СТРУКТУРА СОВРЕМЕННОГО АНГЛИЙСКОГО ПРЕДЛОЖЕНИЯ

Transcription

1 МИНОБРНАУКИ РОССИИ Федеральное государственное бюджетное образовательное учреждение высшего профессионального образования «Поволжская государственная социально-гуманитарная академия» (ПГСГА) О. Н. Шалифова Е. Ю. Макеева СТРУКТУРА СОВРЕМЕННОГО АНГЛИЙСКОГО ПРЕДЛОЖЕНИЯ Рекомендовано министерством образования и науки РФ в качестве учебного пособия для студентов старших курсов факультетов иностранных языков (на английском языке) Самара 2015

2 УДК 81.2 Англ. Ш 20 Печатается по решению редакционно-издательского совета Поволжской государственной социально-гуманитарной академии Р е ц е н з е н т ы : доктор филологических наук, профессор Т.Е. Водоватова (МИР), доктор педагогических наук, доцент Ю.В. Лопухова (СГАСУ) O. Shalifova, E. Makeeva THE ENGLISH SENTENCE: STRUCTURE AND USES Ш 20 Шалифова О.Н., Макеева Е.Ю. СТРУКТУРА СОВРЕМЕННОГО АНГЛИЙСКОГО ПРЕДЛОЖЕНИЯ : учебное пособие для студентов старших курсов факультетов иностранных языков (на английском языке) / О.Н. Шалифова, Е.Ю. Макеева. Самара : ПГСГА, с. ISBN Учебное пособие предназначено для студентов языка факультетов иностранных языков и посвящено изучению синтаксического строя английского языка. Пособие содержит подробное описание структурных моделей английского предложения, а также разнообразные упражнения, направленные на активное овладение синтаксическими структурами. Материалы пособия предполагают как аудиторную, так и самостоятельную работу студентов. Пособие может быть также рекомендовано широкому кругу лиц, изучающих английский язык. ISBN Шалифова О.Н., Макеева Е.Ю., 2015 Поволжская государственная социальногуманитарная академия,

3 Contents Предисловие... 5 Unit 1. The simple sentence Structural classification of sentences Two-member and one member sentences Complete and incomplete sentences Communicative types of sentences Declarative sentences Interrogative sentences Imperative sentences Exclamatory sentences Unit 2. Parts of the sentence The main parts of the sentence The subject The predicate The agreement of the predicate with the subject The secondary parts of the sentence The object The attribute The apposition The adverbial modifier SELF-STUDY SECTION. UNIT

4 Unit 3. The composite sentence The compound sentence The complex sentence Sentences of other types The compound-complex sentence The sentence with parenthetical clauses The sentence with mutually subordinated clauses The cleft sentence SELF-STUDY SECTION. UNIT Answer Key Bibliography List of abbreviations

5 ПРЕДИСЛОВИЕ Настоящее пособие предназначается для студентов факультетов иностранных языков и посвящается изучению синтаксического строя английского языка. Пособие содержит подробное описание структурных моделей английского предложения, а также разнообразные упражнения, направленные на активное практическое овладение представленными синтаксическими структурами. Синтаксический строй английского языка описывается с позиций современной английской литературной грамматической нормы. Особенности построения и употребления тех или иных синтаксических структур в современном английском языке иллюстрируются многочисленными примерами из современной британской и американской художественной литературы. Кроме того, при составлении пособия использовался материал представленных в сети Интернет британского и американского языковых корпусов, отражающих дискурсивно-функциональные особенности различных синтаксических структур современного английского языка. Учебное пособие состоит из трех основных разделов и двух разделов для самостоятельной работы. Разделы рекомендуется прорабатывать в порядке их расположения, закрепляя знание теории путем выполнения представленных в конце каждой темы упражнений. Ряд заданий для самостоятельной работы снабжен ключами. Общая практическая ориентация пособия позволила включить в него не только упражнения аналитического характера, целью которых является обеспечение понимания правил построения различных синтаксических конструкций, формирование умения распознавать и объяснять те или иные явления английского синтаксиса, но и многочисленные условно-речевые упражнения на заполнение пропусков, выбор правильного варианта, грамматические трансформации, отработку по моделям, распознавание и исправление ошибок, переводы, перифразы и т.д. Коммуникативная 5

6 направленность пособия обеспечивается включением в него речевых упражнений, формирующих навыки употребления изучаемых грамматических конструкций в ситуациях межличностного общения. Пособие может быть использовано на курсах повышения квалификации преподавателей неязыковых вузов и школ, а также лицами, изучающими английский язык самостоятельно. 6

7 UNIT 1. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE A sentence is a unit of speech whose grammatical structure conforms to the laws of the language and which serves as the chief means of conveying a thought. A sentence is not only a means of communicating something about reality but also a means of showing the speaker s attitude to it. Thus, sentences are regarded from the point of view of their structure and their communicative value STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES From the point of view of their structure, sentences can be: Simple or composite (compound and complex); Two-member or one-member (extended and unextended); Complete or incomplete. The difference between the simple sentence and the composite sentence lies in the fact that the simple sentence contains only one predicative line and the composite sentence more than one. Subject-predicate units that form composite sentences are called clauses. He works in Edinburgh [RP] (one subject-predicate unit = a simple sentence). It was a small and shabby all-night café [JR] (one subject-predicate unit = a simple sentence). Now that he thought about it, Jade hardly left the nursery night or day [CM] (two subject-predicate units, or two clauses = a composite sentence). My hair used to grow pretty fast in those days, but I didn t have time to pay another visit to the barber before he arrived on my front doorstep [JH] (three subjectpredicate units, or three clauses = a composite sentence) TWO-MEMBER AND ONE MEMBER SENTENCES The basic pattern of a simple sentence in English is a subjectpredicate unit. It has two main syntactic positions: that of the subject and that of the predicate. It is the pattern of a twomember sentence: 7

8 She was alone [RP]. Then he smiled [JH]. Harry got to his feet [JR]. He gave her the box with a slightly sardonic smile [MM]. At the bottom of the stairs he paused, hesitating [RP]. A one-member sentence is a sentence having only one principal part which is neither the subject nor the predicate. This does not mean, however, that the other member is missing, for the one member makes the sense complete. One-member sentences are generally used in descriptions and in emotional speech. In English one-member sentences may be of two types: nominal sentences and verbal sentences. Nominal sentences are those in which the principal part is expressed by a noun. The noun may be modified by attributes: Great joy, but also great pain [CM]. The relief of it. Home. Her own house, her own possessions [RP]. Thirteen million pounds. The chance to get out of Gillanbone and perpetual obscurity, the chance to take his place within the hierarchy of Church administration, the assured goodwill of his peers and superiors [CM]. In verbal sentences the principal part is expressed by a nonfinite form of the verb, either an infinitive or a gerund: And of all days to talk about dying! [MM] Oh, to do this to a fine man like you! [MM] Oh, God, to be alive, to be really alive! To embrace the night, and living, and be free! [CM] Oh, to be back at Tara, no matter how hard the life might be! [MM] Simple sentences, both two-member and one-member, can be unextended and extended. A sentence consisting only of the primary or principal parts is called an unextended sentence: The unthinkable had happened [JH]. He was reluctant [SS]. I promise [RP]. 8

9 It was a dream. You re here. I m here. It s over. You re awake [RP]. Finally, the truth [JR]. A sabbatical. A year [RP]. An extended sentence is a sentence consisting of the subject, the predicate and one or more secondary parts (objects, attributes, or adverbial modifiers): It was icily cold [RP]. Langdon lifted the box [DB]. The hotel was incredibly luxurious [CM]. There was a long pause. Then Archie grinned [RP]. His words were followed by a burst of laughter [JH]. Cedric was still looking politely bewildered [JR]. One-member sentences can also be extended: A dull day in the middle of March [RP]. Oh, to have such a mean sister! [MM] A broad face with high, wide cheekbones and a small yet aquiline nose. Thick black brows, straight instead of following the curve of the orbits [CM] COMPLETE AND INCOMPLETE SENTENCES A two-member sentence may be either complete or incomplete (elliptical). It is complete when it has a subject and a predicate: I shook my head [JH]. You look amazing [RP]. Three months earlier the aged chairman had died [AH]. It is incomplete when one of the principal parts or both of them are missing, but can be easily understood from the context. Such sentences are called elliptical and are mostly used in colloquial speech and especially in dialogue: Um really? How old is she now? Constance faltered. Sixteen. Nearly half your age, said Constance and beamed her widest smile [CM]. 9

10 What are you reading? George Elliot. The Mill on the Floss [RP]. Hiding, are you? [JR] Where are you going? To Rome, to the Vatican. How long will you be away? Oh, a very long time, I think [CM] COMMUNICATIVE TYPES OF SENTENCES The sentence is a minimal unit of communication. From the viewpoint of their role in the process of communication sentences are divided into four types, grammatically marked: declarative, interrogative, imperative, exclamatory sentences. These types differ in the aim of communication and express statements, questions, commands and exclamations respectively and are usually applied to simple sentences: Sophie jumped in the back seat [DB] (statement). What does that mean? [RP] (question). Go to Mrs. Elsing s, and explain everything very carefully and tell her to please come up here [MM] (command). No one tells me anything! Blimey, you could have mentioned it! [JR] (exclamation) DECLARATIVE SENTENCES A declarative sentence contains a statement which gives the reader or the listener some information about events, activities, attitudes, thoughts or feelings. Statements form the bulk of monological speech, and the greater part of conversation. In a declarative sentence the subject precedes the predicate. It is generally pronounced with a falling intonation, marked by a pause in speaking and by a full stop in writing. We re expecting them now [AH]. He sat up. His body appeared unscathed. He touched his face [JR]. Scarlett caught him by the arms [MM]. A statement may be positive / affirmative (1) or negative (2): (1) I have a thousand things to do [RP]. 10

11 (1) The old man was looking at him quizzically [AH]. (2) It was not an easy walk [RP]. (2) Nobody was watching. Nobody else was there [JR]. (2) It never occurred to me [CM]. Declarative sentences are mostly two-member sentences, although they may be one-member sentences, as in: Silence. Stilled, absolute silence, breaking like waves on distended eardrums; unbearable silence. Five minutes before ten, exactly [CM]. Finally, the truth [JR]. In conversation, statements are often structurally incomplete, especially when they serve as a response to a question asking for some information, and the response conveys the most important idea: Where exactly do you inject this new stuff, then? In the neck [JH]. Shall we decide tomorrow? If you want. What time shall we start? Early, I think [RP]. Father, will you go away, too? Will you? One day, Meggie [CM] INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES Interrogative sentences contain questions. Their communicative function consists in asking for information. They belong to the sphere of conversation and only occasionally occur in monological speech. All varieties of questions may be structurally reduced to two main types, general questions (also called yes-no questions) and pronominal questions (otherwise called special or wh -questions). Both are graphically identified by a question mark. The two main types have a number of structural and communicative modifications. General questions In general questions the speaker wonders whether some event or phenomenon asked about exists or does not exist; ac- 11

12 cordingly the answer may be positive or negative, thus containing or implying yes or no A general question opens with an auxiliary, modal, or link verb followed by the subject. In other words, it is formed by means of inversion, i.e. by placing the predicate (or part of it) before the subject. Such questions are characterized by the rising tone: Have you seen the girl this morning? [AH] Do you remember the words in your Bible history? [CM] Was he argumentative? Did he like to get into fights? [SS] A negative yes-no question usually adds some emotional colouring of surprise or disappointment: Don t you ever drink wine? [RP] Didn t she tell you about my store? [MM] But didn t the doctor protest? [RP] Disjunctive questions A disjunctive question / a tag question is a short yes-no question added to a statement. It consists only of an auxiliary, modal or link verb prompted by the predicate verb of the statement and a pronoun prompted by the subject. The first part is spoken with a falling intonation and the second part with a rising intonation: She died in an accident, didn t she? [SS] Well, Meggie girl, you ve had quite a day, haven t you? [CM] The Chamber of Secrets was supposed to be a myth, wasn t it? [RP] A tag question is added to a statement for confirmation and therefore is sometimes called a confirmative question. The speaker expects the listener to share his view of some situation rather than to give him some new information. The most usual patterns of sentences with tag questions are as follows: You enjoyed yourself tonight, didn t you? [CM] (affirmative statement negative tag) 12

13 Frank, you re not really going away, are you? [CM] (negative statement affirmative tag) The falling tone of the tag is also possible. It makes the whole sentence sound like a statement. The speaker actually knows the answer and can do without it. This pattern is less frequently used: But you found another way, did you? [JR] (affirmative statement affirmative tag) So she didn t scream, didn t she? [COCA] (negative statement negative tag) This sentence pattern is often used when the speaker comes to a conclusion concerning some event. Such sentences may begin with the conjunction so: So... found out about the dragons, have you? [JR] So you like Care of Magical Creatures, do you? [JR] Alternative questions An alternative question implies a choice between two or more alternative answers. Like a yes-no question, it opens with an auxiliary, modal or link verb, but the suggestion of choice expressed by the disjunctive conjunction or makes the yes-no answer impossible. The conjunction or links either two homogeneous parts of the sentence or two coordinate clauses. The part of the question before the conjunction is characterized by a rising tone, the part after the conjunction has a falling tone: Did the driver pay by check or credit card? [SS] Was he studying, or was he looking for things to help him through the first task? [JR] Was that your idea or Alexa s? [RP] An alternative question may sometimes resemble a pronominal question beginning with a question word: Who needs more sleep, men or women? [COCA] How old is he, eight or nine? [CM] 13

14 What s the best way to fight the war on drugs, jail or treatment? [COCA] Sometimes the alternative contains only a negation instead of the other option. This makes the question a general one, since it calls for a yes-no answer Are you going to co-operate or not? [AH] Should he try for Nurse Penfield or not? [AH] Suggestive questions Suggestive / declarative questions form a peculiar kind of yes-no questions. They keep the word order of statements but serve as questions owing to the rising tone in speaking and a question mark in writing, as in: And you don t have to touch the foot at all? [JH] You are sure you do not want to sleep with Pier? [SS] Security took fifteen minutes to get here? [DB] You say you ve made money? [MM] By their communicative function suggestive questions resemble sentences with tag questions; they are asked for the sake of confirmation. The speaker is all but sure what the answer will be, and by asking the question expects confirmation on the part of the addressee: You have a table ordered? Yes. A quarter to one [RP]. You really believe that is possible? We know it is [SS]. You really think that, Father? I do [CM]. Suggestive questions often contain independent elements, such as interjections, modal words or phrases, the conjunction so, parenthetical clauses, etc.: So, I ve got the job? [RP] So our little world antagonizes you? [CM] And so you volunteer to go and fetch me a substitute? [JR]. Pronominal questions Pronominal / special questions open with an interrogative pronoun or a pronominal adverb, the function of which is to get 14

15 more detailed and exact information about some event or phenomenon known to the speaker and listener. The interrogative pronouns and adverbs which function as question words are as follows: what, which, who, whom, whose, where, when, why, how and others. Adverbial phrases such as how long, how often may also function as question words. The tone of pronominal questions is usually a falling one. Question words may have various syntactical functions in the sentence, depending upon the information the speaker wants to obtain: Who s avoiding you? [JR] (subject) But what was happening to her life? [RP] (subject) Who is Fanny marrying? [MM] (object) Whom shall I give the money to? (object) What s the problem now? [RP] (predicative) Who was she? [RP] (predicative) What kind of achievement am I seeking? [AH] (attribute) Which book is most special to me? (attribute) When would he reply? [JR] (adverbial of time) How long have you been here, Dobby? [JR] (adverbial of time) How much did you lose? [MM] (adverbial of degree) Word order in a pronominal question is characterized by inversion of the predicate or part of it and the subject. Inversion does not take place when the question word is the subject or an attribute to the subject: Who wants to have a go? [CM] What happened? What made you do it, Ashley? [SS] Whose car was stolen from this road last week? [BNC] A question word may be preceded by a preposition: On whose instructions did you tear it up? [AH] On what occasion would you lie? [COCA] In colloquial English it is preferable to shift the preposition to the end of the question: What are they looking at? [DB] 15

16 What does he want it for? [AH] What were they talking about? [JR] Pronominal questions are often used as short responses. Then they consist of a question word or a question word and a preposition: I want you to do one thing for me now. What? [AH]. She wants me to go with her, alone. Why? [JR] He s going to find out anyway. How? [JR] Johnny... lying here... I ve been thinking. What about? [AH] I can t thank you enough, Anne. Pish, for what? [CM] Pronominal questions can be also employed as echo questions. The speaker does not ask for any information, but rather questions the whole idea of the previous remark. The tone is rising and the question word is heavily stressed. They express surprise, incredulity and sometimes incomprehension: I m going to be an actress. A what? An actress. [CM] I would like to say a few words of explanation before we bring in the casket The what? Harry muttered [JR]. Lucilla rang from London and she s coming home tomorrow and she s bringing Pandora with her. She s bringing who? [RP] Rhetorical questions Both general and pronominal questions may serve as rhetorical questions. A rhetorical question contains a statement disguised as a question. Usually it is an affirmative question hiding a negative statement. No answer is expected: What was there in that whining complaining girl to make this old fool so anxious to give her a soft nest? [MM] (There was nothing in her ) 16

17 So you have been doing very nicely at Tara, have you? [MM] (But I see that you haven t ) In their form and intonation rhetorical questions do not differ from standard question types. The difference lies in their communicative aim. A rhetorical question does not ask for any new information. It implies a statement and is always emotionally coloured. Besides, it is employed to attract the listener s attention. Since rhetorical questions do not require an answer, they are not followed by a response. The speaker may give an answer himself to clarify his idea. Rhetorical questions are employed in monological speech, especially in oratory, and poetry in the writer s digressions: Why couldn t he have been born small, twisted, ugly? If he were so, he might have been happy [CM]. I do doubt. What thinking man doesn t? [CM] IMPERATIVE SENTENCES Imperative sentences express commands which serve to induce a person to do something. Besides commands proper, imperative sentences may express prohibition, a request, an invitation, a warning, persuasion, etc., depending on the situation, context, wording, or intonation: Place the box beside the door [DB]. Tell me about Alexa and London [RP]. Help me protect Lily s son [JR]. Please, let me see her! [CM] Commands are generally characterized by the falling tone, although the rising tone may be used to make a command less abrupt. In writing commands are marked by a full stop or an exclamation mark. A negative command usually expresses prohibition, warning or persuasion: Don t start the argument all over again [JT]. Oh, darling, don t be cross [RP]. Don t tell anybody [RP]. 17

18 Commands can be softened and made into requests with the help of the word please, the rising tone, a tag question or a yesno question beginning with will or would: You won t do too much, will you? [RP] Open the door, please [AH]. Hold his head, will you, please? [JH] Would you mind giving me that license number? [SS] Formally commands are marked by the predicate verb in the imperative mood. The subject expressed by the pronoun you occurs when it is necessary to specify the subject or to convey the speaker s personal attitude to the event presented in the sentence (for example, irritation, anger, threat, impatience): You keep out of this [SS]. Now, Jeff, you come and sit here, beside me [RP]. You go and fight your way through the dementors, then [JR]. Don t you come any closer [COCA]. In the case of the first person plural and the third person singular and plural subjects, the imperative let is followed by a personal pronoun in the objective case: Let him bear the shame alone [CM]. Let them find out from someone else [MM]. Then let us make plans [RP]. There are two negative constructions with let for the first person: Oh, come on! Let s not go through that old routine [AH]. Let s not worry about that now [RP]. Don t let us take any unnecessary risks! [JT] Well, don t let us hold you up [JR]. A third-person command admits of only one negative construction: Don t ever let him leave Drogheda, Meggie [CM]. Please don t let my father get away with that [AH]. Do not let others shame you for this [DB]. 18

19 A first-person command often implies invitation or suggestion and may be followed by the tag shall we: Let s go and see your Auntie Mary, shall we? [CM] Let s not waste our talents on small talk, shall we? [AH] Commands are sometimes expressed without an imperative verb: Champions over here, please! [JR] No, Daddy, no! Oh, Frank, please! Please, please! [CM] She picked up the telephone again. The chief engineer, please [AH]. Silence! Sister Agatha hissed, turning on her [CM]. Knives and forks, please, you two [JR] EXCLAMATORY SENTENCES An exclamatory sentence expresses some kind of emotion or feeling. The main distinctive feature of exclamatory sentences is a specific intonation, structurally they may be different: You must have been reading a newspaper! [MM] (statement) Show us! Yes, show us! [CM] (command) Isn t it marvellous! [JH] (yes-no question) If only he and Paddy got on better together! [CM] (pseudo-subordinate clause) Thirty-two years! And to have it end like this! [AH] (one-member sentences) The most common pattern of an exclamatory sentence opens with one of the pronominal words what and how. What refers to a noun, how to an adjective or an adverb. An exclamatory sentence has a subject-predicate structure; the order of the subject and the predicate verb is not inverted. An exclamation has a falling tone in speaking and an exclamation mark in writing: Oh, what a mess life was! [MM] What a cynic you are! [CM] How fair a gem gleams on a lovely wrist! How beautifully gold brooches glitter on the bosoms of our patriotic women! [MM] 19

20 How beautiful the stars are, and the Moon! [JT] Exclamatory sentences can be reduced to the word or phrase immediately following the exclamatory signals what or how. Oh, how beautiful! How touching! [MM] Dr. O Donnell, how nice to hear from you! [AH] How like Mary to bait me! [CM] What a soppy name! [CM] Oh, what a clever idea! [RP] EXERCISES Exercise 1. Define the kinds of sentences according to the purpose of utterance. 1. She ll be buried tomorrow? She ll have to be [CM]. 2. You stay in bed, Mr. Herriot [JH]. 3. LET S GO! Harry yelled [JR]. 4. Shut up, you fool! Do you want to scare the ladies? [MM]. 5. Tell me about the house in London [RP]. 6. Oh, stop being so unselfish [MM]. 7. Robert, check the service schedule, will you? Who is presiding this week? [DB]. 8. But Ashley had left Melanie in her care. Take care of her. Oh, that beautiful, heartbreaking day when he had kissed her good-by before he went away forever! You ll take care of her, won t you? Promise! And she had promised. Why had she ever bound herself with such a promise? [MM]. 9. Why on earth didn t you mention it before? [JT]. 10. Well, don t stand there like a ninny. Go down to Mrs. Merriwether s and ask her to come up or send her mammy. Now, hurry [MM]. 11. How kind you are and how clever! How can I ever thank you enough? [MM]. 12. Do not react to this message. Just listen calmly [DB]. 13. Why, she was three times as attractive as Fanny and Maybelle! Oh, how unfair life was! [MM]. 14. No! Meggie hugged the doll close again, tears forming. No, you ll break her! Oh, Jack, don t take her away you ll break her! [CM]. 15. For God s sakes, will you stop that terrible noise! [SS] 16. Will you have tea, Father? [CM]. 17. Jack, you go south along the fire line. Hughie, you go southwest. I m going west. Mum and Meggie, you go northwest [CM]. 18. Light! he 20

21 cried. Can anybody make a light? [JT] 19. Let s try and look for some more Horcruxes, shall we? [JR]. 20. Peter McDermott inquired sharply, Who are you? Do you mean who or what? [AH]. 21. How smart you must be! [MM]. 22. Return to the back wall and turn around. Langdon obeyed [DB]. Exercise 2. Define the type of question. 1. Haven t you got a map? and didn t you hear our song? and haven t we been talking about all this for hours? [JT]. 2. Mary made a new will? Without me? [CM]. 3. Where did you take this? [RP] 4. Did you or your husband, either separately or together, use the car on Monday evening? [AH]. 5. Isn t it extraordinary? [RP] 6. Would a woman of Melanie s high principles champion the cause of a guilty woman, especially a woman guilty with her own husband? [MM]. 7. Have you had breakfast? [RP]. 8. Why should you give up your life here and go off to work for her on the strength of a promise given in a letter? [CM]. 9. You re not a Catholic, are you? [CM] 10. Are you asking me to marry you? [MM]. 11. Ah well, but she got him in the end, didn t she? Can she afford all this expense? [RP]. 12. Didn t you know? Didn t I write you? My dear, you have been buried at Tara, haven t you? [MM]. 13. Do you want to stay here, or do you want to come down to the kitchen and watch me? [RP]. 14. So he s still in love with you? Well, what if he is? cried Scarlett, goaded [MM]. 15. Was that his idea or your idea? Does it matter? [RP] 16. Did Mum give you your present? [CM]. 17. But which flame burns the brightest, charcoal or gas? [COCA]. 18. It sounds like Langdon and Neveu stole something from Saunière s account. What? Collet blurted. How? [DB]. 19. Why wouldn t people do as they were supposed to do, live their lives with logic, reason, common sense? Why couldn t husbands love their wives and wives love husbands and children love everyone? Why must body grow older than the minds that fuel them? [COCA]. 20. Oh, Meggie! What have I done to you? How could I have been so blind, so utterly self-centered? All these years we ve been loving at crosspurposes [CM]. 21. You remember him, don t you? [CM]. 21

22 22. And when did you first become a firearms officer? [BNC]. 23. So you could not love me? [MM] Exercise 3. Translate the following sentences into English and define their communicative types. 1. Почему бы ему не извиниться? Это было бы справедливо. 2. Мне понравилась эта передача, а вам? Да, очень! 3. Какая замечательная мысль! Давайте вместе поможем ей. 4. Разве вы не поедете с нами за город? Нет, не поеду. 5. Закройте окно, пожалуйста. Неужели вам не мешает шум? 6. Когда вывесят результаты экзамена? Не знаю, спроси у старосты. 7. Давай поболеем за нашу команду. Ты собираешься пойти на стадион или посмотреть матч по телевизору? А ты бы как хотел? 8. Разве тебя не раздражает ее болтовня? Да нет, очень раздражает. Она жуткая болтушка! 9. Это ты оставил холодильник открытым? Не пытайся свалить вину на меня! Я к нему близко не подходил. 10. Вам назначили встречу на четверг или на пятницу? Секундочку, я загляну в ежедневник. 11. Классно выглядишь! Где ты достал такую модную рубашку? 12. Ты меня не слушал или не понял? Соберись и сделай это, как положено. 13. Вечно он опаздывает! Как можно было ему доверить такое важное задание? 14. Разве наше соглашение все еще в силе? Да, приходите, когда вам удобно. 15. Где здесь запасной выход? Пройдите до конца коридора, а потом налево. Но он может быть закрыт. Exercise 4. Point out two-member sentences (say whether they are complete or elliptical) and one-member sentences. 1. Nothing was out of place. Nothing had changed [RP]. 2. This was different. Justine didn t like it. Old. Mum, old! What was happening on Drogheda? Was Mum trying to conceal some serious trouble? Was Nanna ill? One of the Unks? God forbid, Mum herself? [CM]. 3. Listening, she caught the tiny muted sounds that were part of this quiet. A distant cowbell. The soft cackling murmur of contended hens, hidden away somewhere in the garden but clearly audible. The stirring of the breeze. A 22

23 whole new world. Farther away still were London, her flat, her job fading into unreality. I could stay here. A small voice, a hand tugging at her sleeve. This is a place where I could stay [RP]. But this was unthinkable [RP]. 4. You cruel thing! Her beau, nothing! [MM]. 5. She was outrageous [RP]. 6. He shook his head unbelievingly and muttered, That s all? Longest day... ever remember living [AH]. 7. A whole new world [RP]. 8. Oh, God, to be alive, to be really alive! To embrace the night, and living, and be free! [CM]. 9. The basic colour was white. Olivia loved white. The colour of luxury, the colour of light. White tiled floor, white walls, white curtains. Knobby white cotton on the deep, sinfully comfortable sofas and chairs, white lamps and shades. Cushions of scarlet and Indian pink, Spanish rugs, startling abstracts framed in silver [RP]. 10. Oh, to have to sit here, a wallflower against her will and see Fanny or Maybelle lead the first reel as the belle of Atlanta! [MM]. 11. Her family, here [RP]. 12. He spun around. Albus Dumbledore was walking toward him. Harry. He spread his arms wide, and his hands were both whole and white and undamaged. You wonderful boy. You brave, brave man [JR]. 13. There was always space, a relaxed welcome, delicious food, everything or nothing to do. Fires flickering, fragrant flowers, hot baths; warm comfortable beds, fine wines, and easy conversation. All gone. The house and garden sold to strangers. He sighed. It all seemed a long time ago. Another world [RP]. 14. They did not kiss. They never kissed [RP]. 15. Keycase slammed the trunk lid down. For the first time, Clancy saw the Michigan license plate. Michigan. Green on white. In the depths of Clancy s brain, memory stirred. Had it been today, yesterday, the day before?... His platoon commander, on parade, reading the latest bulletins aloud... Something about green and white... Clancy wished he could remember. Clancy tried. He always had [AH]. Exercise 5. Point out extended and unextended sentences, say if there are one-member sentences among them. 1. She sighed. Perhaps the doctor was right [RP]. 2. Home! The sprawling white house with fluttering white curtains at the windows, the thick clover on the lawn with the bees 23

24 busy in it, the little black boy on the front steps shooing the ducks and turkeys from the flower beds, the serene red fields and the miles and miles of cotton turning white in the sun! Home! [MM]. 3. Dornberger spoke first. He spoke quietly, without antagonism. He said, The baby died, Joe. Pearson said slowly, Yes. I heard. I ve told Dr. O Donnell everything that happened. Dornberger s voice was unsteady. I m sorry, Joe. Pearson made a small, helpless gesture with his hands. There was no trace of his old aggressiveness. He said expressionlessly, It s all right [AH]. 4. The dog, disturbed, awoke and raised his head, and stared at Noel. Noel stared back. The dog turned into two dogs. He was drunk. He had not slept for ever. He would not sleep now. He was not sleeping [RP]. 5. He wanted to reedit his life, to give it a happy ending. Too late. Life did not give second chances. He was alone [SS]. 6. Nothing looked too urgent [RP]. 7. What is there to know, or guess? Only futility, and loneliness. Doubt, pain. Always pain [CM]. 8. Kent O Donnell had not spoken during his progress through the hospital. There had been plenty of danger signs. Rufus and Reubens had warned him. But no! He, Kent O Donnell, M.D., chief of surgery, medical-board president off with your hats for a fine, big man! And where had he been all this time he, the great man of medicine? Wallowing in hospital politics, supping with Orden Brown, fawning on Eustace Swayne [AH]. 9. I don t believe it You re teasing. They re the nicest people... [MM]. 10. It s a nightmare. All traffic has stopped. What? Why? No one knows. The car engines just suddenly went dead [SS]. 11. He gave a gentle push [DB]. 12. She barely got the words out. There s been terrible accident! One of the elevators. I was in the lobby It s horrible! People are trapped... They re screaming [AH]. 13. You were muttering in your sleep. Ron sounded worried [JR]. 14. Yes... this could be a cut. But there s something unusual about it [JH]. 15. Frank s forgotten us... You will, too [CM]. 16. Langdon dialed the number. The line began to ring. One ring... two rings... three rings... Finally the call connected [DB]. 17. Roger, with a sigh of relief, gave himself up to the joys of privacy. Peace. Quiet. No Fiona [COCA]. 18. The chapter ended here. Harry looked up. Hermione had reached the bottom of the page before him. She tugged the book out of Har- 24

25 ry s hands, looking a little alarmed by his expression. Harry But he shook his head. All was ashes [JR]. Exercise 6. Read the following extracts. Point out one-member and incomplete sentences. Decide which parts of incomplete sentences are deleted and why. Rewrite these sentences making them complete. 1. Is there nobody to meet you? No. Nobody. I live alone and everybody thinks I m still in the hospital. Be all right, will you? She smiled into his kindly face. He was quite young, with fair bushy hair. Of course. She went in and the young man followed her, setting her case on the floor. Anything else I can do? Not a thing. Now, how much do I owe you? [RP]. 2. My wife lives in Weybridge. We re divorced. So, you re alone. Not entirely. I have a daughter. How old? Thirteen. What are you called? Olivia Keeling. Where are you staying? At Los Pinos. Are you alone? No, with friends. [RP] 3. You re not happy, Frank, are you? Father Ralph asked, lying down with a sigh and rolling another smoke. From his position a couple of feet away Frank turned to look at him suspiciously. What s happy? At the moment, your father and brothers. But not you, not your mother, and not your sister. Don t you like Australia? Not this bit of it. I want to go to Sydney. I might have a chance there to make something of myself [CM] 25

26 4. The pain. It was like those first few days after Dane died. The same sort of futile, wasted, unavoidable pain. The same anguished impotence. No, of course there was nothing she could do. No way of making up, no way. Scream! The kettle was whistling already. Hush, kettle, hush! Hush for Mummy! How does it feel to be Mummy s only child, kettle? [CM] 5. Elizabeth was sitting in her library, something new. How old was she now? Thirty-three in September. His own fortyeighth birthday was only a few weeks away. Now they really had been married for more than half of her life. An eternity, she had called it. And so it was, if eternity were flexible, and who was to say that it was not? A philosophers squabble [CM]. 6. They were married in London, at St. Margaret s, Westminster. And what a wedding that was! Ten lovely bridesmaids, all in white dresses, like a flock of swans. And after the wedding we all went to another very grand hotel called the Ritz. And there was champagne and such a spread of food you didn t know where to start. Were there jellies? Jellies in every colour. Yellow and red and green. And there was cold salmon and wee sandwiches you could eat with your fingers, and frosted grapes all sparkling with sugar [RP]. Exercise 7. Translate the following sentences into English paying attention to the structure and use of elliptical and one-member sentences. 1. Весна. Пенье птиц. Повсюду пьянящий аромат цветущих садов. 2. У меня к тебе один вопрос. Какой? 3. Вчера я снова видел эту девушку. Где? В автобусе. 4. Ты все собрал? Нет еще. И так успею. 5. Раннее утро. Рассвет. Кругом ни души. 6. Еще чаю? Да, пожалуйста. Только без сахара. 7. Снова этот звук. Словно шаркающие шаги, приближающиеся к двери. И опять тишина. 8. И во сколько она вернулась? В восемь. Не сказала ни слова. Это в ее стиле. 9. Он опять опоздал? Как раз наоборот! Явился первым! 10. Шесть утра. Темно. Звенит будильник. Время вставать. 11. Когда ты об этом узнал? Вчера. От двоюродного брата. 26

27 12. Какой был день, чудо! 13. Тебе помочь? Нет, я сам. 14. Подумать только! И как ты мог уговорить ее! 15. Домой собираешься? А ты? Через полчасика. Тебя подвезти? Нет, спасибо, мне в другую сторону. Как-нибудь в другой раз. Exercise 8. Complete the questions in the questionnaire below, then choose one of the questionnaires and write your own answers. You and your clothes Example: Do you dress before breakfast or after? I usually dress before breakfast. 1. you wear the same kind of clothes five years ago as you do today? 2. someone else buy your clothes for you? 3. you ever bought anything and then not worn it? 4. you fashion conscious? 5. does it take you to get dressed in the morning? 6. do you wear when you go to a party? 7. pairs of shoes do you have? Your best friend 1. has this person been your best friend? 2. were you when you first met? At school, work or somewhere else? 3. your friend born in the same year as you? 4. quality do you like most in your best friend? 5. your friend s personality similar or different to you? 6. does most of the talking, you or your friend? 7. you ever argue with your friend? What about? 8. you ever lent your friend any money? Exercise 9. Complete these questions with a tag. 1. You couldn t lend me some money,? 2. You ve always lived in the same house,? 3. You wouldn t refuse to give a beggar money,? 4. You like classical music,? 5 You don t mind people gossiping about you,? 6 You d never steal anything,? 27

28 7 You used to have a different hair style,? 8 You d better work harder,? 9 They don t dislike you,? 10 Let s go to an opera this evening,? Exercise 10. a) Give advice on these problems by finishing the sentences below. Example: My boyfriend says he wants us to split up. If I were you, I d talk to him and try to find out why. 1. I can t get up in time to go to work. You should 2. I m hopeless at maths and I need to do well at it. The best thing to do 3. I can t keep my weight down. Why don t you try 4. Our neighbours are incredibly noisy. I suggest you 5. My boss says I don t work hard enough. Don t you think 6. No one ever writes me letters. You could try b) Complete these sentences with an appropriate expression for giving advice, then match the sentences with the problems in Part a. Example: If I were you, I would threaten to call the police. 1. is get to work earlier and leave a bit later. 2. writing to them first or giving them a ring. 3. eating what you like and not worrying about your weight. 4. is ask someone to give you private lessons. 5. get yourself a new alarm clock. 6. finding a job that pays more. 7. look around for someone else. Exercise 11. Think of something you bought or a service you received, which you were not happy with. In your 28

29 notebook, write a short complaining about it, including exclamatory and emphatic sentences. Exercise 12. Write a short paragraph about a person who has done something amazing. It could be a true or invented story. Use the following techniques to make it more interesting: pronouns at the begining of your story which you explain later; echoing; inversions; one-member sentences. Exercise 13. Imagine you and your friend have a week off for a trip. Work out and discuss an itinerary and program of activities based on the data below. Use all types of questions to elicit information. Winter in Britain This is the season for visits to the theatre, opera, concerts and ballet, or for discovering the treasures of the hundreds of museums and galleries throughout the country. Soccer is in full swing and there s rugby, too, with thrilling international matches at the famous grounds of Twickenham in London, Cardiff Arms Park in Wales and Murrayfield in Scotland. If you prefer four-legged sport, it s the steeplechase season, with meetings at major racecourses in all areas of Britain. If you re energetic and like to take part in sports, Scotland is the place for you at this time of year, as centres such as Aviemore have excellent facilities for winter sports and year-round holiday entertainment. If you prefer a more relaxed way of life, you can eat out by cosy candle- 29 London s attractions London has plenty to offer during the winter months, especially in the way of entertainment and the shops act like a magnet with their array of presents for the Christmas shopper, followed by bargains galore in the January sales. But it s not only London that offers value shopping most of our suburban and provincial centres have just asmuch to offer the eager shopper. Even if you re based in London,

30 light, or have a few drinks beside a roaring log fire in a country pub. you don't have to spend all your time there and that goes for all the year round, too. Take a train or coach and see what else Britain has to offer; there are many excursions, even in winter, and among the great country houses which keep their stately front doors open throughout the year are Longleat and Woburn Abbey. Hire a car and drive out into the beauty of the winter landscape the scenery is still beautiful and the people will have more time to chat to you at this time of year. Exercise 14. Find an informal you have written in your language. Try to translate it into informal English in your notebook using elliptical sentences when possible. Exercise 15. Write out instructions for a simple recipe using imperatives: boil an egg; make a cup of tea; make a cup of coffee; make a fruit salad; make an omelet; defrost a pizza. Exercise 16. Read the sentence below in six different ways, each time with a different communicative intention based on voice inflections. Explain how the very same statement can take on so many different meanings. Mind that the point is we do need to pay close attention to not only what is being said but how it is being said for this is often where the true meaning of the communication exists. Think of the initial remark. 30

31 We are not going to take a test today. 1. Statement indicating surprise. 2. Statement of fact. 3. Statement indicating that we will be doing something other than taking a test today. 4. Statement indicating some other group will be taking a test today. 5. Statement indicating we absolutely will not be taking a test today. 6. Statement indicating that we will have more than one test today. Exercise 17. Read the sentence below and decide which of them communicate potentially sensitive information to a person without upsetting or offending him or her. Think of possible situations to use them and act them out with your partner using the sentences chosen. If the customer had read the shipping instructions we wouldn t be having this problem. I think that we might be having a problem communicating this information to them. I m going to go to your boss about this if I don t see some improvements soon. Don t tell anybody, but I just happen to know something big is about to happen that is going to change the way we presently do business together. My boss is the one to blame for the mess we are in. Maybe if we tried to put more things in writing, we wouldn t be having so many misunderstandings on instructions. It must be hard to keep track of all this information. How can I help you? My seven-year-old son could do a better job on this paper work than you. 31

32 Exercise 18. Creative witing. Write down a story choosing one of the following ideas. Use only extended and unextended simple sentences. Imagine you ve invented a magic potion. What would the potion do and why would people want to take it? What is the worst job you could imagine doing and why? How would you feel in your day to day life? Invent a mundane and repetitive task. Imagine what somebody who was doing it would be thinking. 32

33 UNIT 2. PARTS OF THE SENTENCE Every sentence can be divided into certain components which are called parts of the sentence. Parts of the sentence are usually classified into main (principal) and secondary. The main parts of the sentence are the subject and the predicate. They constitute the backbone of the sentence. The secondary parts of the sentence are the object, the attribute, the apposition and the adverbial modifier. The secondary parts of the sentence modify the main parts or each other THE MAIN PARTS OF THE SENTENCE THE SUBJECT The subject is one of the two main parts of a twomember sentence which is grammatically independent of the other parts of the sentence and on which the second principal part (the predicate) is grammatically dependent, i.e. in most cases it agrees with the subject in number and person. The subject can denote a living being, a lifeless thing, an idea or an abstract notion. A typical subject in the active voice is an agent or theme, i.e. it performs the action expressed by the verb or when it is a theme, it receives a property assigned to it by the predicate. WAYS OF EXPRESSING THE SUBJECT The subject can be expressed by a single word or a group of words. Thus it can be expressed by: 1. A noun in the common case (including substantivized adjectives and participles) or a nominal phrase with a noun: The Bible represents a fundamental guidepost for millions of people on the planet [DB]. The shadow of Bertha Jorkins surveyed the battle before her with wide eyes [JR]. The blind see what they want to see [DB]. Your English is colloquial, but American [CM]. 33

34 Occasionally a noun in the possessive case can be used as the subject of the sentence: Jackson s was one of the great spectacular inaugurations in 1829 [COCA]. The light hit both of their faces at the same time, so that Voldemort s was suddenly a flaming blur [JR]. 2. A personal pronoun in the nominative case or any other demonstrative, indefinite, negative, possessive and interrogative pronoun: They had fried eggs for breakfast and fried ham for supper [MM]. This is the first step [JR]. Something was stirring at the back of my mind [JH]. No one could go forward with a load of aching memories [MM]. His was the delicate role of providing a link between the Australian hierarchy and the Vatican nerve center [CM]. Theirs was the marriage that would have a happy ending [DB]. Who could have killed him? [SS] The subject can also be expressed by the indefinite pronoun one or the personal pronouns they, you, we, which refer not to any particular person or persons but to people in general. They is used when the speaker is excluded, one when the speaker is included. These sentences often correspond to impersonal sentences in Russian: One could see he was meant for great things (СM). Сразу видно было, что ему уготовано великое будущее. Hair s inanimate; you can t like someone just because of the color of her hair [CM]. Волосы ведь неживые, нельзя же кого-то полюбить только за цвет волос. But we, when we put the thorns in our breasts, we know. We understand. And still we do it. Still we do it [CM]. Но мы, когда бросаемся грудью на тернии, мы зна- 34

35 ем. Мы понимаем. И все равно грудью на тернии. Так будет всегда. They say all surgeons are on the way to becoming extinct [AH]. Говорят, хирургов скоро не станет. 3. A numeral (cardinal or ordinal) or a nominal phrase with a numeral: Of the twelve initiatives announced in the 1988 statement, eight can be seen to lie within the general sphere of development [BNC]. The second was a guy named Fisher [COCA]. The two of us could leave here together [MM]. 4. An infinitive, an infinitive phrase or construction: To fight was the only way he knew of ridding himself of anger and pain [CM]. To do it properly requires spending time; learning how to do it [COCA]. 5. A gerund, a gerundial phrase or construction: Researching the symbols of secret societies is a specialty of mine [DB]. Talking mends no holes. (proverb) 6. Any word or words used as quotations: Yes is the right answer [COCA]. I feared that visiting the sick and the imprisoned was not your proper role [MM]. GRAMMATICAL CLASSIFICATION OF THE SUBJECT From the point of view of its grammatical value the subject may be either notional or formal. The notional subject denotes or points out a person or non-person, that is, various kinds of concrete things, substances, abstract notions or happenings. The formal subject is only a structural element of the sentence filling the position of the subject. Thus a formal subject functions only as a position-filler. In English there are two such 35

36 position-fillers: it and there. They are used as purely structural elements to make the sentence comply with the normal twomember English sentence-pattern. It as the subject of the sentence may represent a living being or a definite thing: then it is a notional subject. The so-called personal it is usually translated into Russian with the help of personal pronouns in the third person singular (он, она, оно). She wanted a taffeta petticoat so stiff that it would stand by itself and so rustly that the Lord God would think it was made of angels wings [MM]. Vivian had looked at the door. It was closed [AH]. The formal subject it is impersonal when it is used in sentences describing various states of nature, things in general, characteristics of the environment and weather or denoting time, distance, other measurements. It was getting ready to rain again [CM]. It was half-past ten before he returned [JH]. It s too far after the train ride from Sydney [CM]. It is also impersonal in sentences with the predicate expressed by the verbs to seem, to appear, to happen, to turn out followed by a clause; in sentences with predicative adjectives preceded by too and followed by an infinitive; and in sentences with the predicative expressed by the noun time followed by an infinitive. Only only, my darling, it seems that I never get the time to talk to you [MM]. It happened that I called at Beatrice s house the last time Aunt Nessy visited there the time before she was banished [BNC]. It was too late to return to bed [JH]. It is too important not to have the widest success [COCA]. It was time to get back up to the castle for the Halloween feast [JR]. The formal subject it is introductory (anticipatory) if it introduces the notional subject expressed by an infinitive, a ger- 36

37 und, an infinitive/gerundial phrase, a predicative complex, or a clause. The sentence thus contains two subjects: the formal (introductory) subject it and the notional subject, which follows the predicate. It s important to make sure the new blood is close to body temperature [AH]. It was hard not having help around the house [CM]. It gave Gerald pleasure to air his views [MM]. It was nice to have Mum treat her as another grown-up lady [MM]. It did not occur to her to seek help [CM]. It would be interesting to see the reaction of the animals [JH]. The emphatic it is used for emphasis in the principal clause of a complex sentence to emphasize the predicative the word that follows the verb to be. Sentences with emphatic it are sometimes called cleft sentences because a simple sentence is split up (cleft) into two clauses. It was his patient who was in jeopardy [AH]. It was Frank who lay closest to her heart [CM]. It s only the money I bring in interests Daddy. [CM]. Note that after the emphatic it the verb to be is always singular: In the end it was they who prevailed, it was they who pushed him [COCA]. If we want to buy a player, it is us who decide the price [BNC]. Sentences with a notional subject introduced by formal there express the existence or coming into existence of a person or non-person denoted by the subject. Such sentences may be called existential sentences. The subject of these sentences presents some new idea or the most important piece of information. The construction with there allows new and important information to come at the end of the sentence thus making this information more prominent. 37

38 There was a peculiar noise in the air [CM]. There was something comforting about his warm weight [JR]. There was no arguing with Signe in her present frame of mind [BNC]. There is why the Teacher approached me in the first place [DB]. After today there must be many changes [AH]. There appeared to be no damage [JH]. EXERCISES Exercise 1. Point out the subject of the sentence and state what it is expressed by. 1. Dr. Steven Patterson is to wed Victoria Aniston in an elaborate wedding ceremony on Long Island this Friday [SS]. 2. We haven t spoken since [DB]. 3. Only the rich could afford it [MM]. 4. The rich scent drifting from the kitchen was unmistakably roast beef [JH]. 5. Washington s is the seventh-largest Muslim community in the United States [COCA]. 6. This makes no sense [DB]. 7. Then those two went off and had a council together in some corner [JT]. 8. The second was my desire to work in fashion [COCA]. 9. Ten times twenty is two hundred [BNC]. 10. Don t be hasty is his motto [JT]. 11. To live with regret is heavy. It s hard [COCA]. 12. Everything in him was projected into the moment, the miracle [CM]. 13. But to understand is not the end of the discussion [COCA]. 14. None of the young men had joined their elders in the dining room [CM]. 15. Thinking was so hard. Everything was so hard [CM]. 16. The two of them proceeded up the dark path without speaking [JR]. 17. There is no denying that the miners suffered a humiliating defeat [BNC]. 18. It would be nice to see some of my old classmates [SS]. 19. Maybe your coming was not wholly unlooked-for [JT]. 20. Disappointed was a bit of an understatement [JR]. 38

39 Exercise 2. State the nature of it and there in the following sentences. 1. It was twenty minutes after midday [AH]. 2. He turned once more to the table and pulled out a large chart, spreading it out for her. It was an elaborate genealogy [DB]. 3. It would be hard for an individual to take a stand against them [AH]. 4. It was impossible to deny the truth [COCA]. 5. It was getting hotter by the minute [JH]. 6. It was too early for the shearing season [CM]. 7. There is nothing you can do about it 8. It was too hot to drape a great heavy piece of material around the shoulders [CM]. 9. It seems that Miss this woman, wanted to do something for the hospital [MM]. 10. It was too late for diners and too early for the theaters to be out [CM]. 11. And it seemed that Jimmy wasn t the only little boy to have this idea [JH]. 12. It appears that we may not have long to go [COCA]. 13. It turned out that he was doing very nicely in a bank in Glasgow [JH]. 14. There was something almost boyish about his enthusiasm [MM]. 15. It was almost one o clock in the morning [AH]. 16. There was no talking that night in the darkness [BNC]. 17. It would be best for Harry to send us your answer as quickly as possible in the normal way [JR]. 18. It thrilled me to see the little animal doing the job he loved [JH]. 19. It was quite impossible to keep warm in the face of that bitter high wind [CM]. 20. There were racks of herbs and bunches of onions and fresh parsley in a mug [RP]. Exercise 3. Insert the formal subject it or there. Give reasons for your choice. 1. was a broken wine bottle on the floor [SS]. 2. But is no disgrace to have calluses on your hands [CM]. 3. was the Monday of the last week at school, and her birthday was only two days away. was time to leave for work [SS]. 4. was no problem with Jimmy [JH]. 5. seemed to me that I never stopped climbing stairs. But was a beautiful house, filled with precious things. And was always something going on-people calling, or dinner parties, and guests arriving through the front door in their fine clothes [RP]. 6. was her father s 39

40 voice [SS]. 7. was fear in every heart [MM]. 8. was a small girl, probably four or five [AH]. 9. a) too windy. was no use going to the beach. b) was no wind, though was very cold. 10. a) is a lady wanting you on the phone. b) is Ms. Johnson who wants to speak to you at once. 11. a)... is another letter from Polly, isn t... fine? b)... was another of his letters, and... was a lot of bitterness expressed there. 12. a) Is... so serious? Is... really much to be worried about? b)... is nothing serious about it.... is no cause for anxiety whatsoever. 13. a)... was a great joy to get the news of our team s victory.... was a celebration ahead. b)... was joy written all over his face.... was no sham. 14. a)... could be anybody... was difficult to see through the mist. b)... was nobody in the house.... could be no mistake about it is about ten already.... is time to start. b)... is all the time we need.... is no need to be in a hurry. 16. a) is dangerous to play with fire. b) is much danger in playing with fire. 17. a) If is time to have lunch, let s go. b) If is time to have medicine, go and take it. 18. a) will be a lot of rain tomorrow. b) will be a fine day tomorrow. Exercise 4. Translate the following sentences into English using the formal subject it or there. 1. В ее словах было горькое разочарование. Тяжело было осознать такое. 2. Десять утра. В приемной никого не было. В это было трудно поверить. 3. Казалось, она была с нами откровенна. 4. В ближайшие десять лет войны в Европе не будет. 5. Именно Черчилль предложил разделить Европу на сферы влияния. 6. В его жизни были ошибки и поражения. 7. Уже темнеет. Пора идти домой. 8. Это просто гроза. Бояться нечего. 9. Не может быть! Это не правда! 10. Все было кончено. Надежды не было. Настала пора прощаться. 11. И все же было здорово узнать, что есть неравнодушные люди. 12. Казалось, за дверью кто-то есть. 13. Послышался звонкий смех, а потом вновь наступила тишина. 14. Необходимо строго соблюдать схему лечения. 40

41 Exercise 5. Point out the subject in the following sentences, characterize it. Translate the sentences into Russian. 1. Smoking is linked both to lung cancer and coronary heart disease (BNC). 2. Then one can try to prevent the same thing occurring again [AH]. 3. There was nothing unusual in relatives coming to spend the Christmas holidays and remaining until July [MM]. 4. Black is not your color. Life is not a funeral, you know [COCA]. 5. Which of you is responsible for the long periods of separation? [BNC]. 6. And going to her house was the greatest of treats [RP]. 7. It is easier to destroy ten missiles than one thousand [COCA]. 8. The wounded flooded Atlanta in train-loads [MM]. 9. Now, only money counts. To be honest is valueless [COCA]. 10. The privileged lucky ones disappeared from the city for the summer [COCA]. 11. There was something awful in her eyes [CM]. 12. Her skin looks as green as an old cheese [MM]. 13. It was useless to speculate about what might be coming [JR]. 14. Yes, you re right, one does speak a slightly bizarre English up here [CM]. 15. How we choose to use our money is none of your affair [RP]. 16. There was very little we could do for him. Even talking to him was not helpful [COCA]. 17. Surely there must be something soon in the way of news [AH]. 18. It was now nearly seven-thirty [RP]. 19. Twenty is tough to get because you have to have a lot of stuff happen [COCA]. 20. Something was slithering toward him along the dark corridor floor [JR]. 21. There s a portrait of her in the dining-room [RP]. 22. Helping protect civilians is an aspiration, not a mission [COCA]. 23. The man was a little taller than the woman. He had black hair. Hers was red [COCA]. Exercise 6. Translate the following sentences into English paying attention to the expression of the subject. 1. Очень важно прибыть на место вовремя. 2. Пора уходить. 3. Трижды три девять. 4. Нехорошо так думать о своих друзьях. 5. С ней было невозможно спорить. Она твердила свое. 6. Возвращаться в город было слишком поздно. 7. Бесполезно было пытаться помочь им. 8. Было 41

42 очень приятно встретить вас снова. 9. Любой подскажет вам дорогу на вокзал. 10. Становится влажно, надень куртку. 11. Никто не хотел пропустить премьеру. 12. Снег. Утром будет невозможно передвигаться по городу. 13. Пора уходить. Уже давно стемнело. 14. Смотреть на падающие звезды было для Джексона любимым занятием. 15. Ходьба на лыжах принесет вам больше пользы, чем это лекарство. 16. Смотри, кто-то бежит за нашим автобусом. Это твой знакомый? 17. Управлять большим магазином не так-то легко. 18. Именно это мне сейчас и нужно. 19. В их поступках нет смысла. 20. Мне нечего вам сказать. 21. Популярность Черчилля как премьера была беспрецедентно высока. 22. И Стоунхендж, и его окрестности были включены в список Всемирного наследия ЮНЕСКО в 1986 году. 23. Неужели было возможно построить такое сооружение в доисторическую эпоху? 24. В его взгляде было разочарование. 25. Уже через два года состоится торжественное открытие XXII зимних Олимпийских игр в Сочи. Всего к Олимпиаде нужно возвести 392 объекта. На текущий момент сроки нарушены по 46 стройкам. Среднее отставание не превышает двух месяцев. Для ускорения решения этих проблем уже приняты меры. Тем не менее, представители Международного Олимпийского комитета настаивают, чтобы отставание сократилось до одного месяца. Рецепт ускорение темпа работ. Exercise 7. Think about any changes in your city/country at different times in your life. Write at least five simple sentences describing the changes using different types of the subject. Example: The old chemical-producing factory was knocked down. It happened late at night. There had been no reports about it for a fortnight. 1. Changes when you were a child. 2. Recent changes. 3. Changes taking place at the moment. 4. Likely or possible future changes. 42

43 Exercise 8* 1. Rewrite the report to make it sound more impersonal and authoritative, using introductory It with passive verb forms to replace the underlined expressions. People think that the British National Health Service is badly run, when generally many know that it is underfunded. You hear tales of vastly overcrowded hospitals, and frequently there are reports that people have had to wait months if not years for minor surgery. Set against this, however, is the fact that the British people value the principle of the National Health Service, and most people acknowledge that no government would dare try to dismantle it. When politicians suggest that there could be some kind of private investment, there is strong opposition; but, on the other hand, there is equally strong opposition, when they say that there will have to be tax increases to fund the service properly. Most analysts acknowledge that, in many ways, the service is the most efficient in Europe and that with more investment, it could be one of the best. There are many people who assume it will always be there, but there are also many who fear it will disappear because of lack of financial support. They don t appreciate how determined the government is to see it survive THE PREDICATE The predicate is the second principal part of the sentence which expresses an action, state or quality of the person or thing denoted by the subject. The predicate expressed by a finite verb agrees with the subject in number and person. It also expresses tense, mood, voice and aspect. In the sentence the object and nearly all adverbial modifiers are connected with the predicate, and dependent on it. 1 Exercises and tasks marked with the asterisk have answers. See Answer Key (pp. 220). 43

44 STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION OF THE PREDICATE In English there are two main types of the predicate: the simple predicate and the compound predicate. The simple predicate The simple verbal predicate generally denotes an action or a state which is represented as an action. It can be expressed by: 1. A finite verb: Down below I studied the animals carefully [JH]. Luke will never give you anything but unhappiness [CM]. Harry had never seen anyone fly like that [JR]. When did you first conduct the Berlin Philharmonic? [BNC] Twice he had been caught trying to escape the country and twice he had been thrown into prison [COCA]. 2. A verb phrase (a phraseological unit, such as to make up one s mind, to take care, to pay attention or a phrase denoting a single action, such as to have a talk, to give a laugh, to have a wash). Sometimes it is called a phraseological predicate: More than people took part in a rally in Washington to protest the Obama administration s economic policies [COCA]. Then they made fun of him in mock homage, spitting at him and hitting him [BNC]. Collet gave a curt nod [DB]. Though caught unawares, the blockader made a graceful bow too graceful [MM]. The simple nominal predicate is expressed by a noun, or an adjective, or a verbal, it does not contain a link verb, as it shows the incompatibility of the idea expressed by the subject and that expressed by the predicate. Sentences with the simple nominal predicate are always exclamatory evidently owing to the implication of a negation or of an evaluation: 44

45 Me, a supercargo! [JH] You drunken fool [MM]. There were people all around I ve gone mad everyone watching! [JR] The compound predicate The compound predicate consists of two parts: the notional and the structural. The structural part comes first. It is expressed by a finite verb and conveys grammatical information about the person, number, tense, voice, modal, attitudinal and aspective (phasal) meaning of the whole predicate. It is followed by the notional part which is the significant part of the predicate. The notional part may be expressed by a noun, an adjective, a stative, an adverb, a verbal, a phrase, a predicative complex, or a clause. The compound verbal predicate The compound verbal phasal (aspect) predicate The compound verbal phasal predicate denotes the beginning, duration, repetition or cessation of the action expressed by an infinitive or a gerund. It consists of a phasal verb and an infinitive or a gerund. Accordingly its first component may be a phasal verb of: 1. Beginning (to begin, to start, to commence, to set about, to take to, to fall to, to come): Winky began to tremble worse than ever [JR]. In contrast, others have set about finding solutions to the dilemma caused by assessment and examinations in the arts [BNC]. Meanwhile Harry had started bringing out the Marauder/s map and examining it by wandlight [JR]. Francis came to believe that God desires that all be saved [COCA]. 2. Duration (to go on, to keep, to proceed, to continue): Rufus went on laughing, hiccuping with laughter [BNC]. Georgia s leaders had kept on battling for the state s right to govern itself according to its own ideas [MM]. 45

46 Angrier than ever, he proceeded to grope in the bottoms of the vases and baskets of dried flowers [JR]. He kept on running and his face registered increasing alarm [JH]. 3. Repetition (would, used to): After an argument about politics and poetics on the verandah of the Norfolk Hotel, I would often go with Jennie to the movies [BNC]. My grandfather used to bring me down here [DB]. I didn t use to have this kind of attention [COCA]. 4. Cessation (to stop, to finish, to cease, to give up, to leave off): He stopped speaking and his hands dropped from her face [MM]. Shelly gave up looking for work [COCA]. After a while everyone ceased to speak of Hal except in passing [CM]. The compound verbal modal predicate The compound verbal modal predicate consists of a modal part and an infinitive (or a gerund). It shows whether the action expressed by an infinitive is considered possible, impossible, obligatory, necessary, desirable, etc. In most cases it denotes the attitude to the action of the person expressed by the subject or by the speaker. The modal part may be expressed by: 1. A modal verb: I can t I can t live without her! [MM] I had to move quickly [JH]. But you must pray for me [CM]. We ought to work together [JR]. I think we may have to go to war with Joe Pearson [AH]. 2. A modal expression (to be able, to be allowed, to be willing, to be going, to be anxious, etc): I m going to find a way for us to escape [SS]. 46

47 The holder of a degree in psychology and philosophy, he was anxious to explore the recesses of his own mentality [BNC]. No one was willing to shoulder the remains of Mary Carson across the lawn to the vault [CM]. 3. Аn attitudinal verb (a verb with a modal meaning: to like, to hate, to attempt, to expect, to hope, to intend, to mean, to plan, to try, to have a mind, to wish, to want). The predicate of this type may be called a compound verbal attitudinal predicate as it expresses the attitude of the person expressed by the subject to the action denoted by the infinitive: She had not intended to say so much [MM]. I plan to see Joe again after lunch. He expected to know something definite by then [AH]. I don t want to go to boarding-school [RP]. I hate to hear you talk like that [MM]. The compound verbal predicate of double orientation The compound verbal predicate of double orientation consists of two parts. The first part is a finite verb which denotes the attitude to, evaluation of, or comment on the content of the sentence expressed by the speaker or somebody not mentioned in the sentence. The second part denotes the action which is (was/will be) performed by the person/non-person expressed by the subject. The actions denoted by the predicate are regarded from two points of view: that of the speaker and that of the person (or non-person) expressed by the subject: The sound of his voice seemed to echo now in the ancient stones of Rosslyn [DB] = It seemed (to someone) that the sound of his voice echoed Governments have been known to take such steps [CO- CA] = We know that governments have taken such steps. He was reported to have murdered a competitor in Malaysia [SS] = It was reported that he had murdered 47

48 Such sentences often occur in official speech or in reports since they present information impersonally and impartially. The first part of the compound verbal predicate of double orientation may be expressed by: 1. Intransitive verbs of seeming or happening with the general meaning of evaluation in the active voice (to seem, to appear, to prove, to turn out, to happen, to chance): He seemed to be speaking with a strange mixture of anger and sorrow [AH]. He appeared to forget everything as he gazed out of the window [JH]. And yesterday union workers across the country turned out to support them [COCA]. 2. Some verbs in the passive voice (verbs of saying: to say, to declare, to state, to report, to rumour; verbs of mental activity: to believe, to consider, to expect, to find, to know, to mean, to presume, to regard, to suppose, to think, to understand; verbs of perception: to feel, to hear, to see, to watch): The Holy Grail is said to once have been stored in this church [DB]. You have been known to use, you know, experimental rock in your music [COCA]. Jennie was heard to remark that the will was a cruel one [BNC]. As many as 22 people are believed to have been buried in the rubble, but cathedral staff were safe [COCA]. 3. Phrases with a modal meaning (to be likely/unlikely, to be sure, to be certain): Well, they were likely to get their wish [JR]. If you re late for the bell Sister Agatha is sure to cane you [CM]. With too-big-to-fail institutions now larger than ever, we are almost certain to go through another episode like 2008 in the not-too-distant future [COCA]. 48

49 The compound nominal predicate The compound nominal predicate denotes the state or quality of the person or thing expressed by the subject, or the class of persons or things to which this person or thing belongs. The compound nominal predicate proper consists of a link verb and a predicative (the nominal part of the predicate). The link verb is the structural element of the predicate, as it joins the subject and the predicative. It expresses the grammatical categories of person, number, tense, aspect and mood. The predicative is the notional part of the compound nominal predicate. It characterizes the person or non-person expressed by the subject. According to their semantic characteristics link verbs fall into three groups: 1. Link verbs of being: (to be, to feel, to sound, to smell, to taste, to look, to appear, to seem, etc). Of these only the verb to be is a pure link verb of being, as the others may have some additional meaning: Her face was beautiful in the moonlight [DB]. He was a surgeon [SS]. He seemed quite surprised at the idea [RP]. Ashley felt faint with relief [SS]. The horse looked young and well fed, but Frank looked far older than his years [CM]. 2. Link verbs of becoming (to become, to grow, to turn, to get, to make): I soon became impatient [JH]. I got frightened and went into my sisters room [COCA]. His expression grew serious [JH]. Ron s ears had turned red [JR]. 3. Link verbs of remaining (to remain, to continue, to keep, to stay): So her mouth remained closed upon her secret [CM]. Harry s scar kept prickling [JR]. He gave up high-stake card games and stayed comparatively sober [MM]. 49

50 Ways of expressing the predicative 1. A noun in the common case or in the genitive case: This was the end of the road [MM]. The walk was a good idea [RP]. So the pony became Bonnie s [MM]. 2. An adjective or an adjective phrase: The answer was resentful and aggressive [AH]. It was large enough to swallow their Smart-Car in a single gulp [DB]. He seems depressed this morning [AH]. 3. A pronoun: She s mine [JH]. It never was me, was it? [CM] That queen is nobody [SS]. 4. A numeral: General Gordon was the first [MM]. He was thirty-nine [CM]. 5. An infinitive (or an infinitive phrase or construction): His instinct was to turn and run [AH]. Your task is to collect the golden egg! [JR]. He seems to understand her very well [CM]. 6. A gerund (or a gerundial phrase or construction): The next best thing to climbing mountains is reading about them or attending slides-theatres or watching films [BNC]. I had to admit that number one on my list was dancing with Ernest Hemingway [COCA]. 7. A participle or a participial phrase: In the morning Frank was gone [CM]. The docent looked pleased by her enthusiasm [DB] 8. A prepositional phrase: He was in this ambulance along with her [AH]. The men were at the front [MM]. 9. A stative: Ahead, a bedroom door was ajar [SS]. Coleman was aware of it too [AH]. 50

51 10. A clause: This was what he had expected [CM]. Perhaps the champagne was why she seemed to be talking so much [RP] That was what the old shearing song said, and that was who Luke O Neill decided to be [CM]. The compound nominal double predicate The compound nominal double predicate combines, as its name suggests, the features of two different types of predicate. It has the features of the simple verbal predicate and those of the compound nominal predicate. It consists of two parts, both of which are notional. The first one is verbal and is expressed by a notional verb denoting an action or process performed by the subject. At the same time the verbal part of this predicate performs a linking function, as it links its second part (which is a predicative) to the subject. The second part of the compound nominal double predicate is expressed by a noun or an adjective which denotes the properties of the subject in the same way as the predicative of the compound nominal predicate proper does: The moon rose clear and bright in the east [BNC] = The moon rose in the east + It was clear and bright. There are a number of verbs that often occur in this type of predicate, performing the double function of denoting a process and serving as link verbs at the same time: to die, to lie, to marry, to return, to rise, to sit, to stand, to shine, etc. The older pathologist stood silent and thoughtful [AH]. Martin died young and unmarried [COCA]. The pearl morning light was shining cold across her empty, dented pillow [COCA]. He s lying dead on a patch of waste ground [BNC]. Mixed types of the compound predicate Compound predicates can combine elements of different types, for example: 51

52 1. The compound modal nominal predicate: Alette Peters could have been a successful artist [SS]. This was my theological college and I was anxious to be sound and reliable [BNC]. 2. The compound phasal nominal predicate: He started to feel sick and closed his eyes [JR]. They continued to be seasick all the way across twelve hundred miles of gale-stirred, wintry seas [CM]. 3. The compound phasal attitudinal predicate: I used to try to reassure her [JH]. She seized Harry s arm and started to try to drag him back along the corridor [JR]. Robert Langdon had given up trying to get his bearings [DB]. 4. The compound modal phasal predicate: Then he could start considering some of the twentythousand-dollar-a-year jobs [AH]. He liked Fergus and wanted to be able to go on liking him [BNC]. 5. The compound nominal predicate of double orientation: Frank stared at the back of the armchair; the man inside it seemed to be even smaller than his servant [JR]. With more than 500 patents to his credit, Lemelson is reported to be the nation s most prolific inventor since Thomas Alva Edison [COCA]. EXERCISES Exercise 1. Point out the predicate in the following sentences and state its type. 1. Vivian listened interestedly to the exchange [AH]. 2. It all smells so clean and sweet [RP]. 3. But the star kept plugging along, telling herself that she had to keep on dancing, keep on smiling that impossibly gorgeous smile, no matter how much she might be hurting [COCA]. 4. Everlasting icicles had been attached to the banisters of the marble staircase [JR]. 5. He died a victim of cancer on February 12, 1942, just one day before his 52

53 fifty-first birthday [COCA]. 6. His first job was to get the patient to trust him, to feel comfortable with him [SS]. 7. I came to think of these teenagers as refreshingly honest [COCA]. 8. The wealthy owner continued to pay Frank to do the gardening, however [JR]. 9. Together they would often walk and talk, read and pray [BNC]. 10. Sally Brass was rumoured to have been seen here as a Foot Guards private on sentry-go after her brother s imprisonment [BNC]. 11. Time ceased to tick and began to flow [CM]. 12. Some of the teachers, like little Professor Flitwick, gave up trying to teach them much when their minds were so clearly elsewhere [JR]. 13. I am willing to do that in an environmentally sensitive manner [COCA]. 14. I hope to see you again soon [MM]. 15. Nobody was allowed to touch them and the place felt more like a cave than a classroom [BNC]. 16. Potter regularly collapses at school, and is often heard to complain of pain in the scar on his forehead [JR]. 17. Gollum seemed anxious to continue the journey at once [JT]. 18. The worm was meant to sabotage computers that run facilities such as electrical plants, oil pipelines and nuclear facilities [COCA]. 19. At seven o clock in the morning, the door of the incense shop opened and closed, although nobody was seen to enter or leave [COCA]. 20. The countryside turned a sweet and verdant green, the wild white cherry trees recovered from their battering and spread their branches in a mist of snowflake petals [RP]. Exercise 2. Say where the predicate is simple and where it is compound (nominal or verbal). Translate the sentences into Russian. 1. Pigwidgeon began twittering and zooming around his cage when they entered [JR]. 2. Of course, Suellen would be certain to tell tales tomorrow [MM]. 3. The farmer took a long breath, braced himself and began to exert pressure on the metal arms [JH]. 4. Even the older men stopped to listen to his words [MM]. 5. They re sure to try again [BNC]. 6. She gave him a sleepy smile [DB]. 7. He ate hardly anything and grew gradually thinner [JH]. 8. Antonia was due to arrive in a week s time [RP]. 9. Twenty minutes ago he had been asleep in his hotel room [DB]. 10. Once we had worked together to help him regain his 53

54 faith, he was able to go on to play just as well as he had done before [BNC]. 11. Her bottle was nearly finished. She would have to buy more [RP]. 12. She must have heard him, but kept on working, back bent, the lovely golden hair gone to silver [CM]. 13. Daddy, she would say seriously, how are you going to manage when I m at school? [JH]. 14. You see she used to have Mondays to herself and I would often go round on a Monday afternoon and we could talk [BNC]. 15. I don t know anything. I can t tell them anything [SS]. 16. And finally, the Yankees ceased annoying them [MM]. 17. He had to get up earlier in the morning to feed and clean out his pigs, but he was a fit man and seemed to be enjoying it. [JH]. 18. That ought to give you enough time [CM]. 19. Julia and Alfred married young, in a burst of passion in 1938 [COCA]. 20. Summer came in very hot and very dry [CM]. Exercise 3. Point out the predicative in the following sentences and say what it is expressed by. 1. It all sounded innocent enough [SS]. 2. He himself was forty-two now, would be forty-three in a few months [AH]. 3. Lottie became herself again [RP]. 4. I was frightened for you [RP]. 5. Gary was in his late twenties, with bright blue eyes and hair down to his shoulders [SS]. 6. My voice sounded weary [JH]. 7. My priority is to ensure your safety [JR]. 8. Scarlett was ashamed and irritated [MM]. 9. That is what will happen now [AH]. 10. She sounded splendid, robust and cheerful [RP]. 11. The important thing was to learn from them and not to make the same mistake again [AH]. 12. So that was who poor Charles Hamilton s widow was carrying on with! [MM] 13. George became brisk and businesslike [JH]. 14. They re in your cupboard [RP]. 15. The door remained firmly closed, which was odd and out of character [RP]. 16. In Obstetrics, Dr. Dornberger was scrubbed and gowned [AH]. 17. His first job was to get the patient to trust him, to feel comfortable with him [SS]. 18. There expression was open and smiling, full of interest [RP]. 19. For the rest of the day he was not himself [COCA]. 20. That sounds very sweet and feminine, Mrs. Kennedy [MM]. 21. All he had to 54

55 do was to get through the gates [RP]. 22. She stayed married for forty-six years. Her husband died last year; he was the kindest, sweetest man I ve ever known [AH]. 23. You are in danger right now [DB]. 24. The important thing is to get you out of here safely [JR]. 25. She was mine first [CM]. Exercise 4. The following sentences contain the double predicate. Point it out and comment on its constituents. Translate the sentences into Russian. 1. She arose crying, wiping streaks of mud from her face [AH]. 2. Three quarters of the people of the town had at least escaped alive [JT]. 3. Aragorn sat silent with his back to the great tree [JT]. 4. A single brilliant moon rose bright and cold behind our boat [COCA]. 5. For a long time he lay awake, but when he finally turned and slept again, he had still made no decision [JT]. 6. Meanwhile he had married. He came back a married man. 7. The sun rose smoky red behind ugly rips of dark cloud and she sighed [BNC]. 8. It is painful news, but he died a hero nonetheless [COCA]. 9. They had married young and their three sons married young as well [BNC]. 10. At the sight of her Scarlett stood transfixed, leaning against the door [MM]. Exercise 5. Paraphrase the sentences so as to combine two predicates into one double predicate. Example: The moon rose. It was red. The moon rose red. 1. The blows came down all over her face and head. They were heavy and rapid. 2. Intermittent beads of sweat raced across my back. They were cool. 3. He had come back. He was mere skin and bone. 4. That poor, friendless boy lies under the open sky. He is dead and unburied. 5. He sat for a moment or two staring straight in front of him. He was silent. 6. Tall cypresses stood against the moonlight. They were black and solemn. 7. The clover sprang up. It was green and luscious. 8. Sunday broke. It was stolid and respectable. 9. He suddenly flushed and became scarlet. 10. He stood while they walked out. He was motionless and expressionless. 55

56 Exercise 6. Replace these complex sentences by simple ones combining the predicates into a compound predicate of double orientation. Example: It appears that the summit has left a deep impression on the public. The summit appears to have left a deep impression on the public. 1. It seemed that this reassured him. 2. It seemed that the past had lost its reality. 3. It appeared that they had little understanding. 4. It happens that I have written to Washington already. 5. It appeared that he had lost the thread of his remarks. 6. It is more likely that a masterpiece will come as the culminating point of a laborious career. 7. It appeared that they were coming down the middle of the road. 8. It seemed that Scott had lost all his confidence of the day before. 9. It seemed that she was always changing her direction. 10. It is hardly likely that John will listen to me on any subject. Exercise 7. Ask your friend how often they use online dictionaries, play computer games or use the Internet ESL resources. Write a short report using reported speech and different types of predicates. Exercise 8. Creative writing. Write down a story choosing one of the following ideas. Use sentences with different types of predicates. If you could become invisible for one hour, but never again, what would you do? Explain why you chose to do it over other possibilities. Choose a number and decide that it has special significance. Explain why this number is important. Think about the time in your life when you felt the most free. Describe what you we doing and why you felt so free. 56

57 THE AGREEMENT OF THE PREDICATE WITH THE SUBJECT The most important type of agreement (concord) in English is that of the subject and the predicate in number and person. Thus a singular subject requires a singular predicate, a plural subject requires a plural predicate. This rule of purely grammatical agreement concerns all present tenses (except modal verbs) and also the past indefinite of the verb to be: She thinks this is another code [DB]. They think they ve got the best job in the world [JR]. I am here to make a counter-offer [AH]. Pandora was not the perfect guest [RP]. We were a warmly knit little group [JH]. Generally, this gives little trouble, but still there are certain rules of agreement of the predicate with the subject that should be observed. The verb-predicate is in the singular if the subject is expressed by: 1. An infinitive phrase or phrases: Not to love is not to live, or it is to live a living death [BNC]. To understand everything is to forgive everything [CO- CA]. 2. A numerical expression, such as arithmetical addition, subtraction, division: Thirty three minus two is thirty one. Two and five is seven. * However multiplication admits of two variants: Twice two is/are four. 3. A clause introduced by a conjunction or conjunctive adverb: Which way that majority will go is unclear [COCA]. Whether you agree or not doesn t much matter [AH]. 57

58 4. The group many a + noun: There lay they long, and many a song Was sung unheard by men or elves [JT]. The Eagle Harbor Lighthouse on the Keweenaw Peninsula overlooks Lake Superior, where many a ship has met its end [COCA]. Florence Nightingale wrote of her contemporaries:... many a woman was heard to wish that she could break a limb that she might have a little time to herself [COCA]. 5. Plural nouns or phrases when they are used as names, titles, quotations: Little Women is published by Puffin Books [BNC]. Great Expectations is an excellent illustration of transgenerational transmission of abuse and rigid roles [COCA]. With there-constructions followed by subjects of different number, the predicate agrees with the subject that stands first: Hermione was taken to a room where there was a table and some chairs, and, though she did not notice it until later, a recording machine [COCA]. There were stars and a new moon in an indigo sky [COCA]. Conjunctions connecting two or more homogeneous subjects 1. With homogeneous subjects connected by and or both and a verb-predicate is used in the plural: Archie and Scarlett were a queerly assorted pair [MM]. My sister and me are very close BNC). Consequently, both Jeff and Lucilla were extremely dirty, if not to say smelly [RP]. However, with structures where coordinated nouns refer to one thing or person, a singular verb-predicate is used: 58

59 The fried catfish with grits and eggs is a local legend. Boys will be boys and, by the way, hamburgers and mashed potatoes is delish and nutrish [COCA] one dish is meant. The coach and critic is her husband, 46-year-old musician David Perry [COCA] one person is meant. But: That is, both the coach and the athlete are interested in the attainment of superior performance [COCA] two persons are meant. 2. With homogeneous subjects connected by the conjunctions not only... but also, neither... nor, either... or, the verb-predicate agrees with the nearest noun-subject: Not only fish but also sea monsters and other fierce creatures inhabit the sea waters [COCA]. Not only the girls around but also he is blushing like a tea rose [COCA]. Neither Sophie nor Robert was able to speak for a long time [DB]. Neither nature nor the people with the power have any conscience [COCA]. Either government or political parties are responsible for a host of loosely organized popular organizations which function outside [COCA]. 3. With homogeneous subjects connected by the conjunctions as well as, rather than, as much as, more than the verb-predicate agrees with the first one: Others as well as herself were beginning to leave the suite, heading for the outer doorway [AH]. Many experts believe good coaching rather than talented players was primarily responsible for the Oilers improvement last season [COCA]. Throckmorton perhaps more than the others understands Troy s desire because he has read extensively on issues of death and dying [COCA]. 59

60 Pronouns as the subject 1. Indefinite pronouns somebody, someone, anybody, anyone, universal pronouns everybody, everyone, everything, each, either, negative pronouns nobody, no one, neither, take a singular predicate: I passed my office, I saw that the torches were lit and a cupboard door was ajar! Somebody has been searching it! [JR] If anybody thinks that foxhunting plays any real part in controlling the fox problem, they are mistaken [BNC]. In Switzerland everybody has a car [DB]. All of the figures were deeply weathered, and yet each was clearly unique [DB]. Two self-imposed tasks faced Warren Trent, and neither was palatable [AH]. So you figure that whatever s wrong is because nobody has thought of changing it. Nobody s tried! [AH] However, none has a plural verb-predicate: * None of us want Frank to go away [MM]. * Apparently none were sent down from the health office [AH]. All in the sense of «всё» has a singular verb, while all in the sense of «все» takes a plural verb: * All was neat and clean, but airless and stuffy [RP]. * All were studying Ashley Patterson s records [SS]. 2. Interrogative pronouns who, what take a singular verbpredicate: What s all this trouble? Who has been knocking my people about? [JT] Who is tasteless enough to pay money for your paintings? [DB] But if the pronoun denotes more than one person or thing a plural verb-predicate is used: * Who are tryin to take Tara away from you? [MM] 60

61 3. With relative pronouns the form of the verb depends on the noun or pronoun which is its antecedent: He s known plenty of people from his old neighborhood who have gone to jail [COCA]. Any man who has gone sailor in a whale-ship will understand this [COCA]. That secret is guarded by others. Others who are dead! [DB]. I know of a man at a bank in Paris who is probably very eager to see the return of this rosewood box [DB]. Sophie fished in her pocket and pulled out the black cryptex, which was wrapped in the vellum [DB]. Inevitably in medicine he met minds which were a match for his own [AH]. It is I who am thankful, my friend [CM]. It is you who are prejudiced, Cornelius [JR]. * But: It is me who is more broken than he [BNC]. 4. The universal pronoun both has a plural verb-predicate. A small lane led up a slope to the back of the church and to the rectory that stood behind it. Both were modest in size and whitewashed[bnc]. Notional agreement Notional agreement is to be found in the following cases: 1. In modern English there are nouns of multitude which may denote plurality though being singular in form. Thus, there may be a conflict between form and meaning. In such cases the principle of grammatical agreement is not observed and there appears the so-called notional agreement, when the choice of the number is based on the fact whether the group of beings is considered as one whole or as a collection of individuals taken separately. So the nouns of multitude (band, board, crew, committee, crowd, company, clergy, cattle, family, gang, group, guard, gentry, infantry, jury, militia, police, poultry, team) may have both a plural verb-predicate and a singu- 61

62 lar one depending on what is meant a single undivided body or a group of separate individuals: Her family means a lot to her [RP]. The rest of the family were all busy talking [JR]. The police are always on the lookout for cruelty, but they would have to catch a person actually in the act [JH]. Strathclyde Police is pushing for reforms to bring Scottish law in line with English law and make knifecarrying an offence [BNC]. The law says that you cannot punish the guilty one because you would then have to punish the innocent one. The jury was listening intently [SS]. The jury were less deliberative; they returned a unanimous verdict of guilty [BNC]. The farmer led us to the fold yard where about twenty cattle were eating turnips [JH]. I ve got my cattlemen in New Mexico their cattle is being killed by drug smugglers and by illegal alien smugglers [COCA]. 2. Notional agreement is also observed with subjects expressed by word-groups including nouns of quantity: a / the number of..., a / the majority of..., (a) part of..., the bulk of..., a variety of.... These admit of either a singular or a plural verb-predicate: A number of these countries are working on atomic bombs at this moment so that they can hold us at ransom [SS]. The number of thoughtful, intelligent, educated people who have seen something and described it grows every day [SS]. The vast majority of educated Christians know the history of their faith [DB]. He raised his glass and I followed him. The overwhelming majority of toasts was simply na zdrowie, to health [COCA]. 62

63 The vast bulk of such men cause themselves and their countries endless trouble [CM]. The bulk of sales of American Indian art takes place in Arizona, New Mexico, and throughout the southwest [COCA]. 3. Subjects expressed by nouns denoting measure, weight, time, etc., have a singular verb-predicate when the statement is made about the whole amount, not about the discrete units: Fifty thousand dollars is a lot of money [DB]. Twenty pounds was indeed a tidy sum in 1948 when the average weekly wage for a qualified veterinary assistant was around ten pounds [JH]. On the other hand, two hours was a long time to sit around [AH]. Forty miles was as far as the moon [CM]. 4. Subjects expressed by such invariable plural nouns as annals, antics, archives, arms, ashes, contents, customs, earnings, goods, greens, holidays, manners, stairs, surroundings, thanks, troops, wages, whereabouts, the Middle Ages, etc. have a plural verb: She has to put her life back in order to rid her of Fred whose antics are only adding to her problems [BNC]. Thieves could rest easily knowing their stolen goods were safe and could never be traced to them [DB]. Nobody had heard that the Louisiana troops were in Pennsylvania [MM]. 5. Subjects expressed by such invariable singular nouns as hair (волосы), money (деньги), gate (ворота), information (сведения), funeral (похороны), progress (успехи), knowledge (знания), advice (советы), ink (чернила), cream (сливки), have a singular verbpredicate. In Russian and English the attribution of the corresponding nouns may be different: 63

64 A knight whose funeral was presided over by a Pope? [DB] Her golden hair was exquisitely dressed in a high pompadour studded with pearls [CM]. Let s hope this second gate works too [DB]. 6. Subjects expressed by invariable nouns ending in -s and denoting an indivisible notion or thing have a singular verb-predicate: measles (корь), mumps (свинка), billiards, dominoes, darts, ninepins, draughts, linguistics, economics, news, headquarters (штаб), works (завод): At least, he reflected, the news was not all bad [AH]. In the developing world measles is the most devastating of all the six major childhood diseases killing more than two million children a year [BNC]. No, I never even knew dominoes was a game [COCA]. A US headquarters was attacked, and they thought it was the Iraqi police [COCA]. * Though nouns in -ics (classics, linguistics, mathematics, phonetics, athletics, ceramics, ethics, gymnastics, politics, tactics) which are names of sciences and other abstract notions have a singular agreement when used in their abstract sense; they may have a plural verbpredicate when denoting qualities, practical applications, different activities, etc. (ethics moral rules, gymnastics physical exercises ). Thus these nouns may be followed by either a singular or a plural verb: Mathematics was the one subject that had come easy to Scarlett in her schooldays [MM]. Politics was men s business [MM]. Politics were beyond her and she seldom wasted time thinking about them [MM]. His theology was conservative, so were his ethics [CM]. 7. Subjects expressed by substantivized adjectives denoting groups of people (the blind, the dumb and deaf, the eminent, the mute, the disabled, the elderly, the helpless, the 64

65 sick, the weary, the old, the poor, the lame, the rich, etc.) always take a plural verb-predicate: What we really object to about a country where the rich eat quail and the poor eat garbage is that the poor eat garbage [COCA]. Even when the sick are incurable they are never untreatable [BNC] The blind see what they want to see [DB]. 8. There also proper names ending in s which are singular invariable (Algiers, Athens, Brussels, Flanders, Marseilles, Naples, Wales, the United Nations, thе United States) and plural invariable (the East Indies, the West Indies, the Hebrides, the Highlands, the Midlands, the Netherlands): But Athens was tense and vicious [CM]. The United Nations plans to send 13,000 more troops to the region [COCA]. The Netherlands have a much more pragmatic approach than Italy to social problems [COCA]. EXERCISES Exercise 1. Explain why in the following sentences the predicate-verb is used in the singular or in the plural. 1. His mathematics were wrong and mine right [CM]. 2. Mathematics is not just about developing facility for number: it is essentially a subject which has links with all other curriculum areas and should never be taught in isolation [BNC]. 3. Last week Russia s auto giant, KamAZ, slowed to a four-day workweek, the huge Magnitogorsk Steel Works has slashed production by 25 percent, and other major Russian companies are showing signs of slowing down [COCA]. 4. The bread and wine is, in fact, the body and blood of Christ [COCA]. 5. Clouds hung low over the hills and all was drowned in greyness [RP]. 6. All were waiting for their hostess to signal the end of the morning s festivities [MM]. 7. Now it is they who are trying to manipulate us, one reformist said in disgust as he was leaving a 65

66 caucus meeting [BNC]. 8. It is I who am sorry [DB]. 9. She is a 34-year-old lady who lives in the suburbs of a city with her husband or partner [BNC]. 10. Harry, meanwhile, had noticed another photograph: a Hogwarts Quidditch team was smiling and waving out of the frame [JR]. 11. His team were around him, shaking their heads and looking dejected [JR]. 12. Many a flower is born to blush unseen [COCA]. 13. For this and other reasons, Gerald s family was not inclined to view the fatal outcome of this quarrel as anything very serious, except for the fact that it was charged with serious consequences [MM]. 14. He was staunchly Presbyterian, even though his family were Catholic [MM]. 15. Her family were not invited to attend [BNC]. 16. The police have been alerted [RP]. 17. What were the police doing? [AH] 18. The Metropolitan Police has begun a process of reform that should lead to improvements in the way it operates and encourage better relations with the public [BNC]. 19. Sister Felicia and the entire school were at Rutgers for the national championship game a few weeks ago [COCA]. 20. There were still two hours to go before school was dismissed [CM]. 21. And see how the cavalry is holding the railroad to Macon! Sherman will never take it! [MM]. 22. The cavalry are training, galloping at full tilt, Harry and Durrance bringing up the front [COCA]. 23. The jury were asked to decide whether either or both of these actions could be interpreted as a threat [BNC]. 24. We re in a court of law, Doctor. The jury is not going to make decisions based on theory and what if [SS]. 25. The crowd below was applauding appreciatively [JR]. 26. For the most part, the crowd are stunned into silence but there are a few murmurs from them [COCA]. 27. The crew do not like carrying pigs because of the smell, and there is no doubt the ship has an entirely different aroma now [JH]. 28. Robert walked up the steps to the cabin. The crew was inside finishing the preflight check [SS]. 29. Well, the statistics say that being married goes with living longer, especially for men [COCA]. 30. Even today, statistics says hardly anybody trusts the government anymore, and good reason [COCA]. 66

67 Exercise 2. Insert the proper form of the verb to be. 1. On the other hand, two hours a long time to sit around [AH]. 2. Everybody her friend. She called them all her friends [RP]. 3. There are enough stupid patriots who risking every cent they have in the blockade and who going to come out of this war paupers [MM]. 4. Her hair tangled and loose, her arms and legs dirty [CM]. 5. Melly and he always talking such foolishness, poetry and books and dreams and moonrays and star dust [MM]. 6. It is I who sorry to deny your request [COCA]. 7. Both Umbridge and Yaxley concentrating upon Mrs. Cattermole, and this went unnoticed [JR]. 8. All cool and creamy, sparked here and there with touches of brilliant colour [RP]. 9. Both the timing and method of delivery planned so that when he received the memo it would be impossible to take any action [AH]. 10. Not only me but also my friends.. shocked by his story [COCA]. 11. She knew neither Rhett nor Ashley.. drunk [MM]. 12. He sat up, one hand still on his scar, the other hand reaching out in the darkness for his glasses, which on the bedside table [JR]. 13. The use of proportions rather than absolute numbers a change that does not affect everyone equally [COCA]. 14. Five hundred dollars a useful sum [AH]. 15. The news probably all over town [DB]. 16. The macaroni and cheese pretty good if a bit grainy with bread crumbs [COCA]. 17. German Measles a very infectious disease, but usually very mild [BNC]. 18. Both illustrations and text important for children to comprehend the information books. 19. Fifty years a long way to look ahead, but looking back it doesn t seem any time at all [RP]. 20. Billiards the only real game in here [COCA]. 21. A number of students waiting to be called, including one with a face at least as broken out as his, and who looks like a monkey [COCA]. 22. But the number of students per school in the state sector considerably greater than in the private sector [BNC]. 23. The crowd making a great deal of noise, but whether friendly or not, Harry didn t know or care [JR]. 24. I went to the library the other day and had a look in the 67

68 atlas to see where Naples [BNC]. 25. A UN spokesman said that the headquarters hit by what was believed to be three white phosphorous shells [COCA]. Exercise 3. Decide on the number form of the predicate in the following sentences and supply the correct form of the infinitive in brackets. Translate the sentences. 1. Neither Mr. Weasley nor Percy at home much over the following week [JR] (to be). 2. Neither nature nor the best chemists a material that is both permeable to oxygen and carbon dioxide yet impermeable to water [COCA] (to invent). 3. Neither Basil, but they ve become believers [COCA] (to see). 4. So it is me who going to suffer, Ralphie thought after Petrie told him about Rils, and he disliked himself for thinking this [COCA] (to be). 5. Turning his eyes back to his captives, he calculated the risk. Both a good fifteen feet away [DB] (to be). 6. The number of participants small [BNC] (to be). 7. A number of participants concerned about potential or actual health outcomes concerning their descendents [COCA] (to be). 8. According to this exploratory investigation, a variety of factors important in helping students in making a decision for returning for a master s degree in sport management [COCA] (to be). 9. Although a wide variety of vegetables a priority, the garden was designed to be pretty as well [COCA] (to be). 10. But in reality the variety of choices overwhelming [COCA] (to be). 11. When the Yankees, swarming out of the hills, came upon them, the Southern troops for them [MM] (to wait). 12. Spring greens at their best and quality primo cabbage is the best green buy this week [BNC] (to be). 13. The United Nations at the forefront of international organizations rushing to provide help [COCA] (to be). 14. Naples in the Campagna region of Italy, and Faioli says people still perform music and dances at festivals which go back thousands of years (to be). 15. A huddle of teenagers in pajamas vociferously a little way along the path [JR] (to argue). 68

69 Exercise 4. Which of the alternatives do you think is the correct one? Translate the sentences into Russian. 1. Billiards isn t/aren t as risky as boxing [COCA]. 2. Up in the bows, the mate and a sailor was/were gazing down into the water and signalling back to the bridge apparently testing the depth and looking for obstructions [COCA]. 3. Neither goods nor folk has/have passed that way for many a long year, not openly [JT]. 4. Neither of you has/have ever been there? [DB]. 5. There was/were macaroni and cheese for supper [RP]. 6. Independence rather than pay levels is/are the key to attracting doctors to the plan [COCA]. 7. Both mother and child is/are in good health and spirits [COCA]. 8. There was/were a tenthousand Galleon price on his head [JR]. 9. They can be treacherous, and neither man nor time has/have been able to tame them or the restless sands that shift at nature s whim [COCA]. 10. There was/were chairs and a table, and what, after a moment, he recognized as a bed, of carved wood covered by plush cushion [COCA]. 11. There was/were ruins and a museum at the near end, a small lighthouse on the west point [COCA]. 12. He as well as many of my colleagues does/do consulting from time to time, but I m not a permanent adviser [COCA]. 13. If anybody has/have a talent, then they should offer it [BNC]. 14. Have you ever seen it? Nobody has/have seen it in living memory! [JR]. 15. No one was/were permitted to whip a horse or a slave [MM]. 16. He wasn t ready for the world, John; none of us is/are that soon [AH]. 17. Nobody was/were sitting according to House anymore: all was/were jumbled together, teachers and pupils, ghosts and parents, centaurs and house-elves [JR]. 18. But most people who has/have cash in their accounts at least carry printed checks [AH]. 19. Now who is/are coming with me? [JT]. 21. Your ethics is/are considerably mixed up too [MM]. 22. The young always think/thinks the old is/are wandering in their minds [COCA]. 23. Private friendships and dialogues rather than public deliberation is/are the best way to make social progress [COCA]. 24. The fried catfish with grits 69

70 and eggs is/are a local legend [COCA]. 25. At that first meeting, two applicants for the post of assistant nurse was/were considered (but neither was/were thought suitable for interview) [BNC]. 26. Kent O Donnell reflected idly that aviation and medicine had a good deal in common. Both was/were products of science; both was/were changing the world s life and destroying old concepts; both was/were moving toward unknown horizons and a future only dimly seen [AH]. 27. Many a man has/have become a genius thanks to a young woman... but no man has/have become a genius thanks to the young woman he married... [COCA]. 28. We must cook fast many meals, serve many people who is/are too much in an American hurry [AH]. 29. Ordinarily Sandy didn t keep cream in the house. This cream was/were left over from the veal recipe she d cooked for Todd on the weekend [COCA]. 30. Also, commercial salmon fishermen are farmers whose land includes freshwater streams, as well as the ocean, yet neither fish nor fishermen has/have even been granted water rights [COCA]. Exercise 6. Find mistakes in the following sentences and correct them. Some sentences contain no errors. 1. Neither life nor property were safe from them [MM]. 2. Neither of us is a child [CM]. 3. Someone is prowling around my house [DB]. 4. So Norton and Buck can preach and preach, but neither have anything to offer us [COCA]. 5. Obviously, this kind of betrayal is difficult to overlook and many a friendship have ended because of a broken confidence [COCA]. 6. Brussels is the largest donor to the Balkans [COCA]. 7. And, since no one has ordered a new nuclear plant since 1978 and none is in the offing [BNC]. 8. On the other hand, in the past few years the number of students in further education colleges in Wales has increased very considerably [BNC]. 9. Rich though the Church was, thirteen million pounds were thirteen million pounds [CM]. 10. Nine years is a long time in the advertising business for a man to stay with the same firm [RP]. 11. But Three Counties were scarcely known outside the immediate area it served [AH]. 70

71 12. Gerald, at twenty-one, knew that five feet four and a half inches were as much as the Lord in His wisdom was going to allow him [MM]. 13. At nine o clock in the morning, Global Computer Graphics was already humming with activity [SS]. 14. The two thousand dollars was right there waiting for her whenever she cared to draw against it [MM]. 15 About a score of calves were running with their mothers on a long rectangle of green cut from the surrounding heather [JH]. 16. No, Athens wasn t herself; better to be elsewhere [CM]. 17. Neither goods nor folk has passed that way for many a long year, not openly [JT]. 18. The United States are still considered a haven for many foreign investors [COCA]. 19. The United Nations is at the forefront of international organizations rushing to provide help [COCA]. 20. Neither have been caught because both seem to have known of the swoops on their many hide-outs even before the authorities who conducted them [BNC]. 21. The poor need public libraries; the more fortunate can buy books or have libraries of their own [COCA]. 22. I followed her as she brought our bowls into the next room where there were a table and two chairs [COCA]. 23. He made exceptionally few personal bequests. The vast majority of his possessions his private library, his magical instruments, and other personal effects was left to Hogwarts. 24. A tortoiseshell comb nestled above each of Meggie s ears; she tugged at one until it came free, and began to comb Agnes s hair, which were genuine human hair [CM]. Exercise 7. Translate the following sentences into English. Pay special attention to subject-predicate agreement. 1. Никто из студентов не сделал это упражнение правильно. 2. Он, так же как и его родители, хочет стать врачом. Вся семья поддерживает его решение. 3. Никто не знает, что я здесь. Все думают, что я приеду поездом. Брат с женой должны встретить меня на вокзале. 4. США собираются подписать это соглашение, а правительство Ирана с этим не согласно. Большинство европейских политиков также против. 5. Большинство пешеходов нарушает правила дорожно- 71

72 го движения, но ни я, ни мои друзья никогда этого не делаем. 6. Никто не собирается рисковать. Все хотят получить максимальный результат. 7. Комиссия собирается тщательно изучить его проект. Две недели небольшой срок для этого. 8. Какие новости? Должен тебя огорчить. Ни учителя, ни директор ему не верят. 9. Смотри, мужчина с ребенком ловит такси, и никто не останавливается. 10. Никто из его друзей не едет в Америку. Туда можно добраться только самолетом, а это дорого, пять тысяч долларов значительная сумма денег. 11. В университете есть компьютерный класс и два лингафонных кабинета. 12. В классе пятнадцать компьютеров и интерактивная доска. 13. К сожалению, содержание его сообщения мне неизвестно. 14. Какой пример мне использовать в докладе? Никакой. Ни тот, ни другой пример не показателен. 15. Кто-то стучит в дверь. Там никого нет THE SECONDARY PARTS OF THE SENTENCE THE OBJECT The object is a secondary part of the sentence referring to some other part of the sentence expressed by a verb, an adjective, a stative or, sometimes, an adverb completing, specifying, or restricting its meaning. In most cases objects refer to the predicate. WAYS OF EXPRESSING THE OBJECT 1. A noun in the common case, a nominal phrase or a substantivized adjective: A few minutes later, Jim Cleary opened the door [CM]. Melanie pulled the ragged linen garment over her head [MM] He gives his money to the poor [COCA]. Harry had been afraid of the concerned parent attack [JR]. 2. A personal pronoun in the objective case or other pronouns in the common case, or in the only form they have. 72

73 I can t tell them anything [SS]. You expect me to do it [JH]. Feeling around inside, he found nothing [DB]. He was annoyed with himself for having been quite so fervent (BNC). 3. A numeral or a phrase with a numeral. I looked out and saw two of the crew winching up the anchor [JH]. I have some questions for the three of you [JR]. 4. A gerund or a gerundial phrase. Paddy never complained of being shabbily treated [CM]. I don t remember seeing any male skinhead hairstyle on a girl (which doesn t mean there weren t any) [BNC]. 5. An infinitive or an infinitive phrase. He wanted to get into the action [JH]. They were probably only too glad to get the girl off their hands [RP]. They waited for the courier to arrive [COCA]. 6. Various predicative complexes. They saw him washing himself vigorously in the water barrel outside the window [JR]. I felt him get excited [JR]. He wanted it sung by the chorus before Judy sang it [COCA]. 7. A clause (then called an object clause) which makes the whole sentence a complex one. I thought that was reserved for our patients [SS]. I don t know why the children must pay for our sins [CM]. They say the Greeks have a word for everything [CM] From the point of view of their structure, objects may be simple, phrasal, complex or clausal. 73

74 TYPES OF THE OBJECT From the point of view of their value and grammatical peculiarities, four types of objects can be distinguished in English: the direct object, the indirect object, and the cognate object. The direct object The direct object is a non-prepositional object that follows transitive verbs, adjectives, or statives and completes their meaning. It denotes a person or a thing directly affected by the action of the verb. The most usual position of the direct object is that immediately after the predicate verb it refers to: Harry ripped open the paper and found page thirteen [JR]. I don t know what I d do without you, Frank [CM]. I like gardening, too [JH]. I m afraid that that was the cause of death [AH]. The direct object can be separated from the predicate verb if there is a non-prepositional indirect recipient object to the same verb in the sentence: Give me your mother s address in Australia [CM]. Stuart would show him shop drawings of plots of land [COCA]. The direct object can also come before the predicate verb it refers to in pronominal questions referring to the direct object or to its attribute and in certain exclamatory sentences: What did she finally pick? [COCA] Which one should she choose? [BNC] What a barbed tongue you ve got! [MM]. When the direct object is expressed by an infinitive (or an infinitive phrase) it may be preceded by the formal introductory (or anticipatory) object it: They would find it impossible to cling onto its broad back [JR]. She found it difficult to be polite to him [MM]. 74

75 The indirect object The indirect object also follows verbs, adjectives and statives. Besides, it may also be attached to adverbs. He showed them his digital pictures [COCA]. Mr. Crouch appeared to be talking to someone that he alone could see [JR]. No one was very surprised at the news [CM]. Are you ready for the reception? [MM] He was not ashamed of being a German [CM]. He was very aware of everybody watching him closely [JR]. Unfortunately for the prosecution, there was no evidence like that [COCA]. From the point of view of their semantics and certain grammatical characteristics indirect objects fall into two types: The indirect object of the first type expresses the addressee of the action. It is used with transitive verbs which take a direct object, so it hardly ever stands alone. It is also called the indirect recipient object and is joined to the headword either without a preposition or by the preposition to (occasionally for): The sight of that cemetery still gave Frank nightmares [MM]. I won t say a word to anybody [CM]. I was told you had a phone message for me on your automated system [DB]. Verbs governing the indirect recipient object fall into two classes, which in accordance with their general semantics are called verbs of benefaction and verbs of inducement. Verbs of benefaction denote an action that is addressed to a person or is done for that person s sake or benefit: Come and lie down; I ll light a fire for you in your room [CM]. You gave Ron the Deluminator [JR] Langdon quickly explained to Sophie everything he had heard about the keystone [DB]. 75

76 Verbs of inducement denote an action which causes a person to do some other action. She asked him to take them there immediately [DB]. I want you to go to medical school [AH]. And then he told me to go away [JR]. The indirect object of the second type is attached to verbs, adjectives, statives and sometimes adverbs. It is usually a noun denoting an inanimate object, although it may be a pronoun, a gerund, a gerundial phrase or complex, an infinitive complex or a clause. Its semantics varies, but it never denotes the addressee (recipient) of the action of the governing verb. So it is called the indirect non-recipient object. The indirect non-recipient object can only be joined to its headword by means of a preposition (it also may be called the prepositional indirect object). The indirect non-recipient object is used mainly with intransitive verbs. It is usually the only object in a sentence: Driving to work, Ashley thought about the invitation [SS]. O Donnell was well aware of the problem [AH]. Perhaps it had something to do with the arrival of Henry [RP]. The cognate object The cognate object is a non-prepositional object which is attached to otherwise intransitive verbs and is always expressed by nouns derived from, or semantically related to, the root of the governing verb. It is usually modified by an attribute with which it forms a combination that is close in meaning to an adverbial modifier: to live a happy life to live happily. The verbs that most frequently take a cognate object are: to live (a life), to smile (a smile), to laugh (a laugh), to die (a death), to sigh (a sigh), to sleep (a sleep), to dream (a dream), to run (a race), to fight (a fight, a battle): She smiled a bright hot smile [MM]. He died the death of an actor [BNC]. 76

77 The complex object The direct and the prepositional indirect object may be simple and complex. The complex object consists of two components, of which the second stands in predicate relation to the first. The two components form an indivisible unit and consequently must be regarded as one part of the sentence. The first component of the complex object is a noun in the common case or in the possessive case, a personal pronoun in the objective case, or a possessive pronoun; the second is an infinitive, a participle, a gerund, seldom a noun, an adjective, a word denoting state, or a prepositional phrase: Harry saw him give a small wave [JR]. I d hate you to spend the best years of your life eating sawdust [COCA]. Harry noticed Madame Maxime watching them out of the other carriage window [JR]. I waited for him to take off again, but nothing happened [JH]. Sometimes the retained object can also be distinguished. This type of object is singled out in a passive construction if the subject corresponds to the indirect object of the original active construction. The second object, the direct one, may be retained in the transformation, though the action of the predicateverb is no more directed upon it. Therefore it is called a retained object. He gave John Dean some additional documents (the direct object) John Dean was given some additional documents (the retained object). EXERCISES Exercise 1. In the following sentences point out the object and state what it is expressed by. 1. My mother always told me not to accept an openended invitation [RP]. 2. O Donnell was conscious of being strangely moved [AH]. 3. He was glad to leave the room [JR]. 77

78 4. imly David Coleman had been aware of what was going on around him [AH]. 5. He remembered being four years old and having measles [RP]. 6. Dumbledore left the three of us a job [JR]. 7. He was afraid of making a false move [JR]. 8. I ve explained to this gentleman that the hotel is full [AH]. 9. What have you got for me today? [SS]. 10. No one was very surprised at the news, and no one dreamed of objecting [CM]. 11. We found his things gone [COCA]. 12. I ve never heard you admit to being in the wrong before [RP]. 13. He wanted nothing more than to sit here, undisturbed, for hours and hours [JR]. 14. Ian laughed a laugh that was not humorous, and smiled a smile that was not friendly [COCA]. 15. Scarlett gave her a shove and loosened her grip [MM]. 16. Did you discover anything about Ogilvie? [AH]. 17. Harry felt a rush of gratitude toward Sirius [JR]. 18. I do remember having to go back and tell him that I did see two people [COCA]. 19. The little village consisted of a restaurant, a church, a post office, and twelve or so houses scattered around the hills [SS]. 20. No spell can reawaken the dead [JR]. Exercise 2. Point out different types of objects in the following sentences, characterize them. Translate the sentences into Russian. 1. In fact, men willingly gave the ladies everything in the world except credit for having intelligence [MM]. 2. Now, I imagine you have something for me to sign? [DB]. 3. They gave her big fat potato chips fried in sizzling cauldrons [CM]. 4. I ve brought you early-morning tea [RP]. 5. You have to get ready for your first task [JR]. 6. I had seen him do this several times during my previous visit [JH]. 7. He grinned a big, friendly grin [COCA]. 8. She thought about her father awakening and finding her gone [SS]. 9. She turned and watched him emerge through the dark aperture of the door. He was carrying a bottle of wine and two tumblers [RP]. 10. One does not readily associate public libraries with user education [BNC]. 11. She saw the doctor lean down from the platform and whisper something to Rhett Butler [MM]. 12. I d like you to handle this case for me [AH]. 78

79 13. Denise released one of his hands and with the other led him to the terrace. She poured two drinks and handed him one. [AH]. 14. He felt her regarding him searchingly [AH]. 15. Driving to work, Ashley thought about the invitation [SS]. 16. I ve brought you early-morning tea [RP]. 17. I want you to meet them [SS]. 18. I ve promised to put them in touch with a couple of contacts of mine [JR]. 19. The man sighed a heavy, exhausted sigh [COCA]. 20. She did not want her to be ill. She did not want her to die [RP]. 21. I ve got something for you too [JR]. 22. No one ever told her anything really shocking or scandalous [MM]. Exercise 3. The following sentences contain nouns, gerunds and infinitives used as objects to adjectives and statives. Point them out. Translate the sentences into Russian. 1. He had to be aware of how he looked [CM]. 2. Robert, this man is not worthy of the Grail [DB]. 3. I m afraid to trust anyone else [SS]. 4. They were proud of the place, proud of its growth, proud of themselves for making it grow [MM]. 5. Are they conscious of the power of cultural influences in their lives? [COCA]. 6. Personally I am tired of the whole affair [JT]. 7. She had never been so glad to see them, so grateful for their instant obedience [RP]. 8. I m not fond of children or their voices [CM]. 9. They were aroused, alert, ready for anything [JT]. 10. And Scarlett was too happy to resent this, too glad to be jealous [MM]. 11. I was surprised at the depth of my feeling [JH]. 12. Both men were patient with the kids, but specific with direction and discipline [COCA]. 13. Bob and the boys were pleased with his work [CM]. 14. He was afraid that something had gone wrong inside him [JR]. 15. I m not ashamed of anything [RP]. Exercise 4. Translate the sentences into Russian. Pay attention to the way you translate cognate objects. 79

80 1. What can I tell you? I ve lived a long life, and I ve seen many lives pass before my eyes [COCA]. 2. On full stomachs the travelers from that century reciprocated with a program of enlightening entertainment. Well into a beautiful July 9th evening, voyageurs and locals visited, told stories, sang old songs, danced old dances, received and awarded presentations [COCA]. 3. Then he laughed a bitter laugh that lasted a lot longer [COCA]. 4. By the time I had reached my early 20s, I had fought many battles, lost many wars and lived many lives (unprepared for each of them) [COCA]. 5. The Green Knight held his head in front of him. His lips smiled a cruel smile as the Green Knight started to speak [COCA]. 6. She s singing a new song every day she must have songs locked in the back of her mind and it s exciting to see her come out. I laughed a nervous laugh, a chirping laugh I had not heard coming from my mouth since junior high school [COCA]. 7. He smiled, falling away from me, his eyes closed, his face relaxing, slack, as if he were sleeping, as if he were dreaming a good dream [COCA]. 8. He fired three shots, two of which struck the President, with the last killing him [COCA]. 9. In Greece, Julius Caesar and Pompey had fought a great battle for control of Rome [COCA]. 10. He smiled a superior smile and deliberately placed his gold-rimmed spectacles upon his nose [COCA]. 11. She was watching her favorite variety show. On it, three girls in elaborate wigs sang a sad song about all the trouble they d had after they d gone out into the world and forgotten what their mothers told them [COCA]. 12. He told a long tale about his younger days playing the trumpet in jazz bands on the mainland [COCA]. 13. Jefferson never fired a single shot in defense of its country [COCA]. 14. Her eyes drifted away. What was she remembering? Had she lived a happy life? Did it matter anymore? [COCA]. 15. We ran a good race, but we certainly didn't finish the race the way we should have [COCA]. 80

81 Exercise 5. Translate the sentences into English paying attention to the use of objects of all kinds. 1. Что ты подаришь сыну на день рождения? 2. Тебя научат всему самому необходимому. 3. Я отправил ему сообщение вчера утром. 4. Скажи мне адрес своей электронной почты. 5. Попроси брата заскочить в магазин и купить нам пару лампочек. 6. Он встретил нас радушной улыбкой. 7. Я слышал, как он пришёл. 8. Кто велел тебе отключить электричество? 9. Я опоздал на самолёт, и мне пришлось ехать с Москву поездом. 10. Должно быть, ты слишком крепко спал. 11. Он протянул паспорт полицейскому и непринуждённо улыбнулся. 12. Он слишком любит всех поучать. 13. Я готов тебе помочь, скажи, что мне делать. 14. Он спел нам свою новую песню. 15. Почему он боится взять на себя ответственность за это решение? 16. Ты не устал слушать её бесконечные жалобы? 17. Я вполне удовлетворён твоей работой. 18. Она ждала, когда он подойдёт поближе. 19. Она тебе скоро всё объяснит. 20. Что ещё я могу для вас сделать? Exercise 6. Point out the Complex object and say by what it is expressed. Translate the sentences into Russian. 1. The figure turned, and I saw the man walking away, with a slight limp [COCA]. 2. She watched them go down the wide passage that led to the library [RP]. 3. Waist-deep in the freezing water he stopped, swallowed, and waited for something to happen [JR]. 4. We heard him hooming and calling our names outside [JT]. 5. He stumped out of the cabin, and they saw him washing himself vigorously in the water barrel outside the window [JR]. 6. A witness in the apartment and one outside Lott's home saw the killer run south in the direction of the Bona Allen Mansion [COCA]. 7. Scarlett felt her face growing red with annoyance [MM]. 8. All the things Father wanted me to do and be were such boring things [MM]. 9. For once she made him feel at a loss [CM]. 10. Oh no, I didn t want you to be caught! [JR]. 11. It was the middle of January and I watched the sun rise; the hint of orange and streaks of purple that laced the sky and glint- 81

82 ed off the sea's horizon made me feel good inside [COCA]. 12. In all his life he had never seen a man move so well [CM]. 13. That night, exhausted and weary, Charlie fell into bed before dinner. Around eight, he heard the phone ring, heard his father answer it [COCA]. 14. She heard him laugh as he turned away and walked back toward the wagon. She saw him stand beside it, heard him speak and his voice was changed, courteous and respectful [MM]. 15. He felt his mouth trembling like a baby s and the tears filling his eyes [RP]. Exercise 7. For sentences 1-10, write m if I did the action myself, or sb if somebody else did it. For one, both are possible. Example: I had my hearing checked last week. I was worried about it. Sb 1. I had my hair cut this morning. What do you think of it? 2. I ve mended your bike. It should be OK now. 3. I got my thumb broken in a rugby match. 4. I fixed the broken food mixer last night. Try using it again. 5. I ve had the computer repaired. I hope it s all right. 6. I had to clean the car before we could leave. 7. I got my handbag stolen when I was on holiday. 8. I got the cake made to save some time. I ve been so busy! 9. I had mended the lamp before he even noticed it was broken. 10. By the time they got there I had already put in the new kitchen sink. Exercise 8. Fill in the gaps using a get / have something done construction. Use the appropriate forms of the verbs and noun phrases from the list below. Noun phrases: all his meals his eyes the film her hair my hair his hi-fi her paintings her dress his diaries Verbs: accept catch cut develop make pay for publish steal test 82

83 Example: I think he got his eyes tested because he kept getting headaches. 1. She s going to this afternoon. I wonder what style she ll have this time! 2. I yesterday. There are some really good photos of you and the children. 3. She s for the exhibition. I m so pleased. There are some quite famous artists taking part. 4. He s again. He s really annoyed because he d just bought it. 5. Did you know that he s won a holiday to Spain? He s won two weeks in a luxury hotel and he ll even. 6. Her father died last year, but she s hoping to. 7. Linda, can you help me a minute? I on my brooch and I can t get it free. 8. Pat s spending a lot on her wedding. She by a top designer. Exercise 9. Complete the conversation below. Fill in the gaps in the conversation about a holiday with words a-g and the correct form of get / have something done. a) some new photos/take b) money/send c) new passport/issue d) it/fix e) passport/steal f) his feet/cover g) my camera/catch Andrew: How was your holiday? What did you do? Katie: Well, on the first day we went swimming, and Luke got his feet covered in oil on the beach. It took us ages to get them clean. Luke: And the next day Katie (1). Katie: So I had to (2), and go all the way to the capital to (3) at the embassy. Luke: And that wasn t all. I (4) in the lift door in the hotel and it broke. I tried to (5) but it cost too much, and anyway we were having money problems. Katie: Yes, we had to (6) from our bank at home because no one would. 83

84 Exercise 10. Translate the following sentences into English using complex object. 1. Я не хочу, чтобы вы меня неправильно поняли. 2. Они слышали, как он намекал на какие-то неприятности. 3. Я слышал, как посетители выставки хвалили наши изделия. 4. Вы должны заставить его признать свои ошибки. 5. Поговорите с ним заранее. Я не хочу, чтобы он чувствовал себя униженным в присутствии этих людей. 6. Мы видели, как он проверял эти цифры. Я уверен, что его расчеты сейчас абсолютно правильные. 7. Мне хотелось бы, чтобы вы подробнее обсудили этот вопрос. 8. Представитель продавца внимательно следил за монтажом оборудования. 9. Мы не ожидали, что ремонтные работы займут так много времени. 10. Мы считаем, что продавец несет ответственность за повреждение товара в пути. 11. Я ожидал, что меня встретят на станции. 12. Он сделал все возможное, чтобы заставить вас изменить решение. 13. Он видел, что я рассматриваю чертежи. 14. Он не любит, когда люди приходят на вокзал провожать его. 15. Я не потерплю, чтобы всю ответственность за ущерб возложили на меня. 16. Я полагаюсь на то, что вы мне все расскажете откровенно. 17. Он пообещал договориться, чтобы нам показали все экспонаты. 18. Все ждали, когда он закончит читать контракт. 19. Мы планируем, что ваше выступление произведет хорошее впечатление. 20. Мы слушали, как он рассказывал посетителям о результатах эксперимента THE ATTRIBUTE The attribute is a secondary part of the sentence which qualifies a noun, a pronoun, or any other part of speech that has a nominal character: He fumbled and drew out her new jade-green wateredsilk dress [MM]. As a matter of fact, we ll practically pass it, I think-well, anyway the old building, I mean, the famous original one [COCA]. 84

85 He had just opened Harry s present, a Chudley Cannon hat [JR]. WAYS OF EXPRESSING THE ATTRIBUTE The attribute can be expressed by a single word or a group of words. Thus it can be expressed by: 1. An adjective (or an adjectival phrase) which characterizes the person or non-person qualitatively or expresses the speaker s attitude: I ve met heartless priests and wonderful ministers [CM] And has anyone a prettier house than mine or nicer clothes or finer horses? [MM] He is a monster existing but unable to create, unable to imagine! [COCA] 2. A pronoun (possessive, defining, demonstrative, interrogative, relative) or a pronominal phrase, which helps to identify or define persons or non-persons: It was as though someone else inside her was saying those words [SS]. But there must be some mistake, Mrs. Merriwether. Some dreadful mistake [MM]. A friend of mine speaks very highly of you [DB]. Everybody was her friend. She called them all her friends [RP]. She spoke no English [JH]. 3. A numeral (cardinal or ordinal) which states the number or order, or serves to identify persons or non-persons: The five brothers rose as one man [CM]. What s the first case? [AH] We must have picked about thirty pounds [RP]. 4. A singular noun in the common case or a prepositional nominal phrase, which characterizes the person or nonperson either qualitatively or from the point of view of its locative, temporal, or other features. Nouns are always 85

86 pre-modifying attributes, prepositional nominal phrases are post-modifying: The revolution was no longer just in the city streets but had made its way to the suburbs [COCA]. There s been a traffic accident on the turnpike [AH]. Mr. Kennedy was a man of wide interests [MM]. In a tiny room at the edge of the apartment, her husband, James, with his sweet balding head and messy blond comb-over, was pecking away mercilessly at his computer, working on his book [COCA]. 5. A noun in the genitive case: They could hear a woman s voice at the other end of the line [AH]. Earlier, Langdon had asked an unusual passing question about Sophie s mother s maiden name [DB]. This isn t anybody s fault [SS]. 6. Participles I and II or a participial phrase, characterizing the person or non-person through an action, process, or reaction: There was no joy in her for the coming baby, not even the rigidly controlled content she had shown over Hal [CM]. There in the middle of the room sat a shining red bicycle with a ribbon tied to the handlebars [DB]. 7. A gerund or a gerundial phrase, or a prepositional construction with a gerund: What keeps all these older folks in their running shoes and swimming trunks? [COCA] Pork, Mammy and Prissy set up outcries at the idea of working in the fields [MM]. I cannot see any possibility of avoiding it [CM]. 8. An infinitive or an infinitive phrases, characterizing a person or non-person through some real or hypothetical action in which this person or non-person is or may be involved: 86

87 Just give me a chance to examine her [JH]. Sophie s grandfather, of course, had been the one to tell her all about that [DB]. Dr. Meade has just brought her a nice little baby, a sweet little sister for you to play with [MM]. 9. An adverb or an adverbial phrase, which characterizes a person or non-person through temporal characteristics, or through circumstances or facts concerning this person or non-person: During the war the then Archbishop de Bricassart served His Holiness loyally and unswervingly [CM]. The black Audi outside had been rented in a false name with false credit card numbers [DB]. 10. By sentences and phrases used as a whole (the so-called quotation nouns ): Ron, said Hermione, in an I-don t-think-you re-beingvery-sensitive sort of voice [JR]. This really is a once-in-a-lifetime opportunity [JR]. He sounded apprehensive, like a father about to give the birds-and-the-bees lecture to his children [DB]. 11. By a clause (then called an attributive clause) which makes the whole sentence a complex one: Edwards joined the Kent chief inspector, who moved warily toward the hatch [DB]. Well, all our champions are ready for the second task, which will start on my whistle [JR]. Everything that could bite viciously or sting unbearably was well represented [CM]. TYPES OF CONNECTION BETWEEN AN ATTRIBUTE AND ITS HEADWORD From the point of view of their connection with the headword and other parts of the sentence, attributes may be divided into non-detached (close) and detached (loose) ones. 87

88 Non-detached attributes Non-detached attributes form one sense group with their headword and are not separated from it by commas. They generally adjoin the headword and are connected with other parts of the sentence only through the headword. Non-detached pre-modifying attributes may be unextended, consisting of one word only, or form chains of homogeneous attributes which characterize the object from one and the same point of view. Such attributes are usually interchangeable: It looked very smart, its red, white and silver-grey paint glittering in the sunshine [JH]. We have stores of biological, chemical and nuclear weapons in this country [COCA]. In speech when adjectives are used as attributes the following scheme is preferable: 1) how big? + 2) how old? + 3) what colour? + 4) where from? + 5) what is it made of? + 6) noun: a tall young dark man ( ) a small white plastic bag ( ) a new brown cotton dress ( ) Attributes may also form a string, describing the object from different angles. This relation of attributes requires a fixed order and no comma is used to separate them. There is often a preferred order for these attributes: gradable adjectives (which can be used with adverbs such as very or extremely describing opinion, size, quality, shape, and age) usually precede ungradable adjectives participle adjective and adjectives describing origin, material, type and purpose (these adjectives themselves imply to a large degree and are used with such adverbs as absolutely or totally): Her big, soft blue eyes had been filled with surprise and desire. (size + quality + colour + noun) [COCA] The radical changes of the late 80 s and early 90 s brought an absolutely new cultural situation. (age + type + noun) [COCA]. 88

89 The beautiful suitcase is practically empty; it contains a few undergarments, a skirt, two shirts a silk pouch with a few pieces of jewelry inside, and, finally, a rather small and very old wooden box. (size + age + material + noun) [COCA]. Adjectives, participles, gerunds, nouns in the common and the possessive cases, pronouns, ordinal numerals, and quotation nouns generally pre-modify the headword. Adverbs, statives, cardinal numerals and infinitives are generally post-modifying attributes. Detached attributes A detached attribute is only loosely connected with its headword. It forms a separate sense group in speech and is accordingly separated by commas in writing. A detached attribute may be placed in preposition, postposition, or often at some distance from the headword. A wizard young, foolish, and gullible wandered across my path in the forest I had made my home [JR]. I could see a transverse wound, quite deep, and discharging a thin, serous fluid [JH]. She drops out of school but returns a year later, happy and healthy, and finishes her degree [COCA] THE APPOSITION An apposition is a part of the sentence expressed by a noun or nominal phrase and referring to another noun or nominal phrase. It characterizes or explains the word modified by giving the person or thing another name. Seeing him through the glass partitions of her office, Mrs. Yeo, the head nurse, got up and came toward him, holding a clip board [AH]. Damaris, the housekeeper, showed Emily upstairs to the suite prepared for her [COCA]. Husband s a decent little guy a carpenter or something like that, works for himself [AH]. 89

90 From the point of view of their relation to the headword, appositions are subdivided into non-detached (close) and detached (loose) appositions. Non-detached appositions Non-detached (close) appositions form one sense group with their headword and very often enter into such close relation with it that the two words form one whole. These word-groups generally consist either of the name of a person and a noun denoting a title, rank, profession, or the name of a person and a noun denoting relationship, or a geographical name and some common noun: Sir Joshua Reynolds, Mister Johnson, Aunt Muriel, Lieutenant Parkinson, the River Thames. In these word-groups the noun modified is the name of a person or a geographical name, the first component is a common noun in apposition. Detached appositions Detached (loose) appositions form separate sense groups and express a much wider range of meanings than close appositions. They are usually separated by commas: Well, what is his family saying about all this, specifically his grandmother, the queen of England [COCA]. It was rumoured that Jack Morton, the new owner, was strapped for cash [COCA]. The speaker was Eustace Swayne founder of a department-store empire, millionaire philanthropist, and member of the board of directors of Three Counties Hospital [AH]. EXERCISES Exercise 1. Point out attributes in the following sentence and state what part of speech they are expressed by. 1. Don t you think there s a chance of your getting out? [MM] 2. As we enter the new millennium, satellite may offer the best odds for fast, dependable Internet access in out of the way 90

91 places [COCA]. 3. Then, slowly, he said some final words to the person inside [DB]. 4. Josh gave no sign of having heard [JH]. 5. Then he could start considering some of the twenty-thousanddollar-a-year jobs [AH]. 6. Sitting in the saddle was a blonde young woman with a beautiful face, wearing embroidered silk pants and a light leather flying jacket [COCA]. 7. Now, I imagine you have something for me to sign? [DB] 8. It is not only a needless sacrifice for you to make, but a useless one [CM]. 9. The downstairs lights were all ablaze [DB]. 10. Wouldn t it be only the civil thing for Mrs. Hopeton to accompany Mrs. King and Mrs. O Rourke on a welcome-to-the-big-house visit? [CM]. 11. Then there were cables to be sent, letters to be written, telephone calls made to England on crackling incoherent lines [RP]. 12. A second scarlet-robed player zoomed out [JR]. 13. Your service to the Church will never be forgotten [CM]. 14. Two men dressed in black suits stood in the doorway [SS]. 15. He was accompanied by a dark little man in denims [JH]. Come along, I ve a friend here for you to meet [RP]. 16. It has been a long time since my last missive, but the economy has been booming in this young dynamic God-fearing country of ours [COCA]. 17. He had never seen such fire in any girl s face, such a glow in anyone s eyes [MM]. 18. At the twentieth floor the elevator doors opened silently onto a spacious carpeted hallway [AH]. 19. About twenty purple-and-gilt chairs stood in two rows here [JR]. 20. Hermione gave Ron a don t-joke-aboutthings-like-that look [JR]. 21. He weighed the risk of buying a replacement headlight from New Orleans solitary Jaguar dealer, and rejected the idea [AH]. 22. I suppose that would be the thing to do [JH]. 23. His only peculiarity was a habit of wearing impossibly gaudy neckties [AH]. 24. Guests are encouraged to pack only underwear, socks, a bathing suit and walking shoes [COCA]. 25. Long dark curtains concealed the portrait of Sirius s mother [JR]. Exercise 2. Point out attributes in the following sentences, characterize them. Translate the sentences into Russian. 91

92 1. Shaped like an enormous horseshoe, the Louvre was the longest building in Europe [DB]. 2. She was wearing a thick magenta cloak with a furry purple collar today, and her crocodile-skin handbag was over her arm [JR]. 3. When do I ever get the chance to see you alone for more than a few minutes? [CM] 4. I d like to thank you for joining us on the after party [COCA]. 5. The people inside jumped on the train just as it was leaving the depot [COCA]. 6. I don t believe in your devil-made-me-doit defense [SS]. 7. A curly-haired third-year Hufflepuff girl to whom Harry had never spoken in his life asked him to go to the ball with her the very next day [JR]. 8. This is a first-class ticket [SS]. 9. I recommend starting with red, green, blue, yellow, white and black construction paper and poster board and red, green and blue florist foil [COCA]. 10. There was some satisfaction to her wounded vanity in the hurt look on Melanie s face [MM]. 11. I stood near the top of the wide marble staircase that swept down the middle of the Corcoran Gallery of Art s central foyer [COCA]. 12. You seem to be a young woman of common sense [MM]. 13. Just like you can be your mother s boy and Aunt Melly s, too [MM]. 14. Her eyes met Anne s, so alive, so shining with emotion that Anne felt her own eyes fill with reciprocal tears of that same joy [CM]. 15. It meant the end of his hope of buying the sawmill immediately [MM]. 16. Once in a while, though, I come across a photograph of my father from my own childhood era, not the slim young man in the flying suit but someone older, grayer, and heavier, with thinning hair [COCA]. 17. Very old, very tall, growing frail, leaning on a silver-handled stick, he had stood on the platform by the open window and kissed Penepole good-bye [RP]. 18. Each one was clad in the citygoing uniform of affluent squatters: tan elastic-sided riding boots, neutral trousers, tan sports jackets of very heavy, fuzzy wool with side vents and plenty of leather patches, white shirts, knitted wool ties, flat-crowned grey hats with broad brims [CM]. 19. The hotel was on Omonia Square, very luxurious and expensive [CM]. 20. Now the specimen identified and accompanied by a surgical work requisition would go to Pathology [AH]. 92

93 Exercise 3. Point out appositions in the following sentences and say whether they are close or loose. 1. Next to it, and in the very center of the table, sat Professor Dumbledore, the headmaster, his sweeping silver hair and beard shining in the candlelight [JR]. 2. Lord Donaldson, the Master of the Rolls, has suggested that family cases should require leave of the court before an appeal [BNC]. 3. John Dancy, the Master of Marlborough, represented the reformers among the Public School headmasters, and Tom Howarth, the High Master of St Paul s, did not [BNC]. 4. Sam Burden, the president, likes to restrict his operations to large-scale manufacture of generic drugs, stuff like that [COCA]. 5. Professor McGonagall, Deputy Headmistress and head of Gryffindor House, had come dashing out of the Great Hall [JR]. 6. As Dr. MacMahon held his patient s wrist, waiting for the pulse to stop, Nurse Penfield turned the window fan to high because the presence of the family had made the room uncomfortably stuffy [AH]. 7. When the tumor was exposed he would remove it for examination by the hospital s pathologist, Dr. Joseph Pearson [AH]. 8. These gentlemen are Dr. McNeil, the resident in pathology, and Dr. Seddons, a resident in surgery, in his third year [AH]. 9. The taxi, an old Rover smelling of old cigarette smoke, trundled along the empty, county road at an unhurried pace [RP]. 10. George Rinne, the pathology department s Negro diener keeper of the morgue looked up as the stretcher rolled in [AH]. 11. On the far side of the autopsy room was the pathology resident, Dr. McNeil [AH]. 12. Afterward they had gone to the Maisonette, a discreet and pleasantly appointed night club on Fifth Avenue [AH]. 13. She was out shopping with Betty Hardy, a woman who was a member of Alette s church [SS]. 14. She, a member of an old and staunchly Confederate family, a planter s family, had gone over to the enemy and by so doing had brought shame on every family in the County [MM]. 15. The four of you stand accused of capturing an Auror Frank Longbottom and subjecting him to the Cruciatus Curse, believing him to have knowledge of the present whereabouts of your exiled master, He-Who-Must-Not-Be-Named [JR]. 93

94 Exercise 4. How much do you remember about your life magic moments? Choose two events and write what you remember about them, using structurally different types of sentences. Use as many attributes and appositions as you can. Observe the correct order of the attributes. Example: I was about six when I went to my first Halloween party. It was a marvelous unforgettable event! I was staying with my elder cousin, Julia, and 1) Your earliest memory. 2) The day you met your best friend. 3) Your first day at the university. 4) The first time you travelled in a plane. 5) The first time you went to a party. 6) Your first visit to a different country. Exercise 5. Translate the following sentences into English using the appropriate attributes and appositions. 1. Зеленое платье, которое ты вчера купила, слишком короткое. 2. С ним трудно иметь дело. 3. Мистер Браун, наш новый директор, очень образованный и начитанный человек. 4. Мне больше не к кому обратиться. 5. Джонсон, начальник отдела продаж, всегда приходит на работу первым, а уходит последним. 6. Никогда мне не забыть тот чудесный теплый летний вечер! 7. Он оказался человеком средних лет, невысоким, кареглазым брюнетом с доброй улыбкой. 8. Эта страна славится особым теплым мягким климатом. 9. Наши футболисты одержали на прошедшем Чемпионате мира блестящую победу. 10. Морское путешествие в экзотические страны остается моей несбыточной мечтой. 11. Экзаменационная комиссия была поражена ответом талантливого выпускника факультета иностранных языков. 12. Необычайная красота этого заброшенного места произвела на нас неизгладимое впечатление. 13. Сэр Артур Конан Дойль, создатель образа гениального сыщика Шерлока Холмса и его верного друга доктора Ватсона, родился в семье ирландских католиков, известной своими достиже- 94

95 ниями в искусстве и литературе. 14. Первой женщиной, достигшей вершины Монблана высочайшей горы в Альпах стала француженка Мария Парадис. Сейчас под Монбланом проложен платный автомобильный туннель длиной в 11 километров, соединяющий Францию и Италию. 15. Великий сдвиг гласных изменение произношения в английском языке впервые был исследован Отто Есперсеном, датским лингвистом. 16. Бел Кауфман, внучка известного еврейского писателя Шолом-Алейхема, много лет работала учителем английского языка в средних школах Нью-Йорка. 17. Опубликованные братьями Гримм книги по истории и грамматике немецкого языка явились стимулом к оформлению германистики и лингвистики в самостоятельную научную дисциплину. 18. Сказуемое главный член предложения, связанный с подлежащим. 19. Продолжительность рабочей недели не может превышать 40 часов. 20. Как можно есть такое пережаренное мясо! THE ADVERBIAL MODIFIER The adverbial modifier (or the adverbial) is a secondary part of the sentence which modifies a verb, an adjective, a stative, or an adverb. It may denote quality, quantity, degree or characterize the whole situation. Obligatory and non-obligatory adverbial modifiers Adverbials are structurally more independent of the verb than objects. Their use is often optional. However, when introduced into the sentence, adverbials are of great communicative value. Thus in the sentence I met Conrad yesterday evening in the King s Hotel, in Relkirk [RP] all three adverbials (yesterday evening, in the King s Hotel and in Relkirk) give important pieces of information, although grammatically the sentence I met Conrad is complete. Adverbials are obligatory when the sentence structure demands one or when their absence changes the meaning of the verb. Thus, adverbial modifiers are obligatory: 1. After the verbs to behave, to act, to treat: Rip behaved like a happy pet [JH]. 95

96 Despite his reputation, Modi behaved impeccably at first [BNC]. You have acted more quickly than we imagined [DB]. Yet always he treated Aragorn with honour [JT]. * Yet always he treated Aragorn = Но он всегда лечил Арагорна 2. After statal and durative verbs (to live, to dwell, to wait, to last, to weigh, etc.): She lived for some years in Paris [RP]. She had never lived in a caravan before [RP]. The election had lasted three days instead of one [MM]. Jeffrey Singer weighed eight pounds, ten ounces, and was the most beautiful baby David had ever seen [SS]. 3. After transitive verbs implying direction (to put, to take, to send, etc.): I took him to Devon for his summer holidays [RP]. He put his hands on his hips [JH]. Meggie was sent home in disgrace [CM]. 4. After intransitive verbs of motion and position (to come, to go, to arrive, to return, to step, to lie, to stand, etc): She was standing at her dressing-table, with her back to him [RP]. After a frozen section any removed tumor went to the pathology lab [AH]. Susan returned to the telephone [SS]. He stepped into number four elevator [AH]. 5. When an adverbial influences the meaning of a verb form or of the whole sentence: She noticed that Melanie, who had never been strong since Beau was born, was inducing Pork to put only dabs of food on her plate [MM]. We can be in Naples early in the morning [SS]. Some Japanese people speak English without distinguishing l from r [COCA]. 96

97 She had never been out this late by herself [MM]. I have never seen the Alps before [SS]. Non-obligatory adverbial modifiers are not necessary for the structure of the sentence. They neither influence the meaning of the verb form, nor change the meaning of the rest of the sentence, though they may be very important from the communicative viewpoint: I was very happy in London [SS]. After losing a dear friend to AIDS, I volunteered for the AIDS Action Committee in Boston [COCA]. He saw Langdon on television at the Vatican last year [DB]. Detached adverbial modifiers Detached adverbials are loosely related to the modified parts of the sentence, so they are mostly non-obligatory. They are separated from the rest of the sentence by intonation in speaking and by commas in writing: Now, on the fourth day, all the stool samples were finally in [AH]. As if to cover sudden confusion, she went immediately to a safer subject [CM]. Blake walked to the bedroom and stopped, in shock [SS]. But despite her raffish appearance and lifestyle (or perhaps because of it), her circle of friends was legion [RP]. WAYS OF EXPRESSING THE ADVERBIAL MODIFIERS 1. An adverb or an adverbial phrase (with an adverb as headword): The sky lightened very slowly [JR]. He was seldom at home [MM]. She said this quite proudly [RP]. He follows Christa from early in the morning till late at night on Twitter [COCA]. Twenty minutes ago he had been asleep in his hotel room [DB]. 97

98 2. A prepositional phrase with a noun, a pronoun or with a numeral: I often saw him playing in the fields by the river [JH]. Edmund s spaniels were dozing in their baskets under the table [RP]. A sudden movement behind him caught his attention [DB]. Outside it was not yet dawn, or the lightening before it [CM]. Scarlett last saw him in 1862 [MM]. On the first of October, when Justine was exactly sixteen months old, Meggie s son was born on Drogheda [CM]. 3. A noun or a nominal phrase without a preposition: Mary Carson died this morning [CM]. Rhett told me about him last summer [MM]. I ve a flight booked next Thursday [RP]. She used to come for Christmas every year [JR]. 4. A non-finite verb form (a gerund or a gerundial phrase, an infinitive or an infinitive phrase, a participle or a participial phrase): Before coming down here to my cabin, I had an irresistible urge to return to the upper deck and look around [JH]. Pearson, on seeing O Donnell and Orden Brown, moved forward to meet them [AH]. His friends bent down to help him [JR]. If you couldn t save him, you should have been there to drown with him [CM]. Shivering, he pulled himself to his feet [DB]. About to continue talking, Dornberger checked himself abruptly [AH]. His heartbeat finally slowing, Langdon turned back around [DB]. 5. A predicative complex (an absolute construction): As Coleman left the pathology office, Pearson was still sitting, silent and unmoving, his eyes unseeing, his thoughts known only to himself [AH]. 98

99 With the girl responding to his careful questioning, Chandler s rapidly written notes began to fill the sheet in front of him [AH]. Crouch being an important Ministry member, he and his wife were allowed a deathbed visit [JR]. When the last Amen sounded, they all rose, somewhat stiffly, Mammy being hauled to her feet by the combined efforts of Teena and Rosa [MM]. 6. A noun, pronoun, adjective, infinitive, participle, or prepositional phrase with a subordinating conjunction: He drew a quick breath as she spoke and bent as if to kiss her again [CM]. It was empty except for shards of wet glass [DB]. He couldn t afford another scandal while waiting for trial [BNC]. She ought to be able to make that journey when necessary [CM]. I want three tickets to London on the first flight, if possible [JH]. 7. A clause: When she finished, she was still for several seconds, until a knowing smile crossed her lips [DB]. Krum s jaw muscles worked as if he were chewing [JT]. Well, Your Grace, unless you re sailing tomorrow you can still see Meggie [CM]. From the point of view of their structure, adverbial modifiers may be simple, phrasal, complex or clausal. TYPES OF ADVERBIAL MODIFIERS Semantically adverbials denote place, time, manner, cause, purpose, result, condition, concession, attendant circumstances, comparison, degree, measure, exception, thus forming semantic classes, such as adverbials of place, time, etc. 99

100 The adverbial modifier of time The adverbial of time can be further subdivided into the following subtypes: The adverbial of time proper denotes the time of some event: Is it what we heard yesterday in Atlanta, Stu? [MM]. Earlier that morning, Sam Blake and Sheriff Dowling were having coffee together [SS]. The adverbial of frequency indicates how often the event denoted by the predicate takes place: I ll be with you every Saturday and Sunday [JH]. I use his texts often in my classes [DB]. From time to time, Jesse Quiller came into the office David was using [SS]. The adverbial of duration indicates the period of time during which some event takes place: We won t get any rain for a long time [CM]. You aren t going to see your nephew till next summer [JR]. The adverbial of time relationship presents the idea of time as related to some other event or time: He felt aggrieved, moreover, that Scarlett should still look desolate after being offered the best of the County boys and Tara, too [MM]. By the end of May there were only four weeks left to go [CM]. The adverbial modifier of place The adverbial of place can express place proper (the identifying question is where?), direction or destination (where to? where from?) and distance (where? how far?): I m going to be in England this coming Friday and Saturday [CM] place proper. I won t stay under the same roof with them [MM] place proper. He went to the window and looked down into the garden [RP] direction. We re going to Australia! [CM] destination. 100

101 He had come twelve thousand miles simply to see her [CM] distance. The adverbial modifier of manner The adverbial modifier of manner characterizes the action of the verb by indicating the way it is performed or by what means it is achieved. The identifying questions are how? in what way? by what means? Adverbials of manner are mainly expressed by adverbs and prepositional phrases (including gerundial phrases) introduced by the prepositions with, without, by, by means of, or with the help of, or by participial phrases and absolute constructions: These women were all beautifully dressed and clearly prosperous [JH]. She kept in touch with Archie by means of rare and sporadic postcards [JR]. Mary Carson got up ponderously, without greeting Fee or the children [CM]. He shook his head with a smile of apology [COCA]. The two men were seated facing each other in soft leather chairs [SS]. The adverbial modifier of attendant circumstances and subsequent events These adverbial modifiers have no identifying questions. The adverbial of attendant circumstances expresses some fact that accompanies the event presented by the modified part of the sentence. This adverbial may be expressed by a gerundial phrase, a participial phrase, any kind of absolute construction, and occasionally by an infinitive phrase: By now the others had stopped and they formed a ring around her, dancing and, from their expressions, chanting derision [AH] (they were dancing and chanting). She stood there, nervously looking from one to the other, without speaking [SS]. Smiling, he threw a coin in the fountain [CM]. He stopped, regarding her directly [AH]. 101

102 The adverbial of subsequent events points out an event following another event presented in the modified part of the sentence. This adverbial is usually expressed by an infinitive, or by a participle: They woke up to find that the power, gas, water, and other utilities were off [COCA]. I came to bed to find you snoring away, one boot on and one boot off [COCA]. The adverbial modifier of cause (reason) The identifying questions of this adverbial modifiers are why? for what reason? because of what? due to what? Adverbials of reason are expressed by prepositional nominal phrases, participial and infinitive phrases and absolute constructions. They are usually introduced by the prepositions because of, due to, owing to, on account of, for the reason of, thanks to, etc.: You can t like someone just because of the color of her hair [CM]. Thanks to my injection the beast could feel little or nothing [JH]. I am likely to develop a cough, owing to the unlucky conjunction of Mars and Jupiter [JR]. He knows the territory, having run away from his family nine months ago [COCA]. A number of prepositions (from, out of, for, with, etc.) acquire causal meaning when combined with nouns denoting a psychological or physical state (anger, fear, curiosity, joy, hatred, happiness, etc.): His hands were shaking slightly out of anger [JR]. They all sprang up and began to caper about for joy [JT]. I made the trip out here for curiosity [MM]. The adverbial modifier of purpose The adverbial modifier of purpose answers the identifying questions what for? for what purpose? It is most frequently expressed by an infinitive or an infinitive phrase, in this case the meaning of purpose may be emphasized by the prepositions in 102

103 order or so as. This adverbial modifier can also be expressed by a noun or a prepositional phrase introduced by the preposition for: Get two people to help you [RP]. To get to the South Pole you have to travel over miles and miles of ice [COCA]. They came to visit me [JR]. He reached for a glass of water, but she was there before him, holding it for him to drink [CM]. The firm might be avoiding mention of the pirate site in order not to stir up more trouble for itself [COCA]. He rode elevators several times, choosing different cars so as not to make himself conspicuous [AH]. They had met for dinner the outcome of O Donnell s invitation to Lucy the day of the mortality conference [AH]. The adverbial modifier of degree This adverbial modifies various parts of the sentence expressed by verbs, adjectives, adverbs and statives, characterizing actions, states and quality from the viewpoint of their intensity. The identifying questions being how much? to what extent? Adverbials of degree are expressed mainly by adverbs and by prepositional phrases with the preposition to. His wife was extremely attractive [JH]. They had become mortally afraid of Sting, and dared not come very near [JT]. You look very prosperous and very, very tidy [MM]. But in domestic matters the situation was reversed for once; she could help to her heart s content without feeling a fool [CM]. In fact he was devoted to it, even to the extent of taking his scissors and clippers to the pub with him every night [JH]. The adverbial modifier of result (consequence) The adverbial of result has no identifying questions. It refers to an adjective, a noun with qualitative meaning, or an adverb 103

104 accompanied by an adverb of degree, such as too, enough, sufficiently, so... (as). The adverbial of result can be expressed by an infinitive, an infinitive phrase, or complex: I am not so naive as to see everything in black and white [COCA]. It was large enough to swallow their Smart-Car in a single gulp [DB]. The boys thought enough of him to elect him lieutenant [MM]. And it took me too long to find out [RP]. By Christmas, his English was sufficiently fluent to meet his every need [COCA]. The adverbial modifier of condition The identifying questions are in what case? or on what condition? The adverbial of condition is generally expressed by a noun or a pronoun, a prepositional phrase with the prepositions but for, except for, without or by a participle or an adjective with the conjunctions if or unless: But for us you d all have run away [JT]. Rhett said they would not have come at all, except for fear of violence at the hands of Melanie [MM]. New York City cannot fight its war on terrorism without help [COCA]. Traveling by secondary roads would be difficult unless knowing the terrain [AH]. I want three tickets to London on the first flight, if possible [JH]. The adverbial modifier of concession This adverbial modifier expresses some idea that contradicts what is stated in the modified part of the sentence. The identifying question is in spite of what? The adverbial of concession is expressed by a prepositional phrase introduced by in spite of, despite, for all, with all and phrases introduced by the conjunction though: In spite of his pain he smiled [CM]. He checked the impulse, though reluctantly [AH]. 104

105 Yet with all this machinery in existence, O Donnell knew that most pathology appointments were still made on the basis of personal contacts and recommendation [AH]. Despite his attachment to foreign travel, he liked familiar things about him [AH]. But for all his habit of making oracular statements and his slightly pompous manner, he was as kindly a man as the town possessed [MM]. The adverbial modifier of comparison The adverbial modifier of comparison is introduced by the conjunctions than, as, as if, as though or the preposition like. The adverbial with than is preceded by the comparative of the adverb or the adjective it modifies, the adverbial with as by the correlative adverbs as or so: The baby, Ariana, was a little longer than a loaf of bread and no more distinctive-looking [RP]. His eyes were as clear as pale water in the shade [CM]. He shook his head as if to clear it [AH]. Her eyes were open but unmoving and cloudy white, as though filled with coconut milk [COCA]. I was being tossed about like a rubber ball [JH]. The conjunctions as if and as though give the comparison a modal shade of meaning. They precede a participle, an infinitive, or a prepositional phrase: As if to prove his point, Justine gave several huge eructations but held her gorge [CM]. The alien turned away slowly, as though trying not to startle her [COCA]. The adverbial modifier of measure The adverbial modifier of measure is expressed by a noun denoting a unit of measure (length, time, weight, money, temperature). It is used after statal verbs denoting processes, states, or characteristics allowing measurement, such as to measure, to 105

106 last, to wait, to sleep, to walk, to run, to weigh, to cost. Nouns as adverbials of measure are preceded by numerals or the indefinite article in its, numerical function: The thermometer out on the shady veranda reached a hundred degrees every day [CM]. The equipment alone would cost fifty thousand dollars [AH]. We all get dressed up, and like I said, drive for forty miles or more [RP]. The ship weighed twenty tons and carried a crew of three [COCA]. Eleven tons I cut in one day! [CM]. The adverbial modifier of exception The adverbial modifier of exception is expressed by nouns or prepositional phrases introduced by the prepositions but, except, save, but for, except for, save for, apart from, aside from, with the exclusion of: But apart from the veterinary side we had a common love of books and reading [JH]. Finally, it was all over, except for a few troublesome sobs [RP]. Save for the two Balnaid spaniels, they were quite alone [JH]. And she had on a black dress and black bonnet and no paint and really looked decent but for that red hair [MM]. There was nothing to be seen except rain [RP]. EXERCISES Exercise 1. Point out adverbial modifiers and state what they are expressed by. 1. But not until two weeks later did the news reach Tara [MM]. 2. To make sure she would never revert back to using it, her left arm was kept tied to her body for a further two months [CM]. 3. They all went to the airport to see her off [RP]. During this time he was created Bishop [CM]. 4. It was August, and bitterly cold [JH]. 5. Clyde was upset to the extent of a screaming 106

107 temper tantrum [CM]. 6. She rushed downstairs again, calling for her children [RP]. 7. She straightened her small body away from the steadying arm and said quietly but with a voice that shook [SS]. 8. By now, she was nearly home [RP]. 9. They were raised to be certain persons, to do certain things, to occupy certain niches [MM]. 10. She went, without hurry, to let them in [RP]. 11. With Vivian watching, the technician went through the routine movements of an X-ray series [AH]. 12. Turning, Fache marched angrily in the opposite direction. 13. To deal with this, she became businesslike and hostess [RP]. 14. She did it now, easily and unself-consciously [AH]. 15. Viktor Krum emerge onto the deck, dressed in nothing but swimming trunks [JR]. 16. The loch at Croy lay hidden in the hills, three miles north of the house [RP]. 17. Several hours later, the waves, moving 500 miles an hour, struck North America [COCA]. 18. Without speaking Coleman took the first slide again. 19. Saying nothing, he stared dead ahead at the chrome doors [DB]. 20. Without love there is no truth and hence no grasp of true reality [COCA]. 21. Undepressed by this, she had set about enjoying her single state as much as was humanly possible [RP]. 22. He was on the run, having killed a man in Chicago [COCA]. 23. Because of Pearson he had wanted to avoid pursuing this subject [AH]. 24. She was not exactly attractive and very often looked quite grumpy [RP]. 25. Sighing, she raised her eyes and gazed out at Paris s dazzling landscape [DB]. 26. But on the other side due to delayed response of the governor, and because the machinery was old and weakened the clamps failed [AH]. 27. Arriving at the gate, he slid under, exited the Grand Gallery, marched down the hall, and stormed into the command center at Saunière s office [DB]. 28. It was unbelievably wonderful to be home [RP]. 29. Can you come up to San Francisco for dinner tomorrow? [SS]. 30. But of course he was too clever to risk his eyesight that way [COCA]. 107

108 Exercise 2. Point out adverbial modifiers in the following sentences, characterize them. Translate the sentences into Russian. 1. Really, Scarlett, I can t go all my life, waiting to catch you between husbands [MM]. 2. Now do that every day, I said, and let me know in about a week [JH]. 3. She remembered the details from the case history on the clip board under her arm [AH]. 4. One day, she was alone. Cosmo had gone to the town to collect the papers and his mail amd to check up on his boat [RP]. 5. For a few hours each week Fee is just going to have to manage minus Meggie, and that s that [CM]. We haven t seen him since the first task [JR]. 6. Downstairs, things did not improve [RP]. 7. Harry, Ron, and Hermione went up to the Owlery after breakfast on Sunday to send a letter to Percy [JR]. 8. Shut in the office, in conference for most of the day, Noel lost track and sight of what was happening out of doors [RP]. 9. She put her knife on the table and stared at Frank and Meggie, the corners of her beautiful mouth turning down [CM]. 10. Later she heard he had died before a doctor ever saw him and was buried somewhere, no one knew exactly [MM]. 11. He hesitated, not wishing to presume [RP]. 12. You can t go north or east or south or west [BNC]. 13. Then he looked up, to find David Coleman s eyes upon him [AH]. 14. Ashley had therapy sessions three times a week [SS]. 15. Then, his face pale, nervousness showing, he stopped [AH]. 16. I stayed for a bit, helping my mother to sort out his affairs [RP]. 17. With a delightful smile she went, closing the door behind her [RP]. 18. No one could cry in the presence of Grandma Fontaine without her express permission [MM]. 19. His was such an easy, graceful strength, lazy as a panther stretching in the sun, alert as a panther to spring and strike [MM]. 20. Dressed in a wool robe with a rope tie, he resembled a medieval cleric [DB]. 21. Almost unconsciously I lay back on the grass and closed my eyes, feeling the sun warm on my face, hearing the hum of the bees among the flowers, the croaking of the rooks in the great elms that overhung the yard [JH]. 22. Outside, in the dusky blue street, the lights had come on [RP]. 23. Hundreds of miles to the south, a chartered 108

109 Beechcraft Baron 58 raced northward over the Tyrrhenian Sea [DB]. 24. A boat-house was built, strongly constructed, and large enough to shelter two boats, with an extra apartment to one side [RP]. 25. Out in the dark corridor, Harry examined the Marauders Map to check that the coast was still clear [JR]. 26. The weapon felt heavy and dangerously foreign [DB]. 27. The pathologist is often known as the doctor the patient seldom sees [AH]. 28. We can get to Australia without begging from her [CM]. 29. He had come to the station to see them off [RP]. 30. They crept onto the bridge without meeting the expected sentry [BNC]. Exercise 3. Point out the kind of adverbial modifier in the following sentences, and state by what it is expressed. 1. You returned to me, not out of loyalty, but out of fear of your old friends [JR]. 2. On the broad desk in the middle of the room, two crystal glasses sat beside an opened bottle of Perrier [DB]. 3. In the morning, I woke up to discover that Gina was gone [COCA]. Moving down a lavish hallway, Collet entered the vast ballroom study [DB]. 4. Most youngsters probably start simply from curiosity, or because their friends are doing it [BNC]. 5. Earlier this evening, within the sanctuary of his penthouse apartment, Bishop Manuel Aringarosa had packed a small travel bag and dressed in a traditional black cassock [DB]. 6. With satisfaction, Olivia watched the remembered ritual, the raised arm, the long, seeping strokes [RP]. 7. And without explaining that enigmatic remark further, she allowed the soldiers to lead her away [BNC]. 8. He laughed, looking at her in admiration tinged with envy [CM]. 9. Thereafter he began staying at home on account of Bonnie s fears [MM]. 10. Meggie pointed wordlessly at her mother [CM]. 11. Thanks to Mrs. Weasley s ministrations, George s wound was neat and clean [JR]. 12. Looking at the ceiling, the words little more than a whisper, she asked, There really isn t much hope, is there? [AH]. 13. Across the table, she stared at Virginia, her eyes hot with hatred [RP]. 14. In fact, on entering the goat house Tristan failed to see the step and fell onto his knees [JH]. 15. The basin being 109

110 circular, and the room he was observing square, Harry could not make out what was going on in the corners of it [JR]. 16. Swinging it forward over one shoulder, she took up her hairbrush [RP]. 17. Before entering, she gazed reluctantly farther down the hall [DB]. 18. I m going to have to go to him to get near the thing [JR]. 19. I ve been waiting for you to check back in, Toni [SS]. 20. In order not to alarm her, he parked some distance away [COCA]. 21. We had to picnic out here, so as to keep an eye on the road [JT]. 22. It was simply too fantastic to be true [AH]. 23. But to a certain extent you get used to it [CM]. 24. The stranger, a native of Savannah, had just returned after twelve years in the inland country [MM]. 25. He was young probably not much older than Alexander himself [AH]. 26. Every poet should be so lucky as to receive such editorial attention [CO- CA]. 27. Turning, Langdon saw Fache standing several yards back at a service elevator [DB]. 28. In addition, the city government can not assess taxes unless approved by Parliament [COCA]. 29. No one carried a pound of superfluous flesh, in spite of the vast quantities of starchy food [CM]. 30. As if to prove the sister s words, the young bitch reared up and planted her forefeet on my chest [JH]. Exercise 4. Translate into English paying attention to adverbial modifiers of different types. 1. Нам нужно выехать в аэропорт в 6 утра, чтобы не опоздать на самолёт. 2. Если бы не пробки, мы бы приехали вовремя. 3. Он встретил нас со слезами на глазах через день на той же площади. 5. Наконец он встал, чтобы уйти. 6. Ты достаточно умён, чтобы промолчать. 7. Выйдя из кафе, он почувствовал себя слишком сытым, чтобы идти домой пешком. 8. Как будто во сне, я увидел яркую вспышку вдалеке и в этот момент хлынул дождь. 9. Дождь оказался не таким сильным, как ожидалось. 10. Если бы не зонт, мы бы промокли до ниточки. 11. Из-за твоего упрямства я совершенно неожиданно пропустил важный звонок. 12. Я знаю его достаточно долго, чтобы доверить ключ от квартиры. 13. Вернувшись в гостиницу, уже через полчаса он был готов к 110

111 отъезду. 14. В соседнем кафе музыка играла чересчур громко, чтобы было приятно. 15. Выйдя из моря, она энергично растёрлась полотенцем. 16. К выходным они вернутся, если необходимо. 17. Летом в школе никого, кроме вахтёра, не было. 18. Чтобы не проспать, я поставил будильник и лёг спать раньше, чем обычно. 19. Ты действительно бросил курить из-за меня? 20. Мне пришлось поехать в Лондон только для того, чтобы сходить на концерт Элтона Джона. Exercise 5*. Arrange the adverbials in brackets in the most appropriate order. 1. Some scientists believe that palm trees will be growing (in fifty years; in Iceland). 2. We moved together (at the front of the building; into the small colonial room). 3. Laura was sitting (in an armchair; with a magazine in her lap). 4. I found this (among the boulders; by the tower). 5. I tapped (at ten past four; on Stella s door). 6. The couple had travelled (on the Transsiberian Express; eastward). 7. The barrel of the gun pointed (in my direction; intimidatingly). 8. Martin Cash arrived (after a career of crimes, arrests and escapes; in 1840; in the penal colony of Port Arthur). 9. Hudson travelled (extensively; for several years; in the North). 10. Mr Lee was (in his office; in Hong Kong; on the fourth floor of a supermarket). 11. Ruth gazed (at the paving stone; fixedly; under her feet). 12. London became visible (about 1 o clock; in the afternoon; to starboard). Exercise 6*. Connect the following pairs of sentences by adding one of the adverbials below to the second sentence of each pair. after all alternatively as a result however in other words instead similarly moreover on the contrary otherwise 1. The Prime Minister is suffering from a hernia. He will not be able to attend the European summit. 2. The peace process is in deep trouble. The various parties involved are prepared to continue their efforts. 3. Nursery education has been transferred to community colleges. Teacher training has been shifted to colleges and universities. 4. We could travel by train. We could 111

112 travel by plane. 5. I did not feel put off by this unexpected confrontation. I was already looking forward to the next challenge. 6. We are not going to buy a sunbed as it is too expensive. Someone told me UVradiation can cause skin cancer. 7. I think we should show some more understanding for Susan s behaviour. She s been through a lot lately. 8. Is there a cheaper solution? Can you make a cheaper device? 9. Don t forget to tell the boss. You will get into a lot of trouble. 10. The suspect did not answer any of my questions. He kept staring into the distance. Exercise 7. Creative writing. Write down a story choosing one of the following ideas. Use sentences with different types of adverbial modifiers. If you could watch any historical event actually happen without interfering with it in any way, what would you watch? How do you think it might differ from the accepted account? Think of the most awkward conversation you've ever had. Who was it with and why was it so awkward? Think about the most amazing thing you've ever seen. Describe it and how it made you feel. SELF-STUDY SECTION. UNIT 2. Task 1*. Complete the sentences below by adding what has been omitted through initial ellipsis. 1. Thought it was a good film. 2. Mind coming a bit earlier, say 5.30? 3. Had a good day in Siena. 4. Bought some good local wine. 5. Hope you had a good holiday. 6. Tell me where Elizabeth Street is, please? 7. Wasn t me! I wasn t there. 8. Can t help you! Sorry! 9. Really think it was me? I can t believe that. 10. Gotta be off now, haven t we? 112

113 Task 2*. Rewrite the following dialogue by turning the sentences into exclamatory or rhetorical questions, as indicated in brackets. Dick: Oh boy, I m tired. (exclamatory positive) Emma: You ve been overdoing it again. (rhetorical negative) Dick: I haven t got an alternative. (rhetorical wh-question) Emma: You could ask me to lend you a hand from time to time. (rhetorical negative) Dick: That s a most generous offer. (exclamatory negative) Emma: I detect some irony in your voice. (rhetorical positive) Dick: I ve asked you many times in the past. (rhetorical whquestion) Emma: I was suffering from depression then. (rhetorical negative) Dick: Hard work is the best antidote to depression. (rhetorical negative) Emma: Oh, but I felt sleepy all the time, taking those pills. (exclamatory positive) Dick: I would have been a far better doctor for you, then. (rhetorical negative) Emma: Oh Dick, you are hopeless. (exclamatory positive) Task 3*. Rewrite the following dialogue by adding the emotional meanings in brackets to the sentences as they stand. Give for each sentence two expanded versions, which differ in form and possibly also in terms of emotive strength. Example: We couldn t go cycling this afternoon. (disappointment) What a pity we couldn t go cycling this afternoon. / It would have been more fun if we had been able to go cycling this afternoon. Walt: Viv, I m going to indulge in a five-course dinner this evening. (anticipation of pleasure) Viv: You ll be stuffing yourself with fattening food again. (disapproval) Walt: You envy people who like a hearty meal from time to time. (surprise) 113

114 Viv: More and more of those people are becoming overweight these days. (concern) Walt: That s not going to happen to me. (hope) Viv: You don t seem to realize that too much food is bad for your health. (regret) Walt: YOU don t seem to realize that I m taking a lot of exercise now. (surprise) Viv: You ve at least changed that part of your lifestyle. (approval) Walt: Some of the physical activities make me feel exhausted. (disappointment) Viv: As you lose weight, the activities will seem lighter too. (hope) Task 4*. Add the missing questions (neutral yes-no or wh-) addressed to Pat by the recruitment officer in the following job interview. Retell it in reported speech. R.O.: Pat: Patricia Lonsdale. R.O.: Pat: In Cape Town, South Africa, on the 23rd of March R.O.: Pat: No, we moved to Durban when I was three. R.O.: Pat: Yes, I went to local schools until the age of 18. R.O.: Pat: No, my parents sent me to Britain. R.O.: Pat: Because they thought the tuition system at British universities would suit me better. R.O.: Pat: Manchester. I got a BA in accounting and finance there. R.O. Pat: Oh, yes, I also studied two foreign languages, Spanish and Russian. After my BA, that is. R.O.: Pat: Well, by taking odd jobs, serving food in restaurants, teaching English to foreigners, etc. 114

115 R.O.: Pat: Yes, I would really like to be employed full-time. R.O.: Pat: Something in the range of 1,500 to 2,000 pounds a month. R.O. Pat: Yes, I ve got two references here, but these were both parttime jobs. R.O.: Thank you. Well, that will do for the time being. You will be hearing from us soon. Task 5*. Add to each of the following statements a shortened wh-question asking for more information (relating to the point in brackets) followed by an appropriate answer. Example: A: Would you give me that book, please. (specification) B: What/Which book?/which one? A: That novel by V.S Naipaul over there / on your desk. 1. Ian is studying chemistry and physics. (place) 2. Charles insisted on having a word with me. (topic) 3. I ve received angry letters from our main customer. (number) 4. We don t want to emigrate to New Zealand any more. (reason) 5. One of the missing children was spotted near a cliff edge. (time) 6. Two flights have been cancelled. (specification) 7. I went to the movies in those days. (frequency) 8. The circus artist had been in a coma. (duration) 9. I ll try to make it up with Caroline. (manner) 10. Put the stuff into our garage, will you? (specification) 11. The victim had been knocked down. (instrument) 12. I ve bought a pearl necklace. (recipient) Task 6*. Complete the following dialogue by adding short affirmations (A) or short denials (D). Retell it in reported speech. Lynn: Mark, are you interested in history? Mark: (D)., I think it s extremely boring. Lynn: You are not being serious. 115

116 Mark: (D) People should be interested in the future, not in the past. Lynn: I hope you understand that some people take an interest in the past. Mark: (A)., it s just that I ve always disliked the subject. Lynn: You probably had teachers who insisted on students remembering lots of dates. Mark: (D). as a matter of fact. One of them even got the dates wrong himself. Lynn: Well, he can t have been fully qualified for the job. Mark: (A) He told us one day that Napoleon had died in Lynn: Oh, he should have said 1821, of course. Mark: (A).. And he claimed that the Battle of Waterloo had taken place in Lynn: That was an even more stupid thing to say. Mark: (A) So I became convinced that history was a subject for nerds. Lynn: And you didn t want to become a nerd yourself. Mark: (A) That s why I started reading science fiction novels instead. They are very interesting books indeed. Lynn: (D).. Nothing s more boring than sci-fi. Anyway, librarians will take such unscientific books off the shelves in the years to come. Mark: (D) Some of those books are works of literature. You ve never read Wells, Huxley Orwell, I suppose. Lynn: (D) Mark: Well, there you are! We seem to agree at last. Task 7*. Write down what the symbols below (box 1) mean in the form of positive and negative commands. Invent interpretations for less immediately comprehensible symbols (box 2). 116

117 Box 1 Box 2 117