The Place and Application of Music Education Research in Kenya

Transcription

1 The Place and Application of Music Education Research in Kenya By CLENIECE MBECHE OWINO, Kenyatta University& EMILY ACHIENG AKUNO, The Technical University of Kenya Introduction - The Role and Place of Music in Education and Society History shows that no human culture appears to be without music. In most cultures music serves several functions other than entertainment and aesthetic expression of individuals (Hallam, 2001). In African societies music is an integral part of the life of an African. Nketia (1975) observes that in traditional African societies, musical life is cultivated and promoted through people participating actively in a group rather than through the creation of special music institutions. Bebey (1975) describes music as an integral part of African life from the cradle to the grave. In all the stages of an African s life, there is music to accompany each transition and in the day to day activities like planting, harvesting, and indeed in every sphere of the life of an individual (Zake, 1986). Since time immemorial, music has been regarded as necessary for human existence. Among the ancient Greeks and during the Renaissance and Baroque periods, basic knowledge of music was expected as part of the total human socialisation. Each society embraces its own music because they believe that it improves the quality of life. Abeles, Hoffer, and Klotman (1994:67) describe the breadth and depth of humankind s interest in music: All over the world, people spend countless hours listening to music and performing it, and they spend vast amounts of money for instruments, recordings and sound reproducing equipment. People dance, sing lullabies and create new tunes in just about every part of the globe. The role of music in education cannot be overemphasised; several authors have espoused the need for music in education, arguing that it makes a positive contribution to the development of the individual who engages in it (Hoskyns 1996; Durrant and Welch 1995; Swanwick and Taylor 1982; Elliot 1995 and Leonhard and House 1952). For the growth of any profession, research needs to be done, and so it is key to progress in music and music education, as Barone and Eisner (2006:96) state: The ultimate goal of doing Arts based Educational Research (ABER) is the betterment of educational policy and practice..it is not aimed toward a quest for certainty but an enhancement of perspectives. Arts-based researchers aim to suggest new ways of viewing educational phenomena. It broadens and deepens on-going conversation about educational policy and practice by calling attention to seemingly common sensical, taken-for-granted notions. The implication of this statement is that research in the arts should lead to a corresponding change in strategies and practices that lead to better learning outcomes. In Kenya, there are lots of researches that have been carried out in institutions of higher learning. These are carried 1

2 out mainly by arts educators who think and write analytically and reflectively on a wide range of topics. Other researches are carried out by post graduate students as part of the requirements for obtaining a Masters or a Doctoral degree in Music. The topics that have been interrogated are summarised below in four broad categories. Types of Research in Music Music Education The meaning of music education has been categorised into four areas by Elliot (1995) as: a) Education in music which involves teaching and learning of music making and music listening; b) Education about music which involves teaching and learning formal knowledge about music making, music listening, music history and music theory; c) Education for music which may be taken in two ways; either teaching and learning as preparation for beginning to study music or preparation for a career as a performer, composer, historian, critic researcher or teacher; and d) Education by means of music which overlaps with the first three. These paradigms highlight a number of ways in which music permeates the everyday life of an individual especially in a learning environment. Researchers have concentrated heavily on learning institutions, starting from pre-school to the university. The researchers concern has been the quality of teaching and learning in the institutions. In researches carried out in preschools, the researchers have interrogated various ways in which multicultural music can be used to impart knowledge right from a tender age (Andang o, 2009). They have recommended various ways by which pedagogy and musical experiences in early childhood can be synchronized to give the children wholesome education. In their findings, they have highlighted major challenges in pre-school education, effects of types of genres preferred by learners and different strategies for enhancing access to music education. Few researchers have looked at music education in the primary schools. This could be attributed to the fact that music, having been introduced in the Kenyan curriculum in 1985, was dropped several years later. The reasons cited were that the curriculum was overloaded. The researches based on music education in primary schools reveal a need to train teachers, especially at the teacher training institutions where those interested in teaching music could be prepared adequately, and to use resources and methodologies that provide cultural relevance to learners (Akuno, 1997). The scarcity of resources in the provision of quality music education has also been echoed by researchers interrogating various aspects of music in secondary school and teacher education (Digolo, 1997; Monte, 2009; Mwangi, 2000; Njui, 1989). Apart from inadequate resources, they have articulated the need for quality pre-service and in-service teacher training 2

3 which will then impart pre-requisite skills needed for one to teach effectively. Others have suggested resources that can be used in teaching music like folk songs and other types of local music that is readily available instead of relying heavily on western music resources (Akuno, 1997; Mushira, 2010; Mbeche, 2010). Researches focusing on students, who are the recipients of music knowledge and skills have also been carried out with an aim of finding out how learning outcomes can be improved by providing students with adequate resources and appropriate training (Andang o, 2000; Kahindi, 2000; Mushira, 2000 and Mbeche, 2010). There has also been an interest in students studying music at the university, their attitudes, performance and expectations. Researches carried out establish a link between psychology and music (Andang o, 2000). However, one factor that has been noted is that a majority of the researches done in music education have had a focus on secondary schools. This could be due to the fact that music, though expected to be taught at primary school, is no longer examinable, and may not receive as much attention as hoped for. Composition and Performance in African and Western Music Music as an expressive art involves performance using various media. Researches carried out in this area focus on performance practice, composition and arrangement of various kinds and pieces of music. The researchers comment on how various music elements have been applied in the compositions, and the need for musically educated composers who are sensitive to both western and African musical ideas and how to use them appropriately (Musungu, 1999; 2010; Obaga, 2004). Different musical styles styles or genres, like zilizopendwa 1 (Otoyo, 2010), Kenyan Hip Hop (Mugambi, 2001; Amateshe, 2012) and other kinds of popular music have been highlighted and their use in a classroom setting has been suggested (Ondieki, 2010). Male and female traditional composers have been studied and recommendations made regarding their perceived roles and expectations (See PPMC publication Bibliography of Kenyan Musicians). Twentieth century Western music, inspired and driven by African music, has captivated global audiences and has found a new attraction and admiration by Kenyan artists. Music traditions from different groups and communities have been studied and analysed which has led to documenting and archiving of various music traditions (Nyakiti, 2004). Music and Technology The role of technology in contemporary societies cannot be ignored. Researchers have interrogated the use of digital technology, specifically computers in promoting access to music education in schools (Achola, 2007). Recommendations made include introducing a course in music technology in higher education institutions and training teachers so they can develop competence in computer and other technological skills. Studies in e-learning for enhancing 1 Zilizopendwa is Kiswahili word that means literally those that were loved and refers to old classics, music that have remained relevant and enjoyed despite the passage of time. 3

4 access to music education has also been evaluated and discussions noted on how this learning tool can be used to disseminate musical knowledge. In summary, there is a lot of research that has been conducted, both by art practitioners, educators and researchers in the area of music. Many recommendations have been made which, if implemented by relevant entities, can lead to an improvement in the quality of life of the individuals who engage with music at different levels and in different spaces. Dissemination of Music Research Output and Application of Findings An important part of carrying out and publishing research is to make recommendations based on the findings. These recommendations are supposed to be implemented in order to improve, modify or change the issues under investigation. The knowledge generated has been disseminated and/or applied in the following areas of engagement: 1. Music Education One of the general recommendations made is the serious need for provision of resources and training for both pre-service and in service teachers. The idea of training in-service teachers for a higher qualification was adapted several years ago by Kenyatta University, among others, who started a school-based programme for teachers who want to further their education. These teachers go to universities and take up various courses towards a qualification in education. In the area of music, they are given music skills and knowledge to enable them to develop competence in music teaching. In line with the universities requirement to review the curriculum at regular intervals, new courses and course content like music technology have been introduced and, in many schools, computers are now available for students to use during lessons. 2. Communication Media and Advertising Music is a very important tool of communication, expression and advertising. This aspect has been utilised by the media and the advertising agencies. Its power to communicate deep and hidden meaning through use of the voice, symbols and expressions, has fascinated researchers who try and unravel the mystery of its powers. A significant percentage of media programming includes music. The types of music played to accompany images and commentaries influence the public s perceptions and attitudes. In Kenya, a large percentage of music aired from public and private broadcasting media houses is non-kenyan. The print media seem to pay a lot of attention to international music and artists, though this is changing. The commercials and advertisements used to market local products use music thus contribute substantially to the growth of the local music industry including the artists and producers. The Government is committed to ensuring that the media partner with other players in the development of local music and musicians. This has been done through ensuring that commercials for local products use local talent and expertise as well as ensuring and promoting 4

5 the use of Kenyan music in public institutions, including the national airline, government offices, airports and public functions. 3. Tourism In the Tourism circuit, music promotes our culture and continues to market the country. Each of the country s forty two indigenous communities has a unique body of cultural expressions that attract international attention. These cultural expressions including music continue to give the country a unique identity. This is a special branding that only the arts can do The Tourism Industry has recognised the demand for new products. Local music and dance can play a great role in meeting this demand as tourists develop interests in musical expressions. Currently music performers in the rich tourist sites include contemporary popular and traditional music. Traditional performances exhibit a low level of professionalism. The products are not well packaged or marketed to reflect the authentic Kenyan musical forms and expressions, and the artists are subjected to exploitation by the managers in the hospitality industry. The Government is committed to the effective use of Kenyan music within the tourism industry. This has been realised through: Ensuring the use of Kenyan cultural music idioms as marks of identity(branding); Ensuring the performance of Kenyan music in the tourist circuit; Using Kenyan music to promote Kenya internationally; Developing a local music tourist infrastructure through national, regional and international music festivals and international trade and tourism fairs; Ensuring the use of Kenyan music in promotional material in the tourism and other industries. 4. National Development Agenda Provisions of the Music Policy Music is a vital tool for disseminating social marketing messages in all the areas of development as captured in the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). It is a pleasant mode of conveying serious messages that can stick in the public mind because of linking to a tune. Music is also an effective tool for social integration. Music performance involves people coming together and it creates cohesion thereby enabling the development of relationships. The music industry is an important source of employment and wealth creation. The Industry has opened up employment opportunities for people of all ages and backgrounds, further confirming music s empowering role and capacity. The employment opportunities are largely found in song writing, playing instruments, singing, dancing, retailing, promotion, recording, production, instruction, hospitality industry and religious bodies among others. Through music, substantial revenues are collected thereby adding to the national tax base. In 5

6 line with the poverty reduction strategy, the Government is committed to support, promote, and motivate professionals in the Music Industry. Women play a key role in all sectors of economy. The music industry avails equal opportunities for equal participation by both women and men. To this end the Government is committed to ensuring that both men and women participate and benefit equally in the music sector and that they receive appropriate recognition and treatment. The youth, who comprise a large percentage of the population, are a major driving force in the music industry. It is imperative that their energies and creative efforts be geared towards making music profitable and beneficial. The country s population comprises persons with diverse abilities. Participation in music is a right that each and every Kenyan ought to enjoy. The Government is committed to ensuring that persons with special needs actively participate in the music sector through provision of equal opportunities in education, performance and employment. Prevailing Arts Education Conditions Looking back into the history of Kenya, the Ominde Report (1964) recommended the use of traditional artistic resources to be used in schools as teaching and learning resources. This was in the hope that highly trained musicians could recreate traditional material in ways that could have permanent aesthetic importance for the African pupils. Prior to 1967, there were four distinct education syllabi used in Kenyan primary schools. These were; a) European b) Asian c) Arabic and d) African syllabi. All these accommodated the musics of the respective cultures and were applied to pupils from those cultural backgrounds. In 1967 the four syllabi were merged and called Primary School Syllabus. There was an attempt to introduce music as a subject in schools that were formerly African but its content was biased towards Western Music and it required teachers to use books and read music notation, a practice for which most teachers had no prior training. To counter this development, a new syllabus was drafted in 1974, the Creative Arts Project which emphasized on music literacy as well as a call for concentration on traditional music, both vocal and instrumental within the stated objectives. This confirms that there were deliberate attempts in the past to include music education in the system but the situation now is different. The prevailing arts education conditions in Kenya are grossly sub-optimal. A policy on Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) by the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (MOEST) provides a framework for training and developing skilled manpower required by the country. The TVET sector seeks to address the large number of young people graduating from secondary schools and high levels of poverty. The sector recognises the need to match training skills with actual demands of the industry and to create a deliberate link between TVET curriculum and the aspirations of Vision Despite music being significantly technical and vocational, it does not appear to have found footing in these provisions. There is failure in recognising that the music industry in Kenya is vibrant and that the Kenyan economy could be boosted significantly if investments were made by training musicians in this area. 6

7 Musanga (2014), commenting in a local newspaper, was concerned that the Kenya Music Festival was losing its appeal. This is an event organised annually by the Ministry of Education and it brings together pupils and students from all parts of the country to perform various songs and dances from different cultural communities. The writer questions the tangible benefits that the students derive from such events. Musanga (2014) notes that: The event has been reduced to an annual ritual full of glitz, pomp and glamour meant to entertain politicians, guests and senior education officials. It has become a form of holiday. But is this event a means to an end or an end in itself? After performing at the music fete what happens next to the performers? For secondary school students, the basic goal of performing, according to Abeles et al (1994) is the learning of music. The big question is whether students who participate in this festival gain any music knowledge as a result of their participation. Evidently, they do not because most of the music they perform is learnt by rote and in many schools music is not offered as a subject. What is documented in the media gives an impression that arts education is not fully supported by the government and no action has been taken to consciously support arts education in the country. It is important to note here that, since research authorization permit is granted by government, with whom research documentation must be filed, the research output is broadly available to the ministry, and this incudes arts education research. The findings and recommendations are further available in libraries of the hosting university. Despite the numerous researches on arts education that have been carried out, there really has not been a positive impact on the practice due to limited dissemination and application of the results. In the same vein, students taking a Bachelor of Education Degree at some universities are required to take music and one other teaching subject due to the requirements given by Teachers Service Commission (TSC), the government body that employs teachers, that each employee posts two teaching subjects. In the past, students would take courses in Music and Education only. This changed with the new requirement whose impact was felt significantly in This has deprived the students of adequate skills and knowledge in music that they need to become effective practitioner-educators. It is clear that those who effected the change do not understand the fundamental nature of the art of music. Conclusion Many recommendations have been made with regard to research in music education. Researchers have made suggestions on how music teaching and learning ought to be carried out, what methodologies are suitable for the same and additional and available resources that can be used, among other recommendations. These documents are housed in different places, for example in libraries, resources rooms of different departments and at the Graduate Schools of various institutions. No government agencies are mandated to apply the results of any research, least of all music research in order to develop our country. 7

8 Zakaras and Lowell (2008) have outlined the concept of supply, access and demand with regard to arts education which functions in this way: i) Supply: This is supported by artists, universities and other institutions where they are trained, performing groups, recording and publishing companies and many others who are involved in the display and dissemination of art works; ii) Access: This is supported by individuals or institutions which encourage people to engage with the arts. These include music educators at all levels, parents (who encourage and pay for their children to pursue music privately), mentors and many others; iii) Demand: This involves empowering people with skills and knowledge they require to have deep and meaningful encounters with works of art. These encounters should be rich enough to motivate them to go back for more. In Kenya there seems to be a weak link in the chain between access and demand. For one to have a deep encounter and gain that aesthetic experience, he/she needs to acquire music skills and knowledge in order to engage with music with understanding. A majority of the Kenyan population have not been empowered in this manner. There is, therefore, a need to empower people with this knowledge so they will be able to understand and appreciate and participate in a variety of musical forms as art. Perhaps this could ignite an interest in arts education, especially for decision makers who would accept and endorse the implementation of arts education research so that there can be a more positive impact of research in arts education in general. There is need to involve arts education experts and arts policy makers in discussions about arts education since these provide a means of exploring our cultural identity and also play a central role in the cultural industries where they contribute significantly to economic growth. References Abeles, H.A, Hoffer, C.F and Klotman, R.H (1984) Foundations of Music Education. New York. Macmillan Publishing Company Achola, M. D. A (2007) The Role of Technology in Music Education: a survey of computer usage in secondary schools in Nairobi Province, Kenya. Master of Music Education Thesis, Kenyatta University Akuno, E. A. (1997). The Use of Indigenous Kenyan Children s Songs for the Development of a Primary School Music Curriculum in Kenya. PhD Thesis, Kingston-Upon-Thames: Kingston University Amateshe, M (2012) Rap Music in the Hip Hop Culture among the Youth in Nairobi, Unpublished PhD Thesis, Kenyatta University Amateshe, M (2002) Music of Two Generations; A Survey of Performance Practice and Aesthetics on Selected Performers, Unpublished M.A Thesis, Kenyatta University Andang o E. A. (2009) Music in Early Childhood Education: Development of a Multi-cultural music Education programme Unpublished PhD Thesis, Nairobi: Kenyatta University Andang o, E.J.A (2000) Voice Tuition: A Study of Music Students Learning Experiences, Expectations and Performance at Kenyatta University, Unpublished M.A Thesis 8

9 Barone, T. and Eisner, E. (2006) Arts-Based Educational Research in Handbook of Complementary Methods in Education Research, Green, J.L, Camilli, G and Elmore P.B (eds.) American Educational Research Association (AERA). Washington D.C pp Bebey, F. (1975) African Music. A People s Art.Trans.J. Benner. London. Harrap Digolo, B.A.O (1997). Availability and use of teaching and learning Resources for Music Education in Kenya: A survey of secondary schools in Nairobi Province. Unpublished MA Thesis, Kenyatta University Durrant, C. and Welch, G. (1995)Making Sense of Music: Foundations For Music Education. New York. Harper Collins Publishers, Inc. Elliot, D. J. (1995) Music Matters: A New Philosophy of Musical Education. New York. Oxford University Press. Hallam, S (2001) The Power of Music: The Strength of Music s Influence in our Lives. music.co.uk Hoskyns, J.(1996) Music Education in an European Dimension in Teaching Music. Gary Spruce (Ed.), London, Routledge 11 New Fetter Lane. Leonhard C. and House R.W (1972) Foundations and Principles of Music Education.New York. McGraw Hill, Book Company. Kahindi, A. (2000) Factors Affecting Instrumental Music Tuition in Kenyan Secondary Schools, Unpublished M.A Thesis, Kenyatta University Kilonzi, L.A (1992) Dance Step and Movement, Unpublished M.A Thesis, Kenyatta University Mbeche, C.G (2010) Developing Strategies for Teaching Aural Musicianship for Secondary Schools in Kenya, Unpublished PhD Thesis, Kenyatta University Mbeche, C.G (2000) Factors Affecting Student Performance of Aurals at KCSE, Unpublished M.A Thesis Monte, P. E. (2009) Instructional Delivery in Music: The Role of teachers Competence in the Development of Learning. MME thesis, KU Mushira, E.N (2000) Factors Affecting the Instruction of Kenyan Indigenous Music: A Survey of Nairobi Secondary Schools, Unpublished M.A Thesis Mushira, E.N (2010) A Critical Analysis of Kenyan Indigenous Music Procedures: Developing the Embedded Pathway Approach Model for Interactive Learning for Secondary Schools in Kenya Mugambi, N. (2001) Rap Music made in Nairobi: How Kenyan is it? MA Project. Kenyatta University Musanga, C (2014) Kenya s Music Festival Losing its Appeal, Standard Newspaper, Tuesday, August 12 th 2014 p Musungu, G (1999) Samia Afro-Classics: A Creative Composition. Unpublished M.A Thesis, Kenyatta University Musungu, G (2010) Elements of Cross-Cultural Music Composition: The Creation of Esidialo, s Samia Marriage Suite, Unpublished PhD Thesis, UNISA Mwangi, S. (2000) Availability and Utilisation of Instructional Resources for the Teaching of Music in Selected Primary Teachers' Training Colleges in Kenya. M.Ed Thesis, Kenyatta University. Njui, H.W (1989) A Study of the Effect of Immediate Feedback on the Teaching Behaviour Patterns of Secondary School Music Teachers, Unpublished M.A Thesis Nketia, J.H.K (1975) The Music of Africa. London. Victor Gollancz Limited. Nyakiti, E. (2004) Wend Masira: an Analysis of Luo Funeral Songs' MA Thesis, Kenyatta University. Obaga, A. O. (2004) Musical Composition: Merger of Indigenous Abagusii and Western Musical Idioms. Unpublished MA Thesis. Kenyatta University. Ominde (1964) Kenya Education Commission Report. Otoyo, D (2010) An Analysis of Zililzopendwa for the Development of Instructional materials for Music Education, Unpublished PhD Thesis, Kenyatta University Swanwick, K. and Taylor, D. (1982) Discovering Music: Developing the Music Curriculum in Secondary Schools. London, Batsford Academic and Educational Limited. Zakaras L and Lowell, J.F (2006) Cultivating Demand for the Arts: Arts Learning, Arts Engagement and State Arts Policy. A Research commissioned by RAND (Research in the Arts) and The Wallace Foundation 9

10 Zake, G.S. (1986). Folk Music of Kenya. Nairobi: Uzima Press 10

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