COLLEGE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY School of Architecture A.A. 2016/17 ARCHITECTURAL THEORY_I THE REDISCOVERY: LEON BATTISTA ALBERTI

Transcription

1 COLLEGE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY School of Architecture A.A. 2016/17 ARCHITECTURAL THEORY_I THE REDISCOVERY: LEON BATTISTA ALBERTI Prof. Arch. Manlio MICHIELETTO PhD 1

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3 4. Schedule of Lectures 001 Syllabus + Architectural Theory 002 Toward a Classical Architecture: The order(s) of the Temple 003 The Classical Architecture: Vitruvius 004 The rediscovery: Leon Battista Alberti 005 Quattrocento: theory after Alberti 006 Vitruvian tradition in the Renaissance 3

4 007 Palladio and the North Italian Humanists 008 Francois Blondel and The French Academic Tradition 009 The Ordonnance of Claude Perrault 010 The Enlightenment: Marc-Antoine Laugier 011 The Historiography of Winckelmann 012 Jean-Nicolas Durand and Quatremère de Quincy 4

5 INDEX 1. The Renaissance 2. The Discovery 3. The Beginning 4. The Renaissance(s) 5. The End (?) 6. Leon Battista Alberti 7. De re aedificatoria : On the Art of Buillding 7.1 Prologue and Book Book Book9 8. Concinnitas

6 1. The Renaissance The term Renaissance, literally rebirth, was first used retrospectively by Giorgio Vasari ( ) an Italian artist and critic in his book The Lives of the Artists, published in 1550, in order to define what he saw as a break with the barbarities of gothic art. 6

7 1. The Renaissance Vasari had claimed that the arts had fallen into decay with the collapse of the Roman Empire and argued that it was Tuscan artists, beginning with Cimabue (fl ) and, more significantly, Giotto (fl ) who began to reverse this decline. According to Vasari antique art was pivotal to the rebirth of Italian art, both in inspiring the imitation of nature and as a model for the construction of ideal forms that could surpass the 'imperfections' of nature. 7

8 1. The Renaissance Giotto The artist who takes the biggest step away from the Medieval style of spiritual representation in painting in the early 14th century is Giotto. Giotto is perhaps best known for the frescos he painted in the Arena (or Scrovegni) Chapel. 8

9 2. The Discovery Although the Renaissance was a much broader intellectual upheaval than can be defined by any one region or humanist perspective, there are ample reasons for giving precedent to the developments of central Italy. The very word humanist (umanista) first came to be applied there to someone teaching the classical languages and literature, and more specifically to those celebrating the classical authors with their emphasis on human abilities and intellectual accomplishments. 9

10 2. The Discovery Second, the first attempts to revive an architectural language from the imperial Roman past first took place there. Therefore the traditional account of the Italian Renaissance being born in the year 1416 when the Italian Poggio Bracciolini came upon a Vitruvian manuscript in the Swiss monastery of St. Gall has a certain symbolic necessity, notwithstanding its anecdotal flavor 10

11 2. The Discovery Poggio Bracciolini and the Swiss monastery of St. Gall 11

12 2. The Discovery The legend also underscores two vitally important points of the fifteenth-century Renaissance. 1. First it was more than an Italic revival of a style on Italian soil; it was a startling revelation of a nearforgotten past. 2. Second, it was a recapturing of ideas that was seen as having momentous consequence for the reformation and reconstitution of artistic principles. 12

13 3. The Beginning The treatise of Vitruvius indeed became the cornerstone of this classical revival. If some fifteenth-century humanists, such as Leon Battista Alberti, were critical of the Roman s lack of philosophical rigor and eloquence his speech such that the Latins might think that he wanted to appear a Greek, while the Greeks would think that he babbled Latin this viewpoint altogether disappears by the second quarter of the sixteenth century, by which time a veritable cult of scholars had gathered around the words of this particular classical oracle. 13

14 3. The Beginning One interesting technological innovation furthered this process. Alberti had his manuscript of the mid-fifteenth century copied by hand with limited distribution, that is, precisely around the time that Johann Gutenberg in Strasbourg was perfecting the tools of his printing press. The proliferation of the printed word allowed the movement to take shape quickly and reverberate with intellectual developments taking place elsewhere in Europe. 14

15 3. The Beginning Johann Gutenberg and the printing machine 15

16 3. The Beginning The treatises of Vitruvius (De Architectura) andalberti (De re aedificatoria) were first printed in The first illustrated Latin edition of Vitruvius was published by Fra Giocondo in 1511, and the first Italian translation of Cesare Cesariano appeared in

17 3. The Beginning A Vitruvian Academy was founded in Rome in 1542, and seven years later the Venetian Daniel Barbaro began a new, annotated translation of Vitruvius. The great architect Palladio joined with him in preparing the illustrations, and their beautifully crafted edition of 1556 really bespeaks the highpoint of Vitruvian adulation. 17

18 3. The Beginning Meanwhile, the classical architectural tradition was greatly expanding, as it were, by an ever-widening circle of humanist architects and scholars. The treatises of Alberti, Antonio Filarete, Francesco di Giorgio, Sebastiano Serlio, Palladio, Giacomo Vignola, and Vincenzo Scamozzi were inspired if not modeled on the treatise of Vitruvius, and all attempted to interpret classical principles in a modern Italian way. 18

19 4. The Renaissance(s) From its base in Italy, Vitruvian classicism spread northward where it joined with parallel intellectual and cultural movements. Several books of Serlio s treatise first appeared in France, in fact, and the first major annotator of Vitruvius was the Frenchman Guillaume Philander, whose work was published in Rome in 1544, in Paris in the following year. The first French translation of Vitruvius by Jean Martin appeared in 1547, and within a few decades classicism had fully established itself in France through such architects as Philibert de L Orme and Jacques Androuet du Cerceau. 19

20 4. The Renaissance(s) The same is true of the German-speaking states. Walther Hermann Ryff s German translation Vitruvius Teutsch appeared in 1548, one year after he published his own treatise on classical architecture. Antwerp, then part of the Netherlands, became another important center of Vitruvian publications and classical learning. 20

21 4. The Renaissance(s) By the middle of the seventeenth century classicism has more or less insinuated itself into every corner of the Continent and Great Britain. Laurids Lauridsen de Thurah s Den Danske Vitruvius (The Danish Vitruvius, 1749), recording a built array of classical buildings in Denmark, testifies to its acceptance in the Nordic countries as well. 21

22 5. The End (?) The star of Vitruvius only began to dim first with the Mannerism of Michelangelo and then with the gathering currents of the Baroque. However one wishes to characterize this last period as the late phase of the Renaissance or an era distinct the fact remains that beyond such new concerns with geometry, movement, and plastic expressiveness lie still the vocabulary of classical motifs and many of its ideals. The spirit of antiquity, in fact, would form an important part of architectural thinking for several centuries to come. 22

23 6. Leon Battista Alberti 23

24 6. Leon Battista Alberti Alberti was not only the first great theorist of the Renaissance but he, more than anyone else in this century, personified what came to be known as humanism. He was a man of great classical erudition. Born to a Florentine father-in-exile and to a Genoese mother, he studied Greek and Latin in Padua and earned a doctor of law at the University of Bologna. He seems to have dabbled in the arts in the 1420s, and even considered a literary career before becoming a cleric or secretary, first to Cardinal Carthusian Niccolo Albergati. 24

25 6. Leon Battista Alberti In 1428 the Florentine ban against the Alberti family was lifted and Leon got to see firsthand early Renaissance works, especially those of Masaccio, Donatello, and Brunelleschi. He responded in 1435 with a treatise on painting, De pictura (on Painting), dedicated to Brunelleschi. 25

26 6. Leon Battista Alberti By this date Alberti had already traveled to Rome as a secretary to Pope Eugenius IV, where he became the first humanist to prepare a survey of the classical monuments of the city. These archaeological studies formed but a prelude to further classical studies in Rome after 1443, and it was around this time that he began his architectural treatise, in which he now sought to interpret the principles of classical Roman architecture. 26

27 6. Leon Battista Alberti Around mid-century he also turned his attention to the practice of architecture with a number of important designs, among them the church of San Francesco in Rimini ( ), the facades of the Palazzo Rucellai (1450s) and Santa Maria Novella ( ) in Florence, and the church of Sant Andrea in Mantua (begun 1470). 27

28 6. Leon Battista Alberti San Francesco in Rimini ( ) 28

29 6. Leon Battista Alberti Palazzo Rucellai (1450s) 29

30 6. Leon Battista Alberti Santa Maria Novella ( ) 30

31 6. Leon Battista Alberti Sant Andrea in Mantua (begun 1470) 31

32 6. Leon Battista Alberti Alberti possessed literary skills in addition to classical learning, and he was rather critical of the talents of Vitruvius. He disliked in particular the architect s conceptual ambiguity and, moreover, he felt that classical theory had achieved much greater heights of refinement in such writers as Cicero, whose rhetorical concepts he gladly redirected toward architectural theory. 32

33 6. Leon Battista Alberti Nevertheless, he borrowed the 10-book structure of Vitruvius and even organized his study around the three Vitruvian concepts of durability, convenience, and beauty. As the first Renaissance treatise on architecture, Alberti s effort stands alongside that of Vitruvius as one of the twin pillars of classical theory. 33

34 6. Leon Battista Alberti The first selection from the opening pages of Book 1 presents a few of the basic definitions of architecture and its general elements of practice. His definition of building as a form of body consisting of both matter and lineaments (lines, or more generally design) maps out a philosophical distinction on which his theory of beauty will reside. Matter relates to nature, but the power to wield lineaments (or make designs) resides in the architect s mind. 34

35 7.1 De re aedificatoria: On the Art of Building Prologue and Book 1 [ ] Before I go any farther, however, I should explain exactly whom I mean by an architect; for it is no carpenter that I would have you compare to the greatest exponents of other disciplines: the carpenter is but an instrument in the hands of the architect. Him I consider the architect, who by sure and wonderful reason and method, knows both how to devise through his own mind and energy, and to realize by construction, whatever can be most beautifully fitted out for the noble needs of man, by the movement of weights and the joining and massing of bodies. To do this he must have an understanding and knowledge of all the highest and most noble disciplines. This then is the architect. [ ] 35

36 7.1 De re aedificatoria: On the Art of Building Prologue and Book 1 [ ] First we observed that the building is a form of body, which like any other consists of lineaments and matter, the one the product of thought, the other of Nature; the one requiring the mind and the power of reason, the other dependent on preparation and selection; but we realized that neither on its own would suffice without the hand of the skilled workman to fashion the material according to lineaments. 36

37 7.1 De re aedificatoria: On the Art of Building Prologue and Book 1 [ ] Since buildings are set to different uses, it proved necessary to inquire whether the same type of lineaments could be used for several; we therefore distinguished the various types of buildings and noted the importance of the connection of their lines and their relationship to each other, as the principal sources of beauty; we began therefore to inquire further into the nature of beauty of what kind it should be, and what is appropriate in each case. As in all these matters faults are occasionally found, we investigated how to amend and correct them. [ ] 37

38 7.1 De re aedificatoria: On the Art of Building Prologue and Book 1 [ ] Let us therefore begin thus: the whole matter of building is composed of lineaments and structure. All the intent and purpose of lineaments lies in finding the correct, infallible way of joining and fitting together those lines and angles which define and enclose the surfaces of the building. It is the function and duty of lineaments, then, to prescribe an appropriate place, exact numbers, a proper scale, and a graceful order for whole buildings and for each of their constituent parts, so that the whole form and appearance of the building may depend on the lineaments alone. 38

39 7.1 De re aedificatoria: On the Art of Building Prologue and Book 1 [ ] Nor do lineaments have anything to do with material, but they are of such a nature that we may recognize the same lineaments in several different buildings that share one and the same form, that is, when the parts, as well as the siting and order, correspond with one another in their every line and angle. It is quite possible to project whole forms in the mind without any recourse to the material, by designating and determining a fixed orientation and conjunction for the various lines and angles. Since that is the case, let lineaments be the precise and correct outline, conceived in the mind, made up of lines and angles, and perfected in the learned intellect and imagination. [ ] 39

40 7.2 De re aedificatoria: On the Art of Building Book 6 Alberti s theory of absolute beauty is of paramount importance to Renaissance theory in that it lays an intellectual foundation that will remain largely intact for almost three centuries. The issue of beauty had been problematic for Vitruvius. On the one hand he made allusions to the harmonic ratios of Pythagorean musical theory, suggesting there was a higher cosmic order underlying the judgment of beauty. 40

41 7.2 De re aedificatoria: On the Art of Building Book 6 On the other hand he gave architects the right to vary proportions if the eye calls for corrections, or as the arts make progress. Such freedom assumes that judgments of beauty are relative and even subjective a logical inconsistency unacceptable to Alberti and Renaissance aesthetics. 41

42 7.2 De re aedificatoria: On the Art of Building Book 6 From his classical perspective, Alberti prefers the Platonic belief that there is a higher reality to the physical or phenomenal world, namely Ideas; he accepts as well the Neoplatonic argument that art and architecture can symbolize these higher Ideas through their adherence to universal mathematical laws or harmonic proportions. Beauty is thus the correct mirroring of transcendent Ideas, and as his reference to a passage of Cicero shows it is rarely found, even in nature. 42

43 7.2 De re aedificatoria: On the Art of Building Book 6 The mediating element between raw nature (materials) and the ordering lines of the architect is ornament. This term possesses a meaning for Alberti quite different than its general meaning today. It is indeed something attached or additional, but it is not inessential or something that can be dispensed with. Ornament is the correct orchestration of the lineaments of design, the judicious choice of the material, and the polishing and refinement of appearance in short, the corporal manifestation of those higher Ideas. 43

44 7.2 De re aedificatoria: On the Art of Building Book 6 [ ] Of the three conditions that apply to every form of construction that what we construct should be appropriate to its use, lasting in structure, and graceful and pleasing in appearance the first two have been dealt with, and there remains the third, the noblest and most necessary of all. 44

45 7.2 De re aedificatoria: On the Art of Building Book 6 [ ] Now graceful and pleasant appearance, so it is thought, derives from beauty and ornament alone, since there can be no one, however surly or slow, rough or boorish, who would not be attracted to what is most beautiful, seek the finest ornament at the expense of all else, be offended by what is unsightly, shun all that is inelegant or shabby, and feel that any shortcomings an object may have in its ornament will detract equally from its grace and from its dignity. 45

46 7.2 De re aedificatoria: On the Art of Building Book 6 [ ] Most noble is beauty, therefore, and it must be sought most eagerly by anyone who does not wish what he owns to seem distasteful. What remarkable importance our ancestors, men of great prudence, attached to it is shown by the care they took that their legal, military, and religious institutions indeed, the whole commonwealth should be much embellished; and by their letting it be known that if all these institutions, without which man could scarce exist, were to be stripped of their pomp and finery, their business would appear insipid and shabby. When we gaze at the wondrous works of the heavenly gods, we admire the beauty we see, rather than the utility that we recognize. 46

47 7.2 De re aedificatoria: On the Art of Building Book 6 [ ] Need I go further? Nature herself, as is everywhere plain to see, does not desist from basking in a daily orgy of beauty let the hues of her flowers serve as my one example. But if this quality is desirable anywhere, surely it cannot be absent from buildings, without offending experienced and inexperienced alike. What would be our reaction to a deformed and ill-considered pile of stones, other than the more to criticize it the greater the expense, and to condemn the wanton greed for piling up stones? To have satisfied necessity is trite and insignificant, to have catered to convenience unrewarding when the inelegance in a work causes offense. 47

48 7.2 De re aedificatoria: On the Art of Building Book 6 [ ] In addition, there is one particular quality that may greatly increase the convenience and even the life of a building. Who would not claim to dwell more comfortably between walls that are ornate, rather than neglected? What other human art might sufficiently protect a building to save it from human attack? Beauty may even influence an enemy, by restraining his anger and so preventing the work from being violated. 48

49 7.2 De re aedificatoria: On the Art of Building Book 6 [ ] Thus I might be so bold as to state: No other means is as effective in protecting a work from damage and human injury as is dignity and grace of form. All care, all diligence, all financial consideration must be directed to ensuring that what is built is useful, commodious, yes but also embellished and wholly graceful, so that anyone seeing it would not feel that the expense might have been invested better elsewhere. 49

50 7.2 De re aedificatoria: On the Art of Building Book 6 [ ] The precise nature of beauty and ornament, and the difference between them, the mind could perhaps visualize more clearly than my words could explain. For the sake of brevity, however, let us define them as follows: Beauty is that reasoned harmony of all the parts within a body, so that nothing may be added, taken away, or altered, but for the worse. 50

51 7.2 De re aedificatoria: On the Art of Building Book 6 [ ] It is a great and holy matter; all our resources of skill and ingenuity will be taxed in achieving it; and rarely is it granted, even to Nature herself, to produce anything that is entirely complete and perfect in every respect. How rare, remarks a character in Cicero, is a beautiful youth in Athens! That connoisseur found their forms wanting because they either had too much or too little of something by which they failed to conformto the laws of beauty 51

52 7.2 De re aedificatoria: On the Art of Building Book 6 [ ] In this case, unless I am mistaken, had ornament been applied by painting and masking anything ugly, or by grooming and polishing the attractive, it would have had the effect of making the displeasing less offensive and the pleasing more delightful. If this is conceded, ornament may be defined as a form of auxiliary light and complement to beauty. From this it follows, I believe, that beauty is some inherent property, to be found suffused all through the body of that which may be called beautiful; whereas ornament, rather than being inherent, has the character of something attached or additional. 52

53 7.2 De re aedificatoria: On the Art of Building Book 6 [ ] This granted, I continue: Anyone who builds so as to be praised for it as anyone with good sense would must adhere to a consistent theory; for to follow a consistent theory is the mark of true art. Who would deny that only through art can correct and worthy building be achieved? And after all this particular part concerning beauty and ornament, being the most important of all, must depend on some sure and consistent method and art, which it would be most foolish to ignore. 53

54 7.2 De re aedificatoria: On the Art of Building Book 6 [ ] Yet some would disagree who maintain that beauty, and indeed every aspect of building, is judged by relative and variable criteria, and that the forms of buildings should vary according to individual taste and must not be bound by any rules of art. 54

55 7.2 De re aedificatoria: On the Art of Building Book 6 [ ] A common fault, this, among the ignorant to deny the existence of anything they do not understand. I have decided to correct this error; not that I shall attempt (since I would need detailed and extended argument for it) to explain the arts from their origins, by what reasoning they developed, and by what experience they were nourished; let me simply repeat what has been said, that the arts were born of Chance and Observation, fostered by Use and Experiment, and matured by Knowledge and Reason. 55

56 7.3 De re aedificatoria: On the Art of Building Book 9 The fullest elaboration of Alberti s theory of beauty, and indeed of his whole architectural conception, comes in Book 9, when he introduces the Ciceronian notion of concinnitas or concinnity. In his Orator (xxiii), Cicero notes that words when connected together embellish a style if they produce a certain symmetry (concinnitas) which disappears when the words are changed, though the thought remains the same (Loeb trans.). 56

57 7.3 De re aedificatoria: On the Art of Building Book 9 Concinnity is that perfect harmony or grace that appears when the architect has perfectly composed his design, in such a way that it demonstrates the three qualities of correct number, outline, and position. Number relates to the addition or taking away of parts; outline controls their size and configuration; position adds the criteria of correct placement. 57

58 7.3 De re aedificatoria: On the Art of Building Book 9 Alberti was convinced that in concinnity he had found the absolute and fundamental rule of Nature as well as the design secret known to classical antiquity. And like a good Platonist, Alberti next draws upon the numerical ratios of Plato s Timaeus to gather the harmonic ratios that should also underlay architecture. Alberti s belief in an absolute numerical scheme for beauty and proportion was his most important contribution to Renaissance theory. Through these passages, architectural beauty now comes to reside principally in proportions. 58

59 7.3 De re aedificatoria: On the Art of Building Book 9 [ ] Now I come to a matter with which we have promised to deal all along: every kind of beauty and ornament consists of it; or, to put it more clearly, it springs from every rule of beauty. This is an extremely difficult inquiry; for whatever that one entity is, which is either extracted or drawn from the number and nature of all the parts, or imparted to each by sure and constant method, or handled in such a manner as to tie and bond several elements into a single bundle or body, according to a true and consistent agreement and sympathy. 59

60 7.3 De re aedificatoria: On the Art of Building Book 9 [ ] This work of research and selection is neither obvious nor straightforward in any other matter, but it is at its most ambiguous and involved in the subject about to be discussed; for the art of building is composed of very many parts, each one, as you have seen, demanding to be ennobled by much varied ornament. Yet we shall tackle the problem to the best of our ability, as we have undertaken. We shall not inquire as to how a sound understanding of the whole might be gained from the numerous parts, but, restricting ourselves to what is relevant, we shall begin by observing what produces beauty by its very nature. 60

61 7.3 De re aedificatoria: On the Art of Building Book 9 [ ] The great experts of antiquity, as we mentioned earlier, have instructed us that a building is very like an animal, and that Nature must be imitated when we delineate it. Let us investigate, then, why some bodies that Nature produces may be called beautiful, others less beautiful, and even ugly. Obviously, among those which we count as beautiful all are not such that there is no difference between them; in fact it is precisely where they most differ that we observe them to be infused or imprinted with a quality through which, however dissimilar they are, we consider them equally graceful. 61

62 7.3 De re aedificatoria: On the Art of Building Book 9 [ ] Let me give you an example: one man might prefer the tenderness of a slender girl; yet a character in a comedy preferred one girl over all others because she was plumper and more buxom; you, perhaps, might prefer a wife neither so slender of figure as to appear sickly nor so stout of limb as to resemble a village bully, but such that you might add as much to the one as you could take away from the other without impairing dignity. Yet, whichever of the two you prefer, you will not then consider the rest unattractiveandworthless.butwhatitisthatcausesusto prefer one above all the others, I shall not inquire. 62

63 7.3 De re aedificatoria: On the Art of Building Book 9 [ ] When you make judgments on beauty, you do not follow mere fancy, but the workings of a reasoning faculty that is inborn in the mind. It is clearly so, since no one can look at anything shameful, deformed, or disgusting without immediate displeasure and aversion. What arouses and provokes such a sensation in the mind we shall not inquire in detail, but shall limit our consideration to whatever evidence presents itself that is relevant to our argument. For within the form and figure of a building there resides some natural excellence and perfection that excites the mind and is immediately recognized by it. 63

64 7.3 De re aedificatoria: On the Art of Building Book 9 [ ] I myself believe that form, dignity, grace, and other such qualities depend on it, and as soon as anything is removed or altered, these qualities are themselves weakened and perish. Once we are convinced of this, it will not take long to discuss what may be removed, enlarged, or altered, in the form and figure. For every body consists entirely of parts that are fixed and individual; if these are removed, enlarged, reduced, or transferred somewhere inappropriate, the very composition will be spoiled that gives the body its seemly appearance. 64

65 7.3 De re aedificatoria: On the Art of Building Book 9 [ ] From this we may conclude, without my pursuing such questions any longer, that the three principal components of that whole theory into which we inquire are number, what we might call outline, and position. But arising from the composition and connection of these three is a further quality in which beauty shines full face: our term for this is concinnitas; which we say is nourished with every grace and splendor. It is the task and aim of concinnitas to compose parts that are quite separate from each other by their nature, according to some precise rule, so that they correspond to one another in appearance. 65

66 7.3 De re aedificatoria: On the Art of Building Book 9 [ ] That is why when the mind is reached by way of sight or sound, or any other means, concinnitas is instantly recognized. It is our nature to desire the best, and to cling to it with pleasure. Neither in the whole body nor in its parts does concinnitas flourish as much as it does in Nature herself; thus I might call it the spouse of the soul and of reason. It has a vast range in which to exercise itself and bloom it runs through man s entire life and government, it molds the whole of Nature. 66

67 7.3 De re aedificatoria: On the Art of Building Book 9 [ ] Everything that Nature produces is regulated by the law of concinnitas, and her chief concern is that whatever she produces should be absolutely perfect. Without concinnitas this could hardly be achieved, for the critical sympathy of the parts would be lost. So much for this. If this is accepted, let us conclude as follows. Beauty is a form of sympathy and consonance of the parts within a body, according to definite number, outline, and position, as dictated by concinnitas, the absolute and fundamental rule in Nature. This is the main object of the art of building, and the source of her dignity, charm, authority, and worth. 67

68 8. Concinnitas In his treatise on architecture, de re aedificatoria, Leon Battista Alberti ( ) described Beauty in architecture as concinnitas: a harmony or congruity of the various parts of a building assembled according to principles :summarised by three categories of numerus, finitio and collocatio. This term has been interpreted variously and most famously in recent times by Rudolph Wittkower. 68

69 8. Concinnitas Starting with his and other scholars' interpretations, this dissertation proposes a new definition for concinnitas based on studies of Alberti's architectural theory and practice and the work of his contemporaries. Chapters 1, 3 and 4 of the dissertation focus on the application of numerus and finitio in Alberti's architectural practice and observations made here are supported by separate historical studies of the buildings (be found in the appendices) and survey drawings (bound together at the end of the dissertation). 69

70 8. Concinnitas Chapter two is a study of the symbolic references, traditions and themes which appear to underlie the design of centralised churches and points raised here are expanded in later chapters. The third category, collocatio, is examined in the final chapters when the continuity of tradition in Alberti's approach to architecture is outlined within the framework of the city and the urban ensemble of church, palace, piazza and loggia. 70

71 ? 71