Table 1. Number of Entries Entered in Haku Mele Category by Year....41

9 Introduction A half-century ago, the Hawaiian language seemed destined for extinction. Transmission of the language within the family had all but disappeared, and its use as a medium of education in schools throughout Hawai!i had been illegal for over sixty years. The prospects for Hawaiian language composition and vocal performance were no brighter. While some elderly native-speaking composers and performers remained, a shrinking audience was hearing fewer new Hawaiian language compositions. Some younger performers of that time were challenged to locate accurate texts of many songs. Parents and grandparents under coercion and with honourable intentions had denied their children and grandchildren a connection to their mother tongue. As a result, the accuracy of their vocal performances and recordings were frequently questioned, if not outright criticised, by the elder generation of native speakers. By the 1970s, a cultural rebirth led to a renewed interest in the Hawaiian language, cultural practices, knowledge and beliefs, and a restoration of cultural pride. Music played a significant role in documenting this change, and was used to increase social awareness and support change in the islands. Some young composers and musicians began to seek out older texts, recordings, and consult with the aging and diminishing population of native speakers. In the fifty years that have passed, the Hawaiian language has made a small, but determined, comeback (Ho omanawanui 2005, 30). In the 1980s, the legislation that outlawed the use of Hawaiian as a medium of instruction was struck down. Since that time, a thriving immersion program, which now extends from nursery school to the doctoral level, began to reverse the decline in Hawaiian language use among the young. After two and a half decades of Hawaiian immersion education, many young people are once again transmitting the Hawaiian

10 2 language to their own children a practice that, with the exception of the Ni!ihau community, had not been seen since the first half of the 20th century. Over ten years have passed since the first students graduated from Hawaiian immersion high schools, and some have become respected haku mele 1 (composers of Hawaiian poetry) and recording artists themselves. While much progress has been made, there is still much to achieve. And while Hawaiian language composition and vocal performance has also made tremendous strides during this time, questions regarding the authenticity of these compositions and vocal performances, and the pre-eminence of the Hawaiian language in Hawaiian music, continue to dominate contemporary discourse on the subject. Efforts to revitalise the Hawaiian language are not restricted to the linguistic context, but also address aspects of Hawaiian cultural identity that are described as mauli 2. While mauli and the term culture share some characteristics, they are not synonymous. However, like culture and language, mauli and language are intertwined as language is always with us in the thought processes in which we view our world and act out our thoughts (Wilson, Kaman# 2001, 161). Even Hawaiian students who lack fluency in the Hawaiian language have expressed that by performing songs in Hawaiian they can express their ethnic identity and imagine themselves to be like their ancestors though their performances (Szego 2003, 320). A cultural affinity may also be felt by non-hawaiians because of their exposure to the language through participation in the Hawaiian immersion program 3 (Wilson, Kaman# 2006, 160) A glossary of all Hawaiian terms that are used in this thesis and their meanings can be found in Appendix C. The mauli is defined as the unique life force which is cultivated by, emanates from, and distinguishes a person who self-identifies as a Hawaiian (ʻAha Pūnana Leo, Ka Haka ʻUla O Keʻelikōlani, Ke Kulanui o Hawaiʻi ma Hilo 2009, 17). My own daughter began her education in Hawaiian immersion in 1994, and remained in immersion education until her graduation from Ke Kula ʻO Nāwahīokalaniʻōpuʻu

11 3 As a participant in the efforts to revitalise Hawaiian over the past eighteen years, I have witnessed profound changes in attitudes toward the language at many levels personal, educational, philosophical, social, and political. In these contexts and others, Hawaiian language music can function as a bridge between those who do speak Hawaiian and those who don t. Many individuals who do not speak the language do know some Hawaiian songs, particularly those that are used frequently at large gatherings, such as Ka Mele Ho omaika i (the Doxology), Hawai i Pono & (the Hawai!i state anthem), and Hawai!i Aloha. It is through the vehicle of Hawaiian music that individuals who do not speak the language will most often encounter it, be it during live performance, on the radio, television, or CDs. The performance and recording of Hawaiian music contributed significantly to the Hawaiian cultural renaissance of the 1960s and 1970s that gave birth to the modern movement to revitalise the Hawaiian language. During that era, music not only documented but also contributed to social change and pride in Hawaiian ethnic identity (Lewis 1984, 38-41). A Hawaiian cultural identity recognises a link to place, to our role in history and our own sequence in genealogy (Meyer 2003, 144). While the importance of genealogy is not unique to Hawaiian culture, what is significant is its priority in how it was shaped and how it also formulated what was worth knowing and thus carried on (Meyer 2003,143). Thus, it is imperative for composers today to critically examine their works and recognise that their compositions will become part of the musical and cultural legacy left for future generations, making them part of this genealogical continuum. School in Keaʻau, Hawaiʻi in Over the years I have encountered individuals who expressed shock when they learned that she was not of part-hawaiian ancestry, not only because of her fluency in the language but also because of her mannerisms, behaviour, and values.

12 4 Research Hypothesis This research hypothesises that there are elements and characteristics in Hawaiian language compositions and vocal performances that are valued above others by composers, performers and audiences today, and that certain individuals are viewed as authorities in Hawaiian language composition and vocal performance. It is informed by ethnographic research conversations with seventeen exemplars of Hawaiian language composition and vocal performance as well as my own experiences and involvement in the Hawai!i music industry for nearly three decades in various capacities. This research identifies and examines those elements and characteristics of Hawaiian language compositional and vocal performance practices that are perceived to authentic, how listeners use these perceptions comparatively to ascribe or deny authoritative status to composers and performers, and to ascribe or deny authentic status to new compositions, recordings and performances. Timothy Rice s proposed model for ethnomusicology (1987, 473) provides a useful framework by which these perceptions can be examined. It was inspired by Alan Merriam s prior model that involves study on three analytic levels conceptualization about music, behavior in relation to music, and music sound itself (1964, 32), and Clifford Geertz s contention that symbolic systems... are historically constructed, socially maintained and individually applied (1975, ). Rice presented his model and proposed that ethnomusicologists should study the formative processes of music and how people historically construct, socially maintain and individually create and experience music (1987, 473). Reactions to Rice s model and his critique of Merriam s earlier model were mixed. Kay Kaufman Shelemay overcame her initial reluctance to recycle Geertz s prior work, but noted, it was descriptive of the best work already emerging in ethnomusicology today as

13 5 well as a useful guideline for future inquiry (1987, 489). Anthony Seeger questioned the use of models in the discipline, believing that such modelling privileges consensus over debate and disagreement (1987, 493). Ellen Koskoff believed that Rice s explanation of Merriam s model was an over-simplification that denies the model s complexity and structural integrity, but noted its value in examining the role of the individual in music (1987, 502). While Rice s model is certainly not the only approach to examining music in cultures, it has been accepted in the field of ethnomusicology and continues to be used today (Trimillos, Pers. Comm.). Figure 1: Rice s Model This research has two primary goals. The first goal is to determine what elements and characteristics of mele influence perceptions of authority and authenticity of Hawaiian language composition and vocal performance. These include the authority of the composer, Hawaiian conceptualization and perspective as seen in the use of metaphor, language use in composition, and in vocal performance. I will examine and discuss these perceptions as expressed by seventeen composers and performers of Hawaiian language music using the formative processes of music as identified by Rice historical construction, social maintenance, and individual creation and experience (1987, 473).

14 6 The second goal of this research is to determine how these perceptions inform contemporary composers and performers in their own works and practices. To what extent is creativity and the development of an individual voice valued, as opposed to a stricter adherence to older compositional and vocal practices? Some composers and performers seek to establish their own individual voice through unmediated expression, which implies a perceived honesty, lack of pretence or lack of concern for commercial considerations. Allan Moore refers to this as first person authenticity when a composer or performer succeeds in conveying the impression that his/her utterance is one of integrity (2002, ). As Thornton argues, music is perceived as authentic when it rings true or feels real, when it has credibility and comes across as genuine (1995, 26). Performers seek this kind of authentication through the composition of original song, the reinterpretation of older song or the introduction of musical elements that are not normally heard in Hawaiian language musical performance. This research also explores the function of the social processes that influence contemporary composers of Hawaiian language poetry, such as having new compositions reviewed by more experience composers, and the influence of awards programs. All of these are indicative of the formative processes of music, and therefore, music composition and performance. About The Hawaiian Language Ka #$lelo Hawai i (the Hawaiian language) is a member of the Austronesian family of languages, and related to other languages found in Eastern Polynesia, such as those of Rapanui (Easter Island), Aotearoa (New Zealand) and Nukuhiva (The Marquesas Islands) (Hinton 2001b, 129). It was the sole language spoken in Hawai i until the arrival of the explorer Captain James Cook in 1778, and remained the primary language of government, education and society until the end of the 19 th

15 7 century. In addition to speaking only Hawaiian, the inhabitants of the archipelago may not have known of the existence of other languages (Elbert, M#hoe 1970, 19). In 1893 the Hawaiian monarchy was overthrown by a group of missionary descendants and American businessmen who were supported by the presence of U.S. Marines (Wilson 1998, ). The Hawaiian language was subsequently outlawed as a medium of education by the newly formed Republic of Hawai i in The desire to privilege some languages over others has a pragmatic function making a government s job easier but may also be motivated by a desire to exclude minority groups from power and privilege (Hinton 2001a, 39). This legislation and the subsequent coercion that was inflicted on the Hawaiian community to adopt English as the language of everyday life led to a precipitous decline in the use of the Hawaiian language (Wilson 1998, 129). By the year 2000, fewer than 500 native speakers of Hawaiian were identified in the Ni ihau community, and fewer than 200 Hawaiian-speaking elders attended an annual gathering of such individuals organised by the!ahahui!'lelo Hawai!i. The remaining speakers of Hawaiian consist largely of those who have learned Hawaiian as a second language and those individuals who have received their education in the Hawaiian immersion schools that were first established in the 1980s (Wilson, Kaman# 2001, 148). There are several #$lelo no#eau that express the importance of the Hawaiian language. Perhaps the most widely known and frequently cited is I ka #$lelo n$ ke ola; i ka #$lelo n$ ka make ( In the language there is life; in the language there is death ) (Pukui 1983, 129). While English language speakers may find solace in the English idiomatic expression that states, sticks and stones may break my bones, but words will never hurt me, it certainly does not reflect a Hawaiian perspective. The

16 8 Hawaiian language carries mana (power) the meanings had power and explained the universe (Elbert, M#hoe 1970, 19). Once vocalised, words cannot be withdrawn, and neither remorse nor apology can prevent the consequences of the initial utterance. A promise would not be offered if the speaker doubted his or her ability to fulfil the obligation that it created (Pukui, Haertig & Lee 1972, 85-86). Haku Mele: Hawaiian Language Composition #O ka hana haku mele kekahi hana ma ka pae ki#eki#e loa o ka #$lelo. Ho#ohana #ia ka #$lelo ma n" #anu#u like #ole, #o ke mele na#e ka #anu#u ko#iko#i a ki#eki#e loa. (Kimura 2002, 1) Hawaiian poetry writing is an act at the highest levels of the language. The language is used at many different levels, but Hawaiian poetry is the most important and highest level 4. Haku mele is the Hawaiian term for both the act of writing Hawaiian poetry, as well as the composer of Hawaiian poetry. Mele is the term for the poetry itself the words, meanings (both literal and metaphorical), and poetical devices used by the composer. Mele are expressions of religious devotion and personal emotion, including formal documentation of genealogy and history (Tatar 1982, 22-33). Mele can also be used to describe the vocalisation of the text, though more specific terms do exist for the performance in older chant and later singing styles. Likewise, distinctions between the text and performance style of text exist in English: a song is sung, a chant is chanted, a poem is recited (Ho omanawanui 2005, 30). Mele does not mean music, and there is no evidence of a pre-contact Hawaiian term that directly corresponds to the English concept of music (Tatar 1982, 23) 5. Hawai!i is not alone in that respect other cultures lack a term that is synonymous with the term 4 5 All translations are by the author unless otherwise noted. The term puolo was coined by the Kōmike Hua ōlelo Hou (Hawaiian Language Lexicon) in the 1990s to address this. It was derived from the Māori term puoro that has the same meaning (Kōmike Huaʻōlelo 2003, 182).

17 9 music as well (Kaemmer 1978, ; Nettl 2005, 513; Kartomi 1990, 292). However, the Hawaiian language does contain a rich lexicon of terms that relate to song texts and their performance, including terms for the subject of the mele (Elbert, M#hoe 1970, 5-6; Kamakau 1867, 1), names for the various performance styles, as well as terms for the characteristics and adornments that are heard within vocal performances (Kamakau 1867, 1). In this dissertation, the term mele refers to Hawaiian language poetry, regardless of how it is vocalised. Mary Kawena Pukui 6 documented the tradition of haku mele as practised in her home district of Ka % at the southernmost tip of Hawai i Island (Pukui 1949, ). Two important characteristics of haku mele are the use of metaphor and kaona (hidden meanings) contained within the mele (Elbert, M#hoe 1970, 17; Tatar 1982, 23). Human beings, their acts, and emotions were often guised as elements of nature, including wind, rain, birds and lei (a garland made of flower, leaf, other vegetation, shells, seeds or other materials) (Elbert, M#hoe 1970, 17). It is imperative that the haku mele exercise great care when choosing the words that will be used in a mele, as Pukui described: Poets were skilled in the use of words. Carelessness in the choice of words might result in death for the composer or the person for whom it was composed. For instance, lua means two, and it also means pit. Pit is associated with death, and is therefore a word to avoid using, or to use with caution. (1949, 247) When a composition was intended to honour an ali#i (chief or royal) or was a longer composition and intended for a special occasion, several haku mele would be given the task of composing the mele so that no inappropriate words or unintended 6 Elbert notes that Pukuiʼs family name was originally Kapūku i. The family ceased use of the ka determiner in the name before her birth. Pukui herself eschewed the use of the ʻokina (glottal stop) and kahakō (macron) when writing her own name because of their infrequent use in her youth (Elbert 1989:132). In this thesis, I defer to Pukui and spell her name as she did in her lifetime Pukui and not as it often is printed today using these orthographic devices.

18 10 meanings would be left in the composition (Tatar 1982, 23; Beckwith, Haleole 1918, 29). In pule (prayer or to pray) as well as mele, words with positive connotations were essential, and words that might offend akua (gods) or #aumakua (family deities) are to be avoided (Handy, Pukui 1958, 141). The potential consequences of haku mele were not always negative or harmful. As Pukui explained, the kaona of a chant was believed to be potent enough to bring lovers together, to mend broken homes or to break up an undesirable union (1949, 249). She related the story of a woman who, after being abandoned by her lover for another woman, composed a mele that contained several Hawaiian words that mean to bind, to make fast, to nail down securely. After the composer performed the mele several times a feeling of restlessness came over her lover and he returned to Ka!% with a strong desire to marry her (Pukui 1949, 249). Lorrin Andrews, the compiler of the first Hawaiian dictionary, characterised Hawaiian poetry as terse an observation expounded upon by Elbert and Pukui (Elbert, M#hoe 1970, 14). In practice, a composer attempts to distil a composition by using the minimal number of words required to express the composer s thoughts. The more complete grammatical structure of spoken Hawaiian is sometimes eschewed or simplified in haku mele. This preference for terseness and specificity in word choice results what I have characterised as deceptive simplicity the use of non-complex grammatical structures that do not challenge the listener s language skills on the surface, but do contain a depth of thought when the listener chooses to examine the composition more closely. Elbert and Mahoe lamented the later marginalization of the Hawaiian language in composition and musical performance: formerly there was as much interest in the words and the stories in these songs as there is, for example, in

19 11 traditional Western American folk songs. Today the melody and the beauty of the dancers, rather than the story, are of paramount interest (Elbert, M#hoe 1970, 8). Interest in and appreciation of Hawaiian language composition and performance has grown considerably since the authors made this statement in 1970, however, the quality of some recent compositions has been a point of contention due to the recognition of mele as a higher form of language. While haku mele has been practised continuously, the decline in the use of Hawaiian in the home, school, and community has affected the quality of compositions as a younger generation of predominantly second language speakers began to compose in Hawaiian (Stillman 1978, 6-7). The Honolulu City Parks and Recreation department held an annual song writing competition beginning in 1950 and which continued into the mid-1990s. Entrants into this competition included many native speakers and some of the best-known haku mele of that era John Kameaaloha Almeida, Alice N#makelua, Randy Oness, and Dorothy Kahananui (Kanahele 1977, 3). Awards for Haku Mele (best new Hawaiian language composition) and Hawaiian Language Performance (for CD releases) are presented at the annual N# H$k% Hanohano Awards in Honolulu. The awards originally known as the Nani Awards were created by radio personalities from Honolulu radio station KCCN in 1978, and winners were determined by popular vote. In 1982, the Academy became an industry association the Hawai!i Academy of Recording Arts (HARA) and the N# H$k% Hanohano Awards became a mechanism for peer recognition. The Academy chose to model itself after the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences (also known as NARAS or The Recording Academy), which produces the annual Grammy Awards. Like the Grammy Awards, voting for the winners of the N# H$k% Hanohano Awards became a privilege extended only to registered members with

20 12 recording credits (Board of Governors, Hawai i Academy of Recording Arts 2010a, 2). While ostensibly established to support all genres of music and to promote all aspects of the recording industry in Hawai i, HARA has long recognised the significance of Hawaiian music by creating and maintaining specific categories for Hawaiian music nearly 25 years before the establishment of a separate Grammy Award for Hawaiian music 7 (Board of Governors, The Hawai i Academy of Recording Arts 2010b, 1). The creation and adjudication of specific awards for Haku Mele and Hawaiian Performance are examples of the academy s support of the Hawaiian language, and its role in the social maintenance of the haku mele and Hawaiian language vocal performance traditions. A panel of individuals considered by the academy s board to be experts in Hawaiian language and haku mele selects the winners of both of these awards, and the general membership of HARA does not vote in these categories. The judges in these categories are almost exclusively secondlanguage speakers of Hawaiian, although the committee strives to include at least one native speaker in the judging (Farden 2008). While the adjudication of these awards is intended to mitigate the influences of personal and professional relationships in the voting process, the selection of some winners in the Haku Mele and Hawaiian Language Performance categories has been controversial, and the appropriateness of some selections a subject of debate among composers, performers, and within the Hawaiian music and language communities. While an examination of the winners of these awards and interviews with the winners, entries, and judges would be a worthwhile subject for further research, it is beyond 7 The Grammy Award for Best Hawaiian Album was first presented in 2004, and the final award was presented in NARAS consolidated Hawaiian, Native American, Cajun, Zydeco and other genres into a single Regional Roots award in 2011.

21 13 the scope of this thesis. When a composer or performer is cited in this thesis as the winner of one of these awards, it is simply an acknowledgement of the honour bestowed upon them by HARA and the specific committee that chose the winner in that particular year. No comparison of these selections will be made in regards to other winners of this award or other entries submitted in that particular year. Methodology This research was conducted using an ethnographic method that emphasised the peer-to-peer relationships between the participants and myself. The individuals who participated in this research resided on four of the seven populated islands in Hawai!i, and I believed that face-to-face conversations and listening sessions with these individuals would be more effective than the use of technology-mediated methods such as phone, video conferencing or . Only five of the participants in this research live on Hawai!i Island, where I also reside. The others reside on the islands of O ahu, Maui and Kaua i, necessitating my use of air travel and rental cars to conduct this research. The transmission of knowledge in pre-contact Hawaiian culture was based on a model of observation and imitation, and aspects of this model remain in use today (Charlot 2005, 185). I have personally noted that individuals with strong backgrounds in Hawaiian culture and language frown upon being asked direct questions, and that such behaviour is considered maha oi (impertinent or rude). As I learned haku mele from my teachers and colleagues at Ka Haka!Ula O Ke elik$lani College of Hawaiian Language and from other individuals, I observed how much more productive our conversations were when I brought a composition or even a few lines of poetry that we could discuss. Meetings in which I would simply ask questions or in which we would simply discuss the process or elements of Hawaiian song

22 14 composition in an abstract manner have proved less productive. Therefore, the purpose of this approach was to explore the practices of haku mele and Hawaiian vocal performance by placing them in local frames of awareness (Geertz 1983, 6). Rather than questioning my hoa k!k"k!k" on the various aspects and characteristics of haku mele and vocal performance in an abstract manner, I requested that each of the participants in this research select songs and recordings that in their opinions represented Hawaiian language composition and vocal performance at their highest levels. Once they selected songs that met these criteria, we would listen to them together, and discuss the elements that we saw and heard in the composition and vocal performance identifying those elements that were responsible for the selection of those songs and recordings. Once identified, discussion of the valued characteristics of these elements could flow freely. As a practitioner of haku mele and Hawaiian vocal performance who is also fluent in the Hawaiian language, I chose to use a conversational rather than interrogative approach to this research that acknowledged the peer-to-peer relationship between myself and what I will identify as my hoa k!k"k!k" (conversation partners). As I designed this research, I identified the Talanoa research methodology that is based on an epistemology of Pacific peoples, is dialogic in nature, and found it to be adaptable to this research. Talanoa places an emphasis on the relationship between the researcher and participant in order to remove the distance between them (Vaioleti 2006, 25). Rather than simply extracting information from my hoa k!k"k!k" by posing a series of precomposed questions, we would both participate in a sharing of knowledge framed around the songs and recordings that they selected. As in Talanoa, our conversation on any particular topic would last as long as either of us felt there was anything significant to discuss. The use of the Talanoa methodology

23 15 required me to partake deeply in the research experience rather than stand back and analyze and in a manner that was flexible and open to adaptation and compromise (Vaioleti 2006, 24-25). Vaioleti notes that reciprocity is important to the participants in Talanoa that when knowledge is shared, it needs to be respected and honoured, and to be used well, and that developments will be followed with interest (2006, 26). In the time that has passed since the k!k"k!k" sessions, I have had numerous conversations and communications with many of the participants who were eager to learn the results of my research and how their knowledge was used. While I conducted the conversations with these individuals in a dialogic manner, I do not claim to be on equal standing with any of them as a haku mele. I consider some of them to be among Hawai!i s finest living haku mele, and make no claims for that status myself. The desired outcome of this approach was to remove the distance and obstacles between myself and the participants in this research an approach that is also consistent with the Talanoa research methodology (Vaioleti 2006, 25). In this endeavour I believe that the desired outcome was achieved. Research Design This research was designed as a cross-sectional study during which I engaged in dialogs with seventeen composers and performers of Hawaiian language music. In selecting potential participants, I took into consideration and attempted to achieve a balance with respect to the following factors, a. Age b. Gender c. Hawaiian proficiency c. Ancestry

24 16 Composers and performers who are active in the Hawai i recording industry range in age from late-teens to those who are 90 years old or more. Participants in this research included composers and performers whose ages ranged from 31 to 71. When examined by decade, one individual was born in the 1930s, two in the 1940s, six in the 1950s, three in the 1960s, and five in the 1970s. Three of the seventeen hoa k!k"k!k" were female (18%), and fourteen male (82%). While I attempted achieve a greater balance in the ratio of males and females, several prominent female haku mele I contacted were unavailable to participate in this research because of scheduling conflicts, health issues or other reasons. Of the 34 individuals awarded or co-awarded the Haku Mele award at the N# H$k% Hanohano Awards, 20 (59%) were male, and 14 (41%) were female (Board of Governors, Hawai i Academy of Recording Arts 2010b, 2). Fifteen of the participants in this research possessed conversational Hawaiian language ability that ranged from basic to highly fluent. Only a single individual,!"lei Beniamina, was a native speaker of Hawaiian. While I would have preferred to include a higher number of native speakers, very few are actively composing and having their compositions recorded. It should be noted that Beniamina was the most noted and honoured of native speaking composers, and the only living speaker whose composition was selected by other participants in this research. As the focus of this research is Hawaiian language composition and vocal performance, my preference was to select individuals who were conversant in the Hawaiian language, however, two individuals who are not completely conversant in Hawaiian were selected because of the high regard with which their performances are held and the unique and informed insights that they could provide. The participants in this research include

25 17 fifteen composers of Native Hawaiian or part-hawaiian ancestry and two who are not of Hawaiian ancestry. Preparing For and Conducting The Kūkākūkā Sessions Prior to the k!k"k!k" session, I collected as much personal information as possible regarding my hoa k!k"k!k". I also familiarized myself with their body of work, including compositions and recordings, and attempted to locate any published interviews with them. Prior to meeting with them, I requested that they each select three to five songs in the Hawaiian language that they believe exemplify Hawaiian language composition and/or performance that we could discuss. They were given the option of providing the recordings themselves, or asking me to locate the recordings prior to the listening and k!k"k!k" session. Despite this request, some neglected to identify specific songs or notify me in advance for our discussion. In these cases, I brought with me as many recordings as I could manage to digitise on my computer and that I felt the hoa k!k"k!k" might bring up. These included as many recordings as I could locate of the songs that the hoa k!k"k!k" had composed or recorded. In each of these cases, we were able to identify and listen to recordings that the hoa k!k"k!k" believed were excellent examples of Hawaiian performance and/or composition. Our meeting location was determined by mutual agreement, with the convenience of my hoa k!k"k!k" as my primary concern. The second consideration was identifying a location which was sufficiently quiet and where the potential for interruptions would be minimized. The hoa k!k"k!k" would be asked to select the language in which the interview would be conducted Hawaiian or English. I would record each k!k"k!k" session using a Sony digital audio recorder. Each session began with the introduction of the first song selected by the hoa k!k"k!k". I would ask for his or her recollections of the mele, recording and artist,

26 18 why they chose each particular recording, and what elements of the recording they consider to be exemplary. I would then play the recording, notating any verbal or nonverbal cues that may have indicated the presence of a significant compositional or vocal performance event in the recording. After the recording had completed, we would discuss the recording and their recollections of earlier listenings or experiences. If any verbal or non-verbal cues were given during the listening session such as a smile, frown, nodding of the head or other bodily gesture I would notate my observation and ask what he or she heard that caused the reaction. I did compose several general questions regarding Hawaiian language composition and vocal performance that could have been utilized, when necessary, to move discussion to these subjects, or if the hoa k!k"k!k" did not bring up these points, however, they were infrequently used and I was generally able to allow the hoa k!k"k!k" s thoughts and recollection determine the course of discussion. I would repeat this process for the other selected songs, and asked each hoa k!k"k!k" for any final thoughts regarding our experience. At the earliest opportunity after completing the k!k"k!k" session, I would compose a reflection essay in which I documented my feelings, observations and any pertinent information that came to mind during or after the conversation. Upon my return to Hawai!i Island, I would copy the digital audio files from the portable recorder to my computer, transcribe the interviews, and, if the interview was conducted in Hawaiian, translate it into English. These transcriptions and translations of all k!k"k!k" sessions are included in Appendix A. Analysis Once transcription and translation (when necessary) were completed, I would examine each document and begin to search for themes and tropes within the

27 19 discussion, and divide them into two primary categories those that were related to composition and those that related to vocal performance. Later, I would examine these themes and tropes and divide them into more specific categories that could be aligned with the theories and concepts I had determined in advance authority and authenticity. Chapter Arrangement and Structure This thesis posits that there are individuals who are perceived to be authorities in Hawaiian language composition, and elements and characteristics in Hawaiian language composition and vocal performance that are perceived as being authentic. In order to identify these elements and characteristics, I conducted seventeen k!k"k!k" sessions with composers and performers of Hawaiian language mele between July, 2008 and June, The presentation and analysis of the contents of the k!k"k!k" sessions will be found in Chapters 4 through 7. These chapters are organised thematically, not by the theoretical constructs of authority and authenticity, as these constructs will be found in all chapters. They are ordered in a manner that begins internally with the individual and his or her experiences (Chapter 4), internal conceptualization (Chapter 5), and then moves outwardly to expression of language in composition (Chapter 6) and vocal performance (Chapter 7). The organisation of each analysis chapter in this thesis is highly systematic. The reader will find that each opens with a brief introduction that contains an overview of the composition and recording that was selected to provide a focus and entry point for discussion of the topics to be examined in that chapter. This is followed by a transcription of the recorded musical performance, a description of the composition and performance, and a biography of the composer. Only a descriptive transcription of the lead vocal performance is included, however, I have included

28 20 prescriptive chord notation above the staff so that the reader can see the general harmonic context of the song. The description of the recording will include notable characteristics of the vocal performance, metric structure, key, melodic and harmonic characteristics, instrumental accompaniment, an overview of the song text and subject matter, and a brief discussion of the how the recording is representative or not representative of the Hawaiian music of its era. Finally, I will examine the specific topics discussed by the participants in this research as they relate to the theme of that chapter and the theoretical constructs to which they are aligned 8. While a single composition was selected as an entry point for discussion of the topics, each chapter includes discussion of these themes as they pertained to other compositions selected by the participants in this research. More specific information regarding the remaining and theme-specific content of the four analysis chapters will be found in the next section. Chapter Outline, Scope and Limitations Chapter 1 contains a chronology of language shift in the music of Hawai!i since the arrival of westerners in Such a chronology and discussion of the issues and events that led to this language shift is necessary in order to appreciate the contemporary issues involved in discourse surrounding modern Hawaiian language composition and vocal performance that will be examined in this dissertation. Chapter 2 provides the overall theoretical framework of the thesis, including a literature review of the theoretical concepts that are applied within authority and authenticity. It also includes a review of the literature that examines metaphor theory, as the use of metaphor is critical to understanding its use in haku mele and the 8 The reason for selecting a single song as the entry point for discussion of the theme of each chapter is discussed in depth in the "Methodology section of the Introduction.

29 21 manifestation of Hawai!i conceptualization and perspective in composition. Finally, it includes a review of the literature that discusses vocal performance. Chapter 3 describes the ethnographic process that was undertaken in the course of this research. This chapter describes the process of identifying participants and other preparations that were required to undertake this research, and locates the author as a practitioner of haku mele within a broader community of living practitioners. It also describes the preparation and process of conducting the k!k"k!k" sessions, and describes the data analysis and writing processes. Finally, it includes biographies of all of the participants in this research as well as reflexive and ethnographic notes of significant elements that occurred during the k!k"k!k" sessions. In Chapter 4, I will use Lena Machado s composition Mai Lohilohi Mai!Oe as a point of entry for discussion. I will examine the individual s role in Hawaiian composition and vocal performance, and how perceptions of authenticity, native speaker and elder status and recognition of individuals as cognitive authorities influenced the selections made by the participants in this research. In Chapter 5, I will use Bill Ali!iloa Lincoln s composition and recording Ku!u Lei L&lia as a point of entry to my examination of Hawaiian conceptualization and perspective. I will discuss how the use of words with negative connotations is avoided, and the use of metaphor and kaona in Hawaiian compositions reflect a Hawaiian world-view. In Chapter 6, I will use Helen Desha Beamer s composition Paniau as a point of entry to my examination of language use in Hawaiian composition. I will examine the visual nature of the language used in compositions, word choice, grammar and Hawaiian poetic devices such as linking and lists. In Chapter 7, I will use!"lei Beniamina s composition Pua!Ala Aumoe as a point of entry to my examination of the vocal performance. I will discuss performative variation, the disyllabification of some vowel groupings in sung