UNIT - II. Each tense is divided into four parts: 1) Present Tense

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1 trictly for Internal Circulation - KCL UNIT - II UE OF TENE Tense means arrangement of verbs according to the time of action. It such as Tenses are divided into three parts 1) Present 2) Past 3) Future Each tense is divided into four parts: 1) Present Tense a) Present imple: The present simple is used to express daily routines and habits. Basic Construction ubject + V 1 + s/es + object(s) Frank usually takes a bus to work. Negative ubject + do / does + not (don't / doesn't) + V 1 + object(s) + time Expression They don't often go to Chicago. Interrogative (wh. Word) + do / does + subject + V 1 + object(s) + time Expression How often do you play golf? b) Present Continuous The present continuous tense is used for action that is occurring at the moment of speaking, to describe projects and actions scheduled for future events. Remember that only action verbs can take the continuous form. Basic Construction Positive ubject + is/am/are + not + V 1 + ing + object(s) + time Expression he is watching TV at the moment. We are working on the mith account this month. I'm meeting our CEO at three o'clock this afternoon. Negative They aren't having fun this morning. He isn't studying French this semester. helley isn't attending the meeting tomorrow. Interrogative (wh. Word) + is/am/are + subject + verb + ing + object(s) + time Expression What are you doing? Which account are you working on this week? When are you discussing the situation with Tom? c) Present Perfect 35

2 trictly for Internal Circulation - KCL Use the present perfect to express a state or repeated action that began in the past and continues into the moment of speaking. Basic Construction Positive ubject + have / has + past participle V + object(s) + time Expression 3 I have lived in Portland for four years. Henry has just gone to the bank. Peter has visited Europe three times in his life. Negative ubject + have/has not (haven't, hasn't) + past participle V 3 + object(s) + time Expression Max hasn't played tennis since Peter hasn't finished his homework yet. I haven't played golf many times. Interrogative (wh. Word) + have / has + subject + V + object(s) + time Expression Where have you worked since 2002? Have you spoken to Andy yet? Have you ever been to France? 3 d) Present Perfect Continuous The present perfect continuous is used to express how long a current activity has been going on. Basic Construction Positive ubject + has / have + been + V 1 + ing + object(s) + time Expression He's been cleaning house for two hours. Negative ubject + has / have not (hasn't / haven't) + been + V 1 + ing + object(s) + time Expression Janice hasn't been studying for too long. Interrogative (wh. Word) + has / have + subject + been + verb + ing + object(s) + (time Expression) How long have you been working in the garden? 2) Past Tense a) Past imple The past simple is used to express something that happened in past. Basic Construction Positive ubject + V 2 + object(s) + time Expression I went to the doctor's yesterday. Negative ubject + did + not (didn't) + V 1 + object(s) + time Expression They didn't join us for dinner last week. Interrogative (Question Word) + did + subject + V 1 + object(s) + time Expression When did you buy that pullover? b) Past Continuous The past continuous tense is used to describe what was happening at a specific moment in time in 36

3 the past, what was happening when something important happened. trictly for Internal Circulation - KCL Basic Construction Positive ubject + was / were + V + ing + object(s) + time Expression 1 We were meeting with Jane at two o'clock yesterday afternoon. haron was watching TV when she received the telephone call. Negative ubject + was / were + not (wasn't, weren't) + V + ing + object(s) + time Expression 1 They weren't playing tennis at five o'clock on aturday. We weren't doing anything important when you arrived. Interrogative (wh. Word) + was / were + subject + V + ing + object(s) + time Expression What were you doing at 1 two-thirty yesterday afternoon? What were you doing when Tom gave you the bad news? c) Past Perfect The past perfect is used to express something that happened before another point in time. ubject + had + V 3 + object(s) + time Expression he had already eaten by the time the children came home. Negative ubject + had not (hadn't) + V 3 + object(s) + time Expression They hadn't finished their homework before the teacher asked them to hand it in. Interrogative (Question Word) + had + subject + V 3 + object(s) + time Expression Where had you gone before the class began? d) Past Perfect Continuous The past perfect continuous is used to describe how long an activity had been going on before something else happened. Basic Construction ubject + had + been + V 1 + ing + object(s) + time Expression he had been waiting for two hours when he finally arrived. Negative ubject + had not (hadn't) + been + V 1 + ing + object(s) + time Expression They hadn't been working long when the boss asked them to change their focus. Interrogative (wh. Word) + had + subject + been + V 1 + ing + object(s) + time Expression How long had Tom been working on that project when they decided to give it to Pete? 3) Future Tense a) Future imple The future with 'will' is used to make future predictions and promises. Basic Construction Positive ubject + will/shall + V + object(s) 1 The government will increase taxes soon. Negative ubject + will/shall + not + V + object(s) he won't help us much with the project. Interrogative 1 (wh. Word) + will/shall + subject + V + object(s) Why will they reduce taxes? 1 37

4 trictly for Internal Circulation - KCL b) Future Continuous The future continuous is used to talk about an activity that will be in progress at a specific point in time in the future. Basic Construction Positive ubject + will/shall + be + V + ing + object(s) + time Expression 1 Peter will be doing his homework this time tomorrow. Negative ubject + will/shall + not + be + V + ing + object(s) + time Expression 1 haron won't be working in New York in three weeks time. Interrogative (wh. Word) + will/shall + subject + be + V + ing + object(s) + time Expression 1 What will you be doing this time next year? c) Future Perfect Use the future perfect tense to express what will happened by a certain time in the future. ubject + will/shall + have + past participle V 3 + object(s) + time Expression They will have finished the report by tomorrow afternoon. Negative ubject + will/shall + not + have + past participle V 3 + object(s) + time Expression Mary won't have answered all the questions by the end of this hour. Interrogative (wh. Word) + will/shall + subject + have + past participle V 3 + object(s) + time Expression What will you have done by the end of this month? d) Future Perfect Continuous The future perfect continuous is used to express the duration of an action up to a future point in time. This tense is not commonly used in English. Basic Construction ubject + will + have + been + V 1 + ing + object(s) We will have been studying for two hours Negative ubject + will/shall + not + have + been + V 1 + ing + object(s) He won't have been working for three days. Interrogative (wh. Word) + will/shall + subject + have + been + V 1 + ing + object(s) How long will you have been working on that project? VERB PATTERN AND TRUCTURE By structure we mean sentence patterns. In this ection we shall first consider some of the basic verb patterns and then some of the other important structures, both literary and conversational. The ubject must contain a Noun or a Pronoun and the Predicate must contain a Verb. ometimes the ubject is omitted and then you may get one-word sentences: top. Who goes there? Listen. I want to tell you something. Wait. I shall see what can be done about it. Then there are sentences of two words-just a Noun and an Intransitive Verb. 38

5 trictly for Internal Circulation - KCL Birds fly. Dogs bark. Dogs bark. Time flies. But you can't get very far with brief, bare sentences of this type, and so, more elaborate sentence patterns may be evolved, as shown below: 1) ubject + intransitive Verb ubject +Attributes Verb + Adverb, etc. udhir is coming on Tuesday. The sun has already risen. The terrible storm has at last subsided. A gentle breeze was blowing across the meadow Exercise: Write six sentences with the ubjects given below using transitive Verbs and adverbials, as required: 1. The small boat.. 2. The crescent moon.. 3. The excited spectators.. 4. The spring season.. 5. The golden-voiced nightingale A squadron of jet fighters.. 2) ubject +Transitive Verb +Direct Object A Transitive Verb is one that has an Object. The normal order of words in an English sentence is ubject+ Verb + Object. (Contrast the Indian languages in which you usually have the order- ubject + Object+ Verb). Exercise: ubject Transitive Verb I Direct Object Pratap likes Milk The Principal punished the boy. The Chinese attacked the Russians. Pratap likes... what? Milk. The Principal punished... whom? The boy. The answer to the question what or whom is the Direct Object. Fill up the gaps with a ubject, a Transitive Verb or an Object, as required: 1. The Assembly the Minimum Wages Bill. 2. The Chief Minister a Press Conference. 3. The Chinese exploded.. 4..have started a space race. 5. The Indian Navy.an aircraft carrier. 6. India must build up. 39

6 trictly for Internal Circulation - KCL 3) ubject + Verb + Object +Adverb Particle There are some Verbs followed by Particles, e.g., put on, take off, give, bring up, call in. ometimes the particle is detached from the Verb and put after the Object. ubject Verb Object Adverb Particle unil put his hat on They called the doctor in He threw it away His uncle had brought him up Take yourself off Put it out You must send them back The Particle is thus put after the Object, when the Object is a Personal Pronoun-it, me, us, them, etc.,-or when it is comparatively short. Note: The difference between a Particle and a Preposition is that while the Particle is closely tied to its Verb to form idiomatic compounds, the Preposition is closely tied to the Noun or Pronoun which it controls. The following are used only as Particles and never as Prepositions-away, back, out, backward, forward, upward, downward. But on, oil, in, up, down, to, from, etc., are used as Particles and Prepositions. When the Object is long or has to be made prominent or when it is qualified by an Adjectival Phrase or Clause, the Particle comes before the Object. ubject Verb Adverb Particle Object The President gave away the prize We put on an air or innocence The poor will not throw anything 4) ubject + Verb+ Indirect Object + Direct Object This order is preferred when the Indirect Object is shorter than the Direct Object, or when the ubject Verb Indirect Object Direct Object The President awarded anjay a gold medal The World Bank Promised India a big loan Verb anjay Promised The President awarded the gold medal ' to whom? To anktar. 'The World Bank gave a big loan... to whom? To India. The answer to the question to whom or for whom is the Indirect Object. The Indirect Object is usually a person or person. Exercise: Complete the following sentences adding an Indirect or a Direct Object, as required. 1. The Russians gave. a squadron of M.I.G. fighters. 40

7 trictly for Internal Circulation - KCL 2. I bought. a present. 3. He threw the beggar. 4. The British Council offered him. 5. The man sent. a message 6. India has promised Nepal. 5) ubject + Verb + Direct Object + Preposition + Indirect Object This order is preferred when the Direct Object is shorter than the Indirect Object, or when the Indirect Object has to be stressed. ubject + Verb + Direct Object + Preposition + Indirect Object He distributed sweets to al the boys in the class You don't lend books to anybody Don't show the latter to any of your friend He promised the prize to me, not you he bought p present for he mother He made coffee for herself The Tailor made a suit for my brother-in-law 5) Object Complement 1: ubject +Verb +Object +Complements ome Transitive Verbs are followed by an Object and an Object Complement. (A complement is a word or phrase necessary to complete the meaning of the sentence). Note: 1. Here, the Complement of the Object is a Noun or Noun equivalent. 2. The preposition as or for is sometimes used with Verbs elect and choose, but not with the others. Whom will they choose for their leader? I wonder whom they will elect as President. 6) Object Complement 2: ubject + Verb + Object + Complement ubject Transitive Verb Object Object Complement The noise drove him mad That case made the lawyer famous He painted the car green We found the house empty Robin thought the plan impracticable We find the cost of living rather high WE consider the matter very important Note: Here the Complement of the Object is an Adjective. ometimes to be is used before the Complement. 41

8 ubject Transitive Verb Object to be + Complement I consider the plan (to be) unwise Most people supposed him (to be) innocent I have not found such enquiries (to be) useful They have proved themselves trust Event proved him (to be) wrong I knew him to be conscientious trictly for Internal Circulation - KCL Common Errors 1. I have seen him yesterday (wrong) I saw him yesterday (right) We have lived there till 1960 (wrong) We lived there till (right) 2. 'Where is Ramu?', He has been to Bombay.' (wrong) He has gone to Bombay' (right) He has been to Bombay' means that sometime in the past he went to Bombay and came back. o he knows Bombay; he is not a stranger to Bombay. He has gone to Bombay' implies that he is still in Bombay; hasn't come back yet. 3. We had been to Bombay two weeks ago (wrong) We went to Bombay two weeks ago. (correct) We had gone to the pictures last night. (wrong) We went to the pictures last night. (correct) Introductory 'There' The most common way of indicating existence in English is by using there + to be. Normally there is an Adverb of Place. But the introductory 'There' has no Adverbial sense and it just used to introduce the sentence: There are two people in the room. This may also be written thus: Two people are in the room. But normally the first form is preferred, though the subject is two people. in the next three sentences we have a peculiar' structure no+ gerund, which indicates impossibility. There's no going back on it. = It's impossible to go back on it. There's no denying. = It is impossible to deny. There's no knowing. = It is impossible to know. Note. The expression 'There is no question of denying the fact', 'There is no question of going back on it' etc. is an Indian ism which should be avoided But you can say' Going back on is out of the question. Exercise: Rewrite the following sentences, using the no+gerund construction: 1. It is impossible to satisfy these people. 42

9 2. It is impossible to say what will happen 3. It is not possible to back out of it now. 4. We cannot withdraw from our commitments. 5. The fact cannot be gainsaid that we failed in our duty to these people. 6. It is not possible to retreat from our present position. 7. It is not possible to get over this difficulty. Introductory 'There' trictly for Internal Circulation - KCL Introductory' There' Introductory' There' can also be used with some Intransitive Verbs, or with an Intransitive Verb + to be. There + Verb+ ubject, etc. There seems to be some misunderstanding between them There came a knock at the door There happened to be no one near by to help her There arose a dispute about the leadership of the party There fell a deep silence upon them There grew a warm friendship between the two There spread a rumor that she was a German Introductory' It' (Provisional ubject) When the subject is an Infinitive Phrase, the sentence often begins with it. Instead of saying, 'To accept your advice is difficult' we say, 'It is difficult to accept your advice'. Infinitive Phrase It + Verb+ ubject Complement+ Infinitive Phrase (Real subject) It is (not) easy to learn English It was (not) difficult to understand his motive It will (not) be pleasant to sit on the beach It may (not) be premature to think of it now It might (not) be advisable to consult specialists It could be dangerous to drive so fast It must be tempting to get such an offer However, when you wish to emphasize the Infinitive Phrase, it may be put at the beginning, especially if it is short: 'To err is human, to forgive, divine.' To -become a millionaire was his life-long ambition. To withdraw now will be sheer folly. Exercise: Rewrite the following sentences using Introduction: 1. To buy a car now is not advisable. 2. To invest all your money on land will be foolish. 3. To reveal the deployment of the army units would not be in the public interest. 4. Not to accept the democratic demands of the common would be unwise. 43

10 trictly for Internal Circulation - KCL 5. To ensure the industrial development of all the tates should be possible. 6. Not to control the increase in population would be disastrous. 7. To provide young people with facilities for games and sports is absolutely necessary. 8. To prevent unhealthy activities by encouraging healthy ones would be prudent. 9. To depend so much on foreign aid seems humiliating. 10. To avoid foreign borrowings together appears impracticable. Introductory' It 'in Questions It was Ahmed who broke the window. Who was it that broke the window? It was at 9 A.M. that the postman came. When was it the postman came? It was at ri Nagar that the Conference met. Where was it that the Conference met? It is because he is ill that he is absent. Why is it that he is absent? You will notice that in the question form the Relative that is frequently omitted. Exercise: Form questions to which the following sentences are the answers; the correct interrogatives are given at the end of each sentence. 1. It was the day before yesterday that I got the telegram. (when) 2. It was because he was poor that he stole the bread. (why) 3. It is in the Durbar Hall that the meeting will be held. (where) 4. It was your fault that the pudding was spoilt. (whose fault) 5. 1t is the President's consent that we have to get. (whose consent) 6. "It is his pen that he is looking for. (what) 7. It was in Kashmir that he spent the summer. (where) 8. It was Rama's dog that was run over. (whose dog) 9. It was last June that I met her for the first time. (when) 10. It is this that I want you to do. (what) 'If' Clause 1. He will do it, if you ask him. (This merely states that something will happen if a certain condition is fulfilled-and the condition is nothing improbable or impossible.) I shall speak to him, if you want. He will accept the post, if it is offered. You will be informed, if the meeting is arranged. 2. He would do it, if you asked him. (This states the probable result of an imaginary condition. The possibility of your asking him and his doing it is more doubtful than in 1.) You could do it, if you tried. They would help you, if you asked. I should meet him, if he turned up. 3. He could do it, if he were a dictator. (This is the unreal if. It is clear that he is not a dictator and therefore his 'doing it' is impossible.) 44

11 trictly for Internal Circulation - KCL If I were king of this country, I would make you my queen. If he were twenty years younger, he could perhaps do it. I would do it, if it were possible. Notice a special use of this construction 'were if', 'even if'. If he were the devil himself, I would oppose him. If he were the Emperor of China, he couldn't be more autocratic. Another use of this structure is to give advice or gentle admonition: If I were you, I should accept the offer. I shouldn't provoke the old man, if I were you. 4. He would have done it, if you had asked him. (This is the unreal Past. You did not ask him and therefore he did not do it. But one likes to imagine the result, if the condition had been fulfilled, i.e., if you had asked him.) They would have come, if you had invited them. The strike would have been called off, if the workers' demands had been granted. He would have agreed, if you had been more courteous. Exercise: 1. I shall buy a car if You shall have a present if We could build a house if. 4. They would join us if You could win the first prize if If I were a bird If he were a Hercules.. 8. Of je were Hercules himself.. 9. If I were you I would have attended the wedding if... '1f' Clauses Omission of' if' and inversion of ubject and Verb If it should prove to be true, I shall resign from the Committee. hould it prove to be true, I shall resign from the Committee. If he had told me earlier, I would have arranged it. Had he told me earlier, I would have arranged it. If it were possible, I would visit Moscow. Were it possible, I would visit Moscow. Exercise: Complete the following sentences: 1. hould he continue to be unpunctual. 2. hould it prove too difficult. 3. hould there be another strike 4. We shall transfer him, should 5. I shall go abroad, should 6. Had he worked a little harder 7. Had he not been so obstinate 45

12 trictly for Internal Circulation - KCL 8. Were I a millionaire We could have been here on time, had 10. The Chinese wouldn't have attacked us, had 24. 'If..were to' and its inverted form,' were.to' 1. If that boy took more exercise he wouldn't get fat. If that boy were to take more exercise, he wouldn't get so fat. 2. If you spoke a little louder, we could all hear you. If you were to speak a little louder, we could all hear you. Were you to speak a little louder, we could all hear you. Exercise: Change the following sentences into the 'If were to' and 'were to' forms: 1. If that man smoked less, he wouldn't develop cancer. 2. If that man drank less, he wouldn't develop heart trouble. 3. If you played games regularly, you would become strong and healthy. 4. If you listened more carefully, you wouldn't make so many mistakes. 5. If you became a doctor, you could save many lives. 6. If you bet on that horse, you would win. 7. You would be ruined, if you invested your money in those shares. 8. If it stopped raining we could continue the game. 9. You would be dismissed, if this happened again. 10. We should be delighted, if you paid us a visit. What = that which Listen carefully to what I am going to tell you. Listen carefully to that which I am going to tell you. or Listen carefully to the things that I am going to tell you. Plan what you have to do. Plan that which you have to do. Plan the things that you have to do. Exercise: Rewrite the following sentences using 'what' instead of the words italicized. 1. You had better sell it for any sum that you can get. 2. I am not surprised by the things that he has done. 3. The thing that I don't understand is why they waited so long without lodging a complaint. 4. It all depends on the thing that they propose to do. 5. After the thing that has happened I don't wish to see him again. 6. I cannot justify the things that they have done? 7. That which you deserve is much more than that which I can give. 8. May I remind you of the things you told me yesterday? 9. This is not relevant to the thing we are discussing. 10. They went out through an opening that looked like a door. DETERMINER A determiner is a word that determines or qualifies the meaning of a noun by expressing such concepts as 46

13 trictly for Internal Circulation - KCL quantity or definiteness. There is never more than one determiner per noun and it is always placed before the noun. Determiners always agree in gender and number with the nouns they modify. A type of word that refers to a noun and determines which object, person or other entity the noun represents. Determiners are usually classified as a type of non descriptive adjective, and with the exception of numbers they have little meaning apart from the nouns they refer to. Types of Determiners: A) Articles - the, a, an. B) Possessive Determiners (possessive Adjectives) -my, your, his, her, its, our and their. C) Demonstrative Determiners (determinative Adjectives) - this, that, these, and those. D) Interrogative Determiners) - what, which, and whose. E) Quantifiers - many, few, half, etc. Numbers (one, two, three) and ordinals (first, second, third) are also considered determiners. Articles Basically, an article is an adjective. Like adjectives, articles modify nouns. English has two articles: 1) Indefinite a, an articles 2) Definite article the A/an is used to modify non-specific or non-particular nouns. The is used to refer to specific or particular nouns. We call the definite article and a/an indefinite article. For example, if I say, "Let's read the book," I mean a specific book. If I say, "Let's read a book," I mean any book rather than a specific book. Indefinite Articles: A and An "A" and "an" signal that the noun modified is indefinite, referring to any member of a group. For example: i) "My daughter really wants a dog for Christmas." This refers to any dog. We don't know which dog because we haven't found the dog yet. ii) "When I was at the zoo, I saw an elephant!" Here, we're talking about a single, non-specific thing, in this case an elephant. There are probably several elephants at the zoo, but there's only one we're talking about here. Rules for using a or an: It depends on the sound that begins the next worda + singular noun beginning with a consonant: a boy; a car; a bike; a zoo; a dog a + nouns starting with a pronounced "h": a horse a + singular noun beginning with a consonant sound: a user (sounds like 'yoo-zer,' Le. begins with a consonant 'y' sound, so 'a' is used); a university; a unicycle an + nouns starting with silent "h": an hour an + singular noun beginning with a vowel: an elephant; an egg; an apple; an idiot; an orphan In some cases where "h" is pronounced, such as "historical," you can use an. However, a is more commonly used and preferred. Ex. A historical event is worth recording. 47

14 trictly for Internal Circulation - KCL "Alan" can be used only with countable nouns. "I need a bottle of water." "I need a new glass of milk." You can't say, "he wants a water," unless you're implying, say, a bottle of water. Definite Article: The The definite article is used before singular and plural nouns when the noun is specific or particular. The signals that the noun is definite, that it refers to a particular member of a group. For example: "The dog that bit me ran away." Here, we're talking about a specific dog, the dog that bit me. "I saw the elephant at the zoo." Here, we're talking about a specific noun. Probably there is only one elephant at the zoo. Use of 'The' with countable and uncountable Nouns The can be used with uncountable nouns, or the article can be omitted entirely. "I love to sail over the water" (some specific body of water) or "I love to sail over water" (any water). "He spilled the milk all over the floor" (some specific milk, perhaps the milk you bought earlier that day) or "He spilled milk all over the floor" (any milk). The is used before: Names of rivers, oceans and seas: the Ganga, the Pacific ocean, the Arabian ea. Points on the globe: the Equator, the North Pole. Geographical areas: the Middle East, the West. deserts, forests, gulfs, and peninsulas: the ahara, the Gulf of Mannar, the Iberian Peninsula names of holy books: the Ramayana, the Bible, the Quran. The Guru Granth ahib. uperlative degrees: the best boy, the richest person. Ordinals: the second player, the sixth rank. Historical buildings: the Parliament, the Taj Mahal. Highest posts: the C.M., the Chairman, the President. Countries in plurals: the Netherlands, the Dominican Republic, the Philippines, the United tates Mountain ranges: the Himalayas, the Andes Names of newspapers: the Times of India, the Hindustan Times. Do not use the before: names of most countries/territories: Italy, Mexico, Japan, France. names of mountains: Mount Everest, Mount Fuji except with ranges of mountains like the Andes or the Rockies names of continents: Asia, Europe proper noun: Rohit, J.L.Nehru. Omission of Articles ome common types of nouns that don't take an article are: Names of languages and nationalities: Chinese, English, panish, and Russian (unless you are referring to the population of the nation: "The panish are known for their warm hospitality.") 48

15 Names of sports: volleyball, cricket, hockey, football. Names of academic subjects: mathematics, biology, history, computer science names of colours: red, green. names of games: cricket, hockey, football. Meals: dinner, breakfast. lunch. trictly for Internal Circulation - KCL But we talk about any specific or special colour, game or meal, we can use 'the' before them. Ex The red color which you were wearing yesterday was looking beautiful. The lunch which I took at your home that day was very good. Uses of other determiners: To express quantity some is used in affirmative sentences, any in negative sentences. There is some butter in the cupboard. he has bought some pens. I did not give him any butter. he did not by any pens. 'Any' is used in affirmative sentences when it has an emphatic meaning such as; "No matter which or who." Any fool can do it. Give me a book, any book will do. He will pay any price he is asked to. ome is replaced by any in the following cases :- (a) In Interrogative entences; as, Have you any butter? Did she buy any books? But ome may be used in Interrogative entences when these are equivalent to polite requests; as, Will you give me some sugar? Will you have some more coffee? (b) In Conditional entences; as, If there are any oranges in the market, please buy some. (c ) In sentences which are negative or which have a negative idea: as. I didn't see any oranges in the market Each, every, 'Each' means one of two things or one of any number exceeding two; every is never used in speaking of one of two, but is always used in speaking of some number exceeding two ; as, The two soldiers had each a gun. Five boys stood in each row. Every man wishes to be happy. India expects every man to do his duty. Either, Neither Either has two meanings: (1) one of two, or (2) each of t'no, that is, both Neither is the negative of either and means neither the one nor the other. You can go by either road [by one road or the other]. On either side [both sides] of the road the trees grew. He took neither side [neither this side nor that]. 49

16 trictly for Internal Circulation - KCL Much, many 'Much' denotes quantity: 'many' denotes number. 'Much' and 'many' may be correctly used in the following cases:- (a) In negative sentences: There isn't much tea in the pot. he hasn't much money. We haven't many books. (b) In general questions to which the answer is "Yes" or "No" : Were there many people present? Has he many friends in the town? (c ) In "whether" or "of' clauses: I wonder whether she has many friends to help her. (d) After so, as, too and few. Take as much as you want. Don't eat too many sweets. How many do you want? Avoid the use of many and much in affirmative sentences:- There are many books in the library,. (ay instead: There are a lot of books in the library.) He has much money. (ay instead: He has a lot of money or plenty of money.) We have much time, (ay instead : We have plenty of time). Little, a little, the little 'Little' means hardly any or not much. It has a negative meaning. There was little food in the house. There is little hope of his recovery. A little denotes some at least. It has an affirmative meaning. There is a little hope of her recovery. He has a little money. A little knowledge is a dangerous thing. The little denotes the small quantity. It has both a positive and a negative meaning. He wasted the little money he had. It means- 1. The money he had was not much. (Negative) 2. He wasted all the money he had. (Positive) Few, a few, the few 'Few' denotes not many. It has a negative meaning. He has read few books. Few men can keep a secret. Few people are free from faults. 'A few' denotes some at least- a certain number, however few. It has a positive meaning. 50

17 trictly for Internal Circulation - KCL He has a few friends. A few men live a pious life. 'The few' denotes not many. It has both a positive and a negative meaning. The few are rich, the many are poor. He lost the few friends he had. It means- 1. The friends he had were not many. (Negative) 2. He lost all the friends he had. (Positive) Less, fewer 'Less' is used with reference to quantity; 'fewer' with reference to number. This boy weighs no less than forty pounds. He does not sell less than five kilograms of sugar. No fewer than forty soldiers were wounded. No fewer than two thousand people were present there. PREPOITION A preposition may be defined as a connecting word showing the relation of a noun or a noun substitute to some other word in the sentence For ex. There is a man in the room. The preposition 'in' shows the relationship between the man and the room ometimes prepositions cause problems because at some places they can be used interchangeably (He sat on the chair: He sat in the chair), because prepositions are often combined with verbs to create phrasal verbs (to look after someone; to look down on someone), and because a single preposition can be used to express several different ideas. It is important to be aware that some words that have the form of a preposition do not have the same function. The girl read in the library. The boy kicked in the door. Examples In - in eptember, in 1985; in a week, in the summer of 1969, in the morning; in a minute; Into - into the room, into the river At - at night, at 6 o'clock; at midnight, at Christmas; at Easter, at the same time On - on unday; on 25th of Dec., on Good Friday; on the chair. Upon - upon the table Under - under the table Inside - inside the case, inside car After - after school, after you, after this month. Ago - 6 years ago Before - before Christmas, before you. Between - between Monday and Friday Among - among all the brothers By - by Thursday, by car. During - during the holidays 51

18 trictly for Internal Circulation - KCL Through - through his sincere efforts, through this company For - for three weeks, for him From... to, From... till/until (two points form a period) - from Monday to Wednesday, from Monday till Wednesday, from Monday until Wednesday Past - 23 minutes past 6 (6:23) ince - since Monday Up to (not more than a special time) - up to 6 hours a day Within - within a day Uses of Common Prepositions Prepositions are used to express a number of relationships, including time, location, manner, means; quantity, purpose, and state or condition. The following outline demonstrates the uses of common prepositions. A. TIME About: He would reach about noon. At: My brother will come at five o'clock. By: The meeting is going to be over by midnight. From: he is on leave from Monday to Friday. Of: It is a quarter of three (15minutes before) by my watch. On: He was born on May 8, Past: It is a quarter past three (15minutes after) by my watch. B. PLACE OR DIRECTION Around: he walked around the car. Down: They lived down the hall. From We will take it from you. The restaurant is one mile from here. In: He lives in a street. We waited in the bus. Inside: Put it inside the house. Of: We moved to south of Montreal On: We sat on the chair. Through: They drove through the tunnel. To: He went to Pune. Give it to me. Up: He walked up the stairs. With: He went with me. C. MEAN OR AGENT By: He was hit by a ball. he came by train. He did it by hard work. From: His success results from careful planning In: He takes pleasure in it. On: They live on bread and water. With: He chased the monkey with a stick. 52

19 trictly for Internal Circulation - KCL D. MANNER By: By doing it yourself, you save time. In: He was left in confusion. The room was in turmoil. On: I swear it on my word of honor. With: He ate it with a fork. E. TATE OR CONDITION At: My friend is at work. he is at home. By: They are by themselves (alone). In: He is in a state of confusion. On: He is on duty. For: I mistook you for someone F. QUANTITY OR MEAURE For: We drove for twenty miles. We bought it for ten cents. By: We bought them by the kilo. G. PURPOE For: He bought it for an emergency. he went to the city for sightseeing. He loved her for her thoughtfulness. Words followed by appropriate prepositions 1. Please accede to my request. 2. I acted according to his advice. 3. You are angry with me for nothing. 4. he is absorbed in her study. 5. I was accused of theft. 6. You will be admitted to the 10th class. 7. I agree with you on this matter. 8. They did not agree to my proposal. 9. I abstained from food for three days. 10. I do not approve of your proposal. 11. I arrived at the station in time. 12. We should not associate with bad boys. 13. You must apologize to him for your mistake. 14. Is she acquainted with you? 15. I was alarmed of the sight of the snake. 16. He was already aware of his failure. 17. I am not afraid of you? 18. The hunter aimed at the dove. 19. I was amazed (astonished) at his failure. 20. We have an easy access to our headmaster.. 53

20 trictly for Internal Circulation - KCL 21. Please attend to your lesson. 22. He is averse to hard work. 23. he has an aptitude for music. 24. This book belongs to me. 25. America is bent on going to war with Russia. 26. He is blind in one eye Do not boast of your wealth. 28. I was born of poor parents. 29. You were born in a rich family. 30. Beware of pick-pockets. 31. The dogs bark at the strangers. 32. I never borrow money from anybody. 33. God has blessed us with many talents. 34. He does not care for money. 35. The boys complained to the principal about the food served in the hostel mess. 36. They congratulated me on my success. 37. Never count on anybody's help. 38. I was charged with theft. 39. W was convinced of his honesty. 40. I am conscious of my weakness. 41. The child clings to his mother. 42. I shall call on you tomorrow. 43. He never consulted me in this matter. 44. Our class consists of forty boys. 45. He is confident of his success. 46. He felt a craving for smoking. 47. Compare Akbar with her hah. 48. Life is compared to a bubble. 49. The Bombay Express collided against a goods-train. 50. harma's father deals in tea. 51. I have no dealings with him 52. He depends upon me for the supply of rations. 53. He has no desire for fame. 54. Your brother is quite different from you 55. I differ with you on this question. 56. Distinguish between a friend and a foe. 57. My thanks are due to the President. 58. A large balance is due from you. 59. he died of cholera. 60. Dispose of your old furniture. 61. You have deprived me of my rights. 62., His parents are disgusted with him. 63. You are devoid of common-sense. 64. Please excuse me for coming late. 65. The headmaster exempted me from the payment of fees. 66. The prisoner escaped from the jail at the dead of night. 67. He will prove equal to the task. 68. I am envious of Mohan's smartness. 54

21 trictly for Internal Circulation - KCL 69. Hard work is essential to success in life. 70. He enquired of me about my father. 71. Please enquire after his health. 72. I never expected this of you. 73. Kashmir is famous for its natural beauty. 74. The house' should be furnished with water and electricity. 75. I am not familiar with this man. 76. Her face is familiar to me. 77. I have full faith in you. 78. He is not free from guilt. 79. He filled the jug with milk 80. Children are fond of sweets. 81. We shall fight to the last. 82. he is gifted with fortitude. 83. Do well to others. 84. I am good at figures. 85. You are guilty of misconduct. 86. We are not on good terms with each other. 87. he was glad at my success. 88. I am grateful to you for this favour. 89. Guard yourself against your fair-weather friends. 90. Do not grumble at your lot. 91. I have a great hatred for those who tell a lie. 92. he is hopeful of her success. 93. You should be honest in your dealings. 94. I am an heir to a large property. 95. he is ill with fever. 96. I have informed him of your arrival. 97. moking is injurious to health. 98. I shall introduce you to my father. 99. He is indifferent to his health I invited all my friends to tea Honesty pays in the long run he is very intimate with me I am interested in him This cloth is inferior to that he insisted on my going to school Always be kind to the animals Who is knocking at the door? 108. Please listen to me Do not laugh at the poor This road leads to Delhi Look at the black-board He is loyal to his country I am no match for you Do not meddle with my affairs. 115 I object to your proposal he parted from her parents weeping. 55

22 trictly for Internal Circulation - KCL 117. Remember me to your father He will repent at his mistake He did not reply to my letter he has recovered from illness Always refrain from telling a lie Refer this matter to the police This rejoiced at their success I cannot rely on him Please remind me of this The medicine relieved him of pain He was robbed of his money I am sick of this sort of life he I sure of her success He has no sympathy for the poor he is sensitive to about I ran short of money I sympathize with you in your troubles I have sent for the doctor I am shocked at this news I am sorry for the delay They made a search for the thief He was sentenced to death This paper is superior to that They supplied us with food Let us talk about something pleasant I don't like traveling by train You should not talk to him about this The rich tyrannize over the poor I am tired of the endless waiting The Rajputs were true to their word I have no taste for music I took him for a thief This house teems with rats Think over this matter again The poor fellow is trembling with fear Do not trust children with sharp weapons Trust in God and do the right You are unfit for this post he is vain of her beauty I am well versed in Book Keeping I have warned you of the danger The youth delegation waited upon the President I shall wait for you here I am weary of this sort of life The people wondered at the juggler's feats A true yogi never yields to temptation The poor fellow yearns for true happiness Why are you zealous for his success? 56

23 trictly for Internal Circulation - KCL AGREEMENT OF THE VERB WITH THE UBJECT A Verb must agree with its ubject in Number and Person, i.e., the Verb should be of the same Number and Person as the ubject. Two or more ingular ubjects joined by and take a Plural Verb; as Mohan and ohan have passed. He and his brother were absent. He and I are great friends. Time and tide wait for no man. Note - (1) ometimes two ubjects are regarded as representing one idea, and then the Verb is singular; as, low and steady wins the race. Bread and butter is a wholesome food. 'Early to bed and early to rise' makes a man healthy, wealthy, and wise. (2) If two ingular Nouns refer to the same person or thing, the Verb must be, ingular; as. The poet and philosopher is dead. [Here 'Poet' and Philosopher' refer to the same person.] The orator and statesman has arrived. Note- If the Article is used only once, then the two Nouns refer to the same person, and the Verb used is ingular. But if the Article is mentioned twice, then two distinct persons are intended, and the Verb following must be in the Plural Number; as, The poet and the philosopher are dead. The orator and statesman have arrived. If two ingular Nouns joined by 'and' are preceded by each or every the Verb is ingular; as, Each day and each hour brings us a fresh anxiety. Every man and every woman in the village was terrified. Two or more ingular ubjects connected by or, nor, either or, neither nor, take a ingular Verb; as, Either Mohan or ohan is in the wrong. Neither Rama nor his brother was present there. Neither iron nor coal is to be found in that country. Neither praise nor blame seems to affect her. Neither he nor I was mistaken. Any boy or girl sees it at once. Note: (1) When one of the Nouns or Pronouns joined by or, nor is in the ingular and the other in the Plural, the Verb should be Plural and the Plural ubject should be placed near the Verb; as, 57

24 trictly for Internal Circulation - KCL John or his brothers are to blame. Neither Afzal nor his friends were present. (2) If two ubjects joined by or, nor are of different persons, the Verb agrees in person with the ubject nearest to it; as, Either you or he is telling a lie. Neither my brother nor I am happy. But it is better to write as- Either you are telling a lie, or he is. Neither is my brother happy, nor am I. If two Nouns are joined by 'with' or as well as', the Verb agrees with the first Noun, i.e., if the first Noun. is ingular, the Verb must be ingular, even if the second Noun is Plural; as, Raman, as well as his friend, has won the prize. Iron as well as gold is found in India. Kindness as well as mercy allows it. The King, with all his ministers, was killed. A Collective Noun takes a ingular or Plural Verb according to the sense. If the idea of oneness is expressed, the Verb must be ingular; if the individuals of the collections are thought of, the Verb must be Plural. The jury [= men of the jury] were divided in their opinions. The jury [+ one body] has elected its President. The Council meets today in the Town Hall. The Council that met in the Town Hall was divided. The multitude was frightened at the sight of the lion. Either, neither, each, every one, many a must be followed by a Verb in the ingular; as, Either of the two applicants is suitable. Neither of the two applicants is suitable. Each of these boys has done his best. Each of these substances is found in India. Each one of these men is reliable. Every one of the boat's crew was drowned. Many a man is tempted by gold. Errors due to Proximity Often the Verb is made to agree in Number with a Noun near it instead of its proper subject. This should be avoided. 1. The behaviour of the children were excellent [Here' were' must be' was' in order to agree with behaviour.] 2. Not one of his lectures has even been printed. [The ubject is one, not lectures; therefore, 'have' should be 'has.'] 3. By that time two weeks' salary were due. [Here again, the ubject is salary, not weeks; therefore,' were' should be' was'.] 4. The quality of the mangoes was ( not were) good. 5. The cost of all these articles has (not have) risen. 6. A series of lectures has (not have) been arranged on the subject. 58

25 trictly for Internal Circulation - KCL 7. A variety of pleasing objects charms (not charm) the eye. When a Plural Noun denotes some specific;: quantity or amount considered as a whole, the Verb is generally ingular; as, Two-third of the city is in ruins (not are). A thousand rupees is a good sum (not are). Four weeks is a good holiday (not are). imilarly with titles of books and names of sciences: The Arabian Nights is an interesting book (not are). The United tates has a big army (not have). Physics is an interesting science (not are). Mathematics is a difficult subject (not are). A Relative Pronoun always agrees in Number and Person with its Antecedent; I am a man who always seeks (not seek) others' welfare. He is one of those men who know (not knows) everything. COMMON ERROR NOUN AND NOUN-PHRAE The sceneries here are not good. The scenery here is not good. I have lost my furniture's. I have lost my furniture. We have received no information's. We have received no information. He told these news to his mother. I packed my luggage. I packed my languages. Please excuse me for the trouble. Please excuse the troubles. In India there are many poor people. In India there are many poors. couts wear shorts. couts wear half pants. I spend my holidays with my family. I spend my holidays with my family members. Write this in your notebook. Write this in your copy. Our hostel is full. Our boarding is full. We saw a play. We saw a theatre. We like acting in plays. We like taking part in drama. Please put your signature here. Please put your sign here. We are all brothers. We are all fellow brothers. He had a great amount of money. He had a great number of money. I had a bath in the sea. I have hurt a foot-finger. I have hurt a toe. Each of these boys play games. Each of these boys plays games. Both did not go. Neither went. We all did not go. None of us went. One should work hard. A man should work hard. One should not waste his time. A mania boy should not waste his time. Here is my cup; please fill. Here is my cup; please fill it. I and he are brothers. He and I are brothers. He is wiser than me. He is wiser than I. None of us have seen him. None of us has seen him. People starves when he has no money. People starve when they have no money. 59

26 trictly for Internal Circulation - KCL My books are better that my friends. Every people know this. My books are better than those of my friend. Every man I everyone know this. These all Mangoes are ripe. All these mangoes are ripe. I have no any friends. I have no friends. Both men have not come. Neither man has come. Open your book at six page. Open your book at page six. He is in class Ninth. He is in class Ninel the Ninth class. This article cost rupees ten. This article cost ten rupees. He came a 2nd time. He came a second time. He is more better than I. He is better than I. King George the ixth. King George VI. He is worst than I. He is worse than I. Raipur is hot than imla. Raipur is hotter than himla. He gets a less salary. He gets a small salary. He is the more cleverer of the two. He is cleverer of the two Yours affectionate friend. Your affectionate friend Yours Lovely friend. Yours affectionately Your loving friend. The country is plain. The country is flat. He got nearly cent percent marks. He got nearly full marks. We live in Tribal Area. We live in a (or the) Tribal Area. He is best player. He is the best player The London is big city. London is a big city. I live in the Bengal. I live in Bengal The Gold is yellow. Gold is yellow Himalayas are Mountains. The Himalayas are mountains. Man is member of the ociety. Man is a member of society. We should love the God. We should love god. Many are Gods of Hinduism. Many are the Gods of Hinduism. What a fun. What fun. We had picnic. We had a picnic. VERB Ram said can he go home. Ram asked if he could go home. He does not care of my words. He pays no attention to what I say. He does not care for money. He does not take care of his money. He said that he saw him last year. He said that he had seen him last year. I have left scouting. I have given up scouting. I left playing. I stopped playing. He cut his pencil. He sharpened his pencil. I said to him to go. I told him to go. He said to me to go. He told me to go. He gave a speech. He made a speech My tooth is paining. My tooth is aching My foot is paining. My foot is hurting He made a lecture He gave a lecturer He took out his shoes He took off his shoes Please see my book Please look at my book 60