UNIVERSITY OF MAIDUGURI CENTRE FOR DISTANCE LEARNING

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1 UNIVERSITY OF MAIDUGURI CENTRE FOR DISTANCE LEARNING ENG 434: Criticisms of African Literature (2 Units) Course Facilitator: Dr. Bosoma Sheriff

2 ENG 434: Criticisms of African Literature 2 STUDY GUIDE Course Code/ Title: ENG 434: Criticisms of African Literature Credit Units: 2 Timing: 26hrs Total hours of Study per each course material should be twenty Six hours (26hrs) at two hours per week within a given semester. You should plan your time table for study on the basis of two hours per course throughout the week. This will apply to all course materials you have. This implies that each course material will be studied for two hours in a week. Similarly, each study session should be timed at one hour including all the activities under it. Do not rush on your time, utilize them adequately. All activities should be timed from five minutes (5minutes) to ten minutes (10minutes). Observe the time you spent for each activity, whether you may need to add or subtract more minutes for the activity. You should also take note of your speed of completing an activity for the purpose of adjustment. Meanwhile, you should observe the one hour allocated to a study session. Find out whether this time is adequate or not. You may need to add or subtract some minutes depending on your speed. You may also need to allocate separate time for your self-assessment questions out of the remaining minutes from the one hour or the one hour which was not used out of the two hours that can be utilized for your SAQ. You must be careful in utilizing your time. Your success

3 ENG 434: Criticisms of African Literature 3 depends on good utilization of the time given; because time is money, do not waste it. Reading: When you start reading the study session, you must not read it like a novel. You should start by having a pen and paper for writing the main points in the study session. You must also have dictionary for checking terms and concepts that are not properly explained in the glossary. Before writing the main points you must use pencil to underline those main points in the text. Make the underlining neat and clear so that the book is not spoiled for further usage. Similarly, you should underline any term that you do not understand its meaning and check for their meaning in the glossary. If those meanings in the glossary are not enough for you, you can use your dictionary for further explanations. When you reach the box for activity, read the question(s) twice so that you are sure of what the question ask you to do then you go back to the in-text to locate the answers to the question. You must be brief in answering those activities except when the question requires you to be detailed. In the same way you read the in-text question and in-text answer carefully, making sure you understand them and locate them in the main text. Furthermore before you attempt answering the (SAQ) be sure of what the question wants you to do, then locate the answers in your in-text carefully before you provide the answer.

4 ENG 434: Criticisms of African Literature 4 Generally, the reading required you to be very careful, paying attention to what you are reading, noting the major points and terms and concepts. But when you are tired, worried and weak do not go into reading, wait until you are relaxed and strong enough before you engage in reading activities. Bold Terms: These are terms that are very important towards comprehending/understanding the in-text read by you. The terms are bolded or made darker in the sentence for you to identify them. When you come across such terms check for the meaning at the back of your book; under the heading glossary. If the meaning is not clear to you, you can use your dictionary to get more clarifications about the term/concept. Do not neglect any of the bold term in your reading because they are essential tools for your understanding of the in-text. Practice Exercises a. Activity: Activity is provided in all the study sessions. Each activity is to remind you of the immediate facts, points and major informations you read in the in-text. In every study session there is one or more activities provided for you to answer them. You must be very careful in answering these activities because they provide you with major facts of the text. You can have a separate note book for the activities which can serve as summary of the texts. Do not forget to timed yourself for each activity you answered.

5 ENG 434: Criticisms of African Literature 5 b. In-text Questions and Answers: In-text questions and answers are provided for you to remind you of major points or facts. To every question, there is answer. So please note all the questions and their answers, they will help you towards remembering the major points in your reading. c. Self Assessment Question: This part is one of the most essential components of your study. It is meant to test your understanding of what you studied so you must give adequate attention in answering them. The remaining time from the two hours allocated for this study session can be used in answering the self- assessment question. Before you start writing answers to any questions under SAQ, you are expected to write down the major points related to the particular question to be answered. Check those points you have written in the in-text to ascertain that they are correct, after that you can start explaining each point as your answer to the question. When you have completed the explanation of each question, you can now check at the back of your book, compare your answer to the solutions provided by your course writer. Then try to grade your effort sincerely and honestly to see your level of performance. This procedure should be applied to all SAQ activities. Make sure you are not in a hurry to finish but careful to do the right thing.

6 ENG 434: Criticisms of African Literature 6 e-tutors: The etutors are dedicated online teachers that provide services to students in all their programme of studies. They are expected to be twenty- four hours online to receive and attend to students Academic and Administrative questions which are vital to student s processes of their studies. For each programme, there will be two or more e-tutors for effective attention to student s enquiries. Therefore, you are expected as a student to always contact your e- tutors through their addresses or phone numbers which are there in your student hand book. Do not hesitate or waste time in contacting your e-tutors when in doubt about your learning. You must learn how to operate , because ing will give you opportunity for getting better explanation at no cost. In addition to your e-tutors, you can also contact your course facilitators through their phone numbers and s which are also in your handbook for use. Your course facilitators can also resolve your academic problems. Please utilize them effectively for your studies. Continuous assessment The continuous assessment exercise is limited to 30% of the total marks. The medium of conducting continuous assessment may be through online testing, Tutor Marked test or assignment. You may be required to submit your test or assignment through your . The continuous assessment may be conducted more than once. You must make sure you participate in all C.A processes for without doing your C.A you may not pass your examination, so take note and be up to date.

7 ENG 434: Criticisms of African Literature 7 Examination All examinations shall be conducted at the University of Maiduguri Centre for Distance Learning. Therefore all students must come to the Centre for a period of one week for their examinations. Your preparation for examination may require you to look for course mates so that you form a group studies. The grouping or Networking studies will facilitate your better understanding of what you studied. Group studies can be formed in villages and township as long as you have partners offering the same programme. Grouping and Social Networking are better approaches to effective studies. Please find your group. You must prepare very well before the examination week. You must engage in comprehensive studies. Revising your previous studies, making brief summaries of all materials you read or from your first summary on activities, in-text questions and answers, as well as on self assessment questions that you provided solutions at first stage of studies. When the examination week commences you can also go through your brief summarizes each day for various the courses to remind you of main points. When coming to examination hall, there are certain materials that are prohibited for you to carry (i.e Bags, Cell phone, and any paper etc). You will be checked before you are allowed to enter the hall. You must also be well behaved throughout your examination period.

8 ENG 434: Criticisms of African Literature 8 INTRODUCTION TO THE COURSE The study of literature can be divided into two main areas. First is literary history. Literary history deals with external aspects of literature. For example, if one is examining issues related to developments in any aspect of literature, or the relationships of some literary movements to currents of ideas in particular areas or at particular periods, one can be said to be engaged in literary history. Investigating sources and influences of texts also belongs to literary history. The second area of literary study is literary criticism. This is concerned with interpretation, analysis and evaluation of concrete works of literature. Literary criticism focuses on internal and external aspects of literature. This course, Criticism of African Literature, introduces the student to some approaches to the criticism of African literature and the major challenges encountered by critics in the field. The student would realize that there are many approaches to the criticism of African literature. What is important is that knowledge of these approaches would equip one with analytical tools that help one to read and appreciate literary works in systematic ways. Furthermore, knowledge of each of the approach and its methods of analysis can enrich one with a body of knowledge of theoretical and practical criticism of literature. OBJECTIVES OF THE COURSE The course has the objective of familiarizing the student with the main trends and approaches to criticism of African literature. Specifically, the course is meant to teach students to: define what is literature is; define what literary criticism is; explain the major trends in the criticism of European and American literatures; explain the major trends in criticism of African literature; and identify the main categories of critics of African literature.

9 ENG 434: Criticisms of African Literature 9 TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE Introduction to the Course 1 Objectives of the Course 1 Table of Contents 2 STUDY SESSION 1: MEANING OF LITERATURE 6 Introduction 6 Learning Outcome Meaning of Literature Definitions of Literature Etymological Definition of Literature Literature as Use of Language Literature as Text Functional Definition of Literature 8 Summary 10 References 10 Suggested Reading 11

10 ENG 434: Criticisms of African Literature 10 STUDY SESSION 2: MAIN FEATURES OF AFRICAN LITERATURE 11 Introduction 11 Learning Outcome DEFINITIONS OF AFRICAN LITERATURE MAIN FEATURES OF AFRICAN LITERATURE Presence of Myth Ancestor Worship Negritude Use of Language 14 Summary 15 References 15 Suggested Reading 15 STUDY SESSION 3: MEANING OF LITERARY CRITICISM 16 Introduction 16 Learning Outcome MEANING OF LITERARY CRITICISM Types of Criticism Theoretical Criticism Practical Criticism 17 Summary 18

11 ENG 434: Criticisms of African Literature 11 References 18 Suggested Reading 18 STUDY SESSION 4: TRENDS IN THE CRITICISM OF ANGLO-AMERICAN LITERATURE 20 Introduction 20 Learning Outcome TRENDS IN THE CRITICISM OF ANGLO-AMERICAN LITERATURE New Criticism Marxist Criticism Psychoanalytic Criticism Existentialism and Modernism Linguistic Criticism Structuralism and Post Structuralism Deconstruction New Historicism and Cultural Materialism Ethnic Studies and Post-Colonial Criticism Feminism Cultural Studies 33 Summary 34 References 35 Suggested Reading 35

12 ENG 434: Criticisms of African Literature 12 STUDY SESSION 5: MAJOR TRENDS IN THE CRITICISM OF AFRICAN 36 LITERATURE 36 Introduction 36 Learning Outcome MAJOR TRENDS IN THE CRITICISM OF AFRICAN LITERATURE The Pioneers in the Criticism of African Literature Criticism by University Lecturers Criticism by European and American Critics Criticism by Indigenous Critics Contemporary Criticism of African Literature The Search for African Standards in the Criticism of African Literature 38 Summary 43 References 43 Suggested Reading 44 Answers to Self-Assessment Questions 45

13 ENG 434: Criticisms of African Literature 13 STUDY SESSION 1: MEANING OF LITERATURE Introduction This section introduces students to basic meaning of literature. It also explains the role of language in the definition of literature. Learning Outcome for Study Section 1 When you have studied this session, you should be able to: Explain what literature is all about; and Point out various definitions of Literature. 1.0 Meaning of Literature Writers have debated for centuries over the meaning of the word literature without reaching a single meaning accepted by all. In this course, we shall study four definitions put forward by scholars 1.1 Definitions of Literature Etymological Definition of Literature The origin of the word (literature) has been traced to the Latin word littera, meaning letter of the alphabet. At one point in history, people considered anything written as literature. Those who held this view regarded publications as varied as cook books, road atlases and city telephone books as literature Literature as Use of Language Literature is also defined as an art, using language in imaginative and creative ways. Art refers to all works that require imagination and creativity to make them. Such works can be painting and sculpture. The difference between these and literature is the substance used in producing the various works. While the painter requires paint and the carver requires wood and knife, for example, what the producer of literary works needs are words, and words come

14 ENG 434: Criticisms of African Literature 14 language. Language itself, together with religion and literature belong to a bigger branch of study, namely culture. How does literature use language? We must also know that literature s chief purpose is telling a story. While it may simultaneously communicate facts, the primary aim is to tell a story. Language is used in literature by describing and detailing a variety of human experiences, mostly in form of stories. Literature is therefore a means of communicating human experiences. The experiences are not communicated by stating facts or bits and pieces of information. Literature for example, does not define the word courage, but shows us a courageous character acting courageously. By so doing, literature concretizes an assortment of human values, emotions, actions and ideas. This allows us, as readers, to experience, vicariously, the lives of a number of characters. Through these characters, we observe people in action, making decisions, struggling to maintain their humanity, sometimes in inhuman circumstances. Through this readers encounter a variety of values and human characteristics that they may embrace, discard, enjoy, or detest. In other words, literature can function as a vehicle for communicating ideas, as a reflection of social reality, and as incarnation (embodiment) of transcendental truth (truth related to metaphysical experience and therefore beyond the material world) Literature as Text A text must have certain qualities before it is described as literature. According to this argument, the artist must create elements such as plot, character, tone, symbols conflict. Furthermore, all these elements must work in dynamic relationships before a work qualifies as literature.

15 ENG 434: Criticisms of African Literature Functional Definition of Literature Sometimes literature is also defined by its function or cultural values. If people, for whatever reason, value a work and decree it to be literature, whether or not it contains the prescribed or so-called essential elements of a text, it is then literature to them. Related to this is the view expressed by some scholars that if a work of art withstands the passage of time, that is if it remains being read centuries after its creation, it deserves the name literature. Some scholars also lay stress on aesthetic elements in defining literature. The adjective aesthetic is related to its noun form Aesthetics which is a branch of philosophy that deals with the concept of the beautiful. Aesthetics strives to determine the criteria for beauty in a work of art. Different people have different ideas about what makes a thing beautiful. For example, Plato and Aristotle said the source of beauty is inherent within the art object itself; but for the philosopher, David Hume, beauty is said to be in the eye of the beholder. Other critics argue that one s perception of beauty in a text rests in the dynamic relationship between the object and the perceiver at a given moment in time. In spite of the divergent views, most critics agree that literature possesses an appealing aesthetic quality. From the foregoing discussing, we have seen that literature defined in different ways by different scholars. We can conclude that as students we have to aware of these divergent ways in which our subject is described and be always flexible in choosing the definitions that fit the contexts of our study. For this course, for example, we can adopt the definition which sees literature as use of language in imaginative and creative ways. In-text Questions and Answers (ITQ and ITA) What is origin of the word literature? Explain what is meant by defining literature as use of language. The origin of the word (literature) has been traced to the Latin word littera, meaning letter of the alphabet. At one point in history, people considered anything written as literature. Those

16 ENG 434: Criticisms of African Literature 16 who held this view regarded publications as varied as cook books, road atlases and city telephone books as literary works. Literature is also defined as an art, using language in imaginative and creative ways. Art refers to all works that require imagination and creativity to make them. Such works can be painting and sculpture. The difference between these and literature is the substance used in producing the various works. While the painter requires paint and the carver requires wood and knife, for example, what the producer of literary works needs are words, and words come language. Language itself, together with religion and literature belong to a bigger branch of study, namely culture. How does literature use language? We must also know that literature s chief purpose is telling a story. While it may simultaneously communicate facts, the primary aim is to tell a story. Language is used in literature by describing and detailing a variety of human experiences, mostly in form of stories. Literature is therefore a means of communicating human experiences. The experiences are not communicated by stating facts or bits and pieces of information. Literature for example, does not define the word courage, but shows us a courageous character acting courageously. By so doing, literature concretizes an assortment of human values, emotions, actions and ideas. This allows us, as readers, to experience, vicariously, the lives of a number of characters. Through these characters, we observe people in action, making decisions, struggling to maintain their humanity, sometimes in inhuman circumstances. Through this readers encounter a variety of values and human characteristics that they may embrace, discard, enjoy, or detest. In other words, literature can function as a vehicle for communicating ideas, as a reflection of social reality, and as incarnation (embodiment) of transcendental truth (truth related to metaphysical experience and therefore beyond the material world).

17 ENG 434: Criticisms of African Literature 17 Activity Literature is defined from different perspectives. Discuss. Summary This section of the manual defines literature from four perspectives, namely etymological, textual, linguistics, and functional. It also explains how language is used in literature. Self Assessment Questions (SAQ) How does literature use language? References Ernest Emenyonu (ed.) Calabar Studies in African Literature 4. Literature and National Consciousness. Ibadan: Heinemann Educational Books (Nigeria) Ltd. Irele, Abiola (1981) The African Experience in Literature and Ideology. London: Heinemann. Nnolim, Charles E. (2010) Issues in African literature. Lagos: Malthouse Press ltd. Suggested Reading Achebe, Chinua (1975). Morning Yet on Creation Day: Essays. New York: Doubleday. Amuta, Chidi (1989) The Theory of African Literature: Implications for practical Criticism London. Zed Publishers. Chinweizu, Onwuchekwu Jemie, Ihechukwu Madubuike (1985). Toward the Decolonisation of African Literature: African Fiction and Poetry and their critics. Ibadan: Fourth Dimension.

18 ENG 434: Criticisms of African Literature 18 STUDY SESSION 2 DEFINITIONS OF AFICAN LITERATURE Introduction This section introduces students to the main features of African literature. Learning Outcome for Study Session 2 When you have studied this session, you should be able to: Know various definitions of African literature; Explain the main features of African Literature; and List examples of African fiction (novels, plays or poems) that contain some of the main features of African literature. 2.0 DEFINITION OF AFICAN LITERATURE The meaning of African literature has been a subject of controversy. For example, a conference of writers held at Makerere in 1962 that was wholly devoted to finding the meaning of African literature failed to reach a conclusive definition. And at another conference, African literature was defined as any creative writing in which African setting is handled realistically and in which portrayal of experiences originating in Africa African is fundamental. By this definition, works produced by white writers like Nadine Gordimer and Alan Paton were considered African literature, those of Joseph Conrad and Graham Green were excluded. Chinua Achebe, in one of his essays you cannot cram African literature into a small, neat definition. I do not see African literature as one unit but a group of associated units-in fact the sum total of all national and ethnic literature of Africa (1975). According to him, national literature is the literature written in the indigenous languages.

19 ENG 434: Criticisms of African Literature 19 For Opata (1989), African literature is not a national literature and recommended the use of the term continental African literature. Adding their voices to the debate, Chinweizu, Jemie and Madubuike, the authors of Toward the Decolonisation of African Literature: African Fiction and Poetry and their critics, (1985) argue that African literature cannot be defined with a simple, clear-cut, dictionary-like definition. With this brief discussion, we can conclude that there are various definitions of African literature, as there are of literature itself. All we need as students is adopt a working definition that suits our purpose. 2.1 MAIN FEATURES OF AFRICAN LITERATURE African literature differs from other literatures like those of Europe and America in many ways. This is largely because many aspects of it are drawn from traditional literature which also known by such terms as orature, oral literature, folk literature and folklore. Below are the main features of African literature Presence of Myth Myth has several meanings. Some describe it as a prose narrative which is considered to be truthful accounts of what happened in the remote past. Myths also can contain dogmas or set of beliefs and thus often cited as authorities. They are therefore usually associated with theology or rituals. Some may account for the origin of mankind, death, or characteristics of birds, animals and geographical features, phenomena of life or things of nature. They may also recount recent activities of deities, their love affairs, family relationships and their friendships. The characters in myths are usually not human beings, though they may have human attributes. They can be animals, deities or cultural heroes whose actions are set in an earlier world when the earth was different from what it is today. Actions in myths can also take place in another world such as the sky or underworld.

20 ENG 434: Criticisms of African Literature 20 African myth and ritual are embedded in African writings. In Nigeria for example, and specially in Igbo literature, ritual explains and communicates myth. Furthermore, divinations are a method of communicating myth. The following are some examples Nigerian fiction that communicate myths through divinations: 1. Myth of the sea-king in Elechi Amadi s The Concubine. 2. Myth of Uhamiri in Flora Nwapa s Efuru. 3. Myth of Abiku or ogbanje or Iyi-ocha in Onuara Nzeku s Wand of Noble Wood Ancestor Worship This is portrayed in African literature by creating characters and settings that celebrate all that dignified and meaning in a society s culture, especially in situations where a given culture losing its values in the face of colonial incursion. Examples of this can be seen in Achebe s Things Fall Apart and Arrow of God Negritude Negritude is a literary and ideological philosophy. It was developed by It was developed by francophone African intellectuals, writers, and politicians in France in the 1930s. The proponents of Negritude disapproved of French colonialism. The believed that the best way to oppose it was for black Africans worldwide to form a common racial identity The term was first used in its literary sense by Césaire, in the magazine titled L'Étudiant noir, based in Paris. The movement was noted for its rejection of assimilation as a a way of resistance. An example of such resistance is the use of the words and black negro as positives terms in African.

21 ENG 434: Criticisms of African Literature Use of Language A number of critics have expressed their views on what should be the most appropriate language of African literature. Questions raised were: should the African writer write in a foreign language? If he does, what language variety should he use? The most radical response to these questions came from Obi Wali who said writing in English or other foreign languages by Africans could lead to sterility, uncreatively and frustration. Nevertheless, English and French have been successfully used by African writers like Achebe, Soyinka, Camara Laye. What seems important is for the African critics to endeavour to relate the work to its specific framework, to draw out material from one s background. and bestow on it quality or African character. The African critic should show skill in his or her appropriation of the European language and tradition and adapt them in a way that he or she imparts a distinct stamp that reveals one s Africanness. In-Text Questions and Answers (ITQ and ITA) List four main features of African Literature and discuss the connection between myth and ritual with examples from Nigerian literature. Four main features of African literature are: 1.Presence of Myth 2. Adherence to ritual observance 3.Ancestor Worship 4. Negritude Tradition African myth and ritual are embedded in African writings. In Nigeria for example, and specially in Igbo literature, ritual explains and communicates myth. Furthermore, divinations are a method of communicating myth. The following are some examples Nigerian fiction that communicate myths through divinations:

22 ENG 434: Criticisms of African Literature Myth of the sea-king in Elechi Amadi s The Concubine. 2. Myth of Uhamiri in Flora Nwapa s Efuru. 3. Myth of Abiku or ogbanje or Iyi-ocha in Onuara Nzeku s Wand of Noble Wood Activity Discuss one function of myth drawing example from any myth in your community. Summary This section of the manual explains some of the ways by which African literature is defined. It also lists and explains the main features of African Literature. The section also shows how some of the features of African literature are reflected in African fiction (novels, plays or poems). Self Assessment Questions Mention four ways by which African literature is defined. What are the main contents, characters, settings and functions of myth? References Nnolim, Charles E. (2010) Issues in African Literature. Lagos: Malthouse Press Ltd. Nnolim, Charles (2010) Achebe s masked spirits: culture s hum and buzz of social implications. In Charles E. Nnolim Issues in African Literature. Lagos: Malthouse. Press Ltd Suggested Reading Soyinka, Wole (1976) Myth, Literature and the African World. London: Cambridge University Press.

23 ENG 434: Criticisms of African Literature 23 STUDY SESSION 3: MEANING OF LITERARY CRITICISM Introduction This section introduces students to the basic meaning of literary criticism. It also explains the meaning of literary theory and its relationship to literary criticism. The student is also introduced to practical criticism, using assumptions and methodologies of feminism. Learning Outcome for Study Session 3 When you have studied this session, you should be able to: Explain what literary criticism is all about; Distinguish between literary criticism and critical theory and Mention various schools of criticism and learn some approaches to criticism. 3.0 MEANING OF LITERARY CRITICISM Literary criticism is an activity that involves analysis, interpretation, evaluation and comparison of specimens of literary works. The word activity foregrounds the practical nature of the act of criticism Types of Literacy Criticism There are two types of literary criticism. One is called theoretical criticism, while the other is practical criticism Theoretical Criticism This is concerned with the nature and value of art. It formulates theories, principles and categories of art. which is a conceptual discipline concerned with the very nature, categories, scope and functions of literature in relation to human experience and cultural developments. For example, feminist approach to literary criticism is based on the some of the following assumptions and methodologies.

24 ENG 434: Criticisms of African Literature 24 Assumptions of Feminism in Literature That women are people in their own right and not incomplete or inferior men. That human nature is universal and the role of culture in constructing and fixing identity should be ignored. The place of women in society should be understood and all aspects about women as writers and their writings should be analyzed. The portrayal of women in literature as barmaids, bitches, whores and brainless housewives, as reflected in some male dominated works should be reexamined. Methodologies of Feminist Criticism Re-examine the existing literary works to confirm what it means to be a woman. Demystify male superiority by examining categories of women found in literary works. Focusing on differences between male and female languages, by analyzing grammatical constructions, recurring themes and their linguistic elements Practical Criticism Practical criticism applies the theories and tenets or beliefs of theoretical criticism to a particular work. As a result of this, it sometimes called applied criticism. For example, as stated in section of this lesson, one of the methodologies feminist approach to literature is to demystify male superiority by examining categories of women found in literary works. Many African writers portray women are human beings like men. They show them struggling to survive in harsh environments, who want to articulate their own lives, and muster courage to face the consequences of the actions they freely take. This belief is portrayed in Flora Nwapa s novel, One is Enough. The novel protests against sexism and patriarchal power structure. Women are portrayed as engulfed in a battle to survive and secure an independent life for themselves.

25 ENG 434: Criticisms of African Literature 25 In-text Questions and Answers (ITQ and ITA) 1. What is the meaning of literary criticism? 2. Explain the difference between theoretical criticism and practical criticism Activity Identify five features of male and female languages in any piece of African literature and examine their constructions. Summary This section of the manual defines literary criticism and shows the differences between theoretical and practical criticism. It also demonstrates the application of feminist approach to a specimen of literature. Self Assessment Questions (SAQ) List the main assumptions and methodologies to feminist approach to literature. References Baldic, Chris (1990) Concise Oxford Dictionary of Literary Terms. New York: Oxford University Press. Bressler, Charles (1994) Literary Criticism. An Introduction to Theory and Practice. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. Cuddon, J.A. (1990) A Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory. London: Penguin. Irele, Abiola (1981) The African Experience in Literature and Ideology. London: Heinemann. Nnolim, Charles E. (2010) Issues in African literature. Lagos: Malthouse press Ltd. Suggested Reading Achebe, Chinua (1975). Morning Yet on Creation Day: Essays. New York: Doubleday. Amuta, Chidi (1989) The Theory of African Literature: Implications for practical Criticism London. Zed Publishers.

26 ENG 434: Criticisms of African Literature 26 Chinweizu, Onwuchekwu Jemie, Ihechukwu Madubuike (1985). Toward the Decolonisation of African Literature: African Fiction and Poetry and their critics. Ibadan: Fourth Dimension.

27 ENG 434: Criticisms of African Literature 27 STUDY SESSION 4: TRENDS IN THE ANGLO-AMERICAN CRITICISM OF LITERATURE Introduction This section introduces students to the major trends in the criticism of European and American Literature. Learning Outcome for Study Session 4 When you have studied this section, you should be able to: List the major trends in the criticism of literature in Europe and America. Explain the major trends in the criticism of literature in Europe and America. and Show examples of books to which some of the foreign critical methods are applied. 4.0 TRENDS IN THE CRITICISM OF ANGLO-AMERICAN LITERATURE A number of critical approaches outside Africa have influenced African literary criticism. For example, certain trends in the criticism of African literature echo certain aspects of critical trends in Europe and America. It is therefore important to know some of the approaches to literary criticism in Europe. Below are nine approaches, some with few of their assumptions and methodologies. 4.1 New Criticism Literature itself became a widely known subject in schools in Europe only in the twentieth century. This was connected to the English as a subject in the schools. As English became an established subject in schools, there developed an increasing attention to the study of texts, rather than the author s life, as existed in the preceding century. Indeed, the entire history of literary criticism can be summarized as being characterized by focus on the artist s life attention to the texts and emphasis on the reader. According to the new critics, analysis of

28 ENG 434: Criticisms of African Literature 28 literature should be based upon close reading of the texts. The New Critics main focus on poetry. This approach is also called formalism. Formalism is, as the name implies, an interpretive approach that emphasizes literary form and the study of literary devices within the text. Formalists sought to place the study of literature on a scientific basis through objective analysis of the motifs, devices, techniques, and other "functions" that comprise the literary work. The Formalists placed great importance on the literariness of texts, those qualities that distinguished the literary from other kinds of writing. Neither author nor context was essential for the Formalists; it was the narrative that spoke. Form was the content. A plot device or narrative strategy was examined for how it functioned and compared to how it had functioned in other literary works. Literary language, partly by calling attention to itself as language, estranged the reader from the familiar and made fresh the experience of daily life. Main Assumptions New criticism emphasised the study of the poem. To the New Critics, in studying poetry, one is engaged in aesthetic experience. Aesthetic experience refers to the effect produced on the mind when contemplating a work of art. The New Critics view a poem is viewed as an objective, self-contained, autonomous entity with its own structure which can be analyzed scientifically. The New Critics believe that the experiences of life, which may be confusing and contradictory, are the substance with which a poem is structured. The poet is therefore seen as organizer of the content of human experience.

29 ENG 434: Criticisms of African Literature 29 The New Critics also believe that a good poem must have organic unity which means all parts of a poem interrelated and interconnected with each part, and each part reflects and supports the poem s central idea. Organic unity harmonizes conflicting ideas, feelings and attitudes in the text. Through this, the critics say, a poem achieves Oneness. Oneness, which is considered a poem s chief characteristic, is achieved through the use poetic elements, namely paradox irony and ambiguity. These elements: paradox, irony and ambiguity create tension which the critics believe, are a part of everyone s life. A superior poem should contain such experiences. In a good poem (a poem that has achieved oneness), the content and form are inseparable. According to the New Critics, the form of a poem is more than its external structure. It refers to the overall effect a poem creates. For this to be achieved, all the various parts of a poem must combine. This means that the form of every poem is unique. Methodologies The methodologies of the New Critics in analyzing literature include the following: Reading the text several times and engage in close reading.. Engaging in close reading of texts. Carefully noting the title of the work and determining its relationship to the text. Studying the work s diction and checking for words with multiple meanings. Analyzing the poetic elements of the diction contextually, and bringing out its organic unity, which should show that all parts of the poem are interrelated and support the poem s chief paradox.

30 ENG 434: Criticisms of African Literature 30 Finding the tensions and conflicts that must be resolved into a harmonious whole, which leads to the poem s chief effect. The chief effect of a poem, which is called main idea, is often expressed in one sentence. The sentence should contain the main tension and resolution of the tension. And all elements in the poem must be shown to relate to the main idea. Searching for meaning within the poem s structure. Meaning is achieved by the tension and conflict that are brought to the surface through the poetic diction. 4. Studying the poem s diction and checking for words with multiple meanings. This is because words with multiple meanings can easily set of series of tension within a text. This kind of tension is also called ambiguity. 4.2 Marxist Criticism Marxist literary theory started in the nineteenth century. It originated from the writings of Karl Heinrich Max. Max was a German social critic and philosopher. He was born in 1818 and died in Using the philosophical ideas of Karl Max, critics developed Marxist approach of textual analysis that focuses on the relationship between a text and the society. At the core of Marxist criticism is the belief that a person s consciousness is not shaped by some spiritual entity or means, and that human beings define themselves through daily living and interacting with each other. The main assumptions of Marxist Criticism are as follows:

31 ENG 434: Criticisms of African Literature 31 Literature and society are intricately bound. Analysis of a text cannot be therefore separated from the situation the work has evolved. Calls for ideological or political investigation which exposes class conflict with the ideology of the dominant class which is consciously or unconsciously imposed on the proletariat. The critic should aim at revealing the working classes, showing how they may end the oppression through commitment to socialism. Critical analysis is believed to lead to action, revolution and rise of socialism. The critic is to expose the dominant class and highlight the elements of society most affected by oppression. Methodologies The Marxists use some of the following methodologies: Placing text in its historical context and analyzing the author s view of life. Investigating the history and culture of the times reflected in the text and showing how the author correctly or incorrectly pictures the historical period. Analysis must go beyond examination of literary elements such as theme, plot and character and uncover the writer s world and world view. Investigate the writer s social class and the author s text reflects his ideology through examination of the setting, characters, and the society depicted in the text. 4.3 Psychoanalytic Criticism Introduction The approach, which was first introduced into literary studies in the 1920s and 30s is still surviving. The criticism originates from the theories and practice of Sigismund Freud ( ). He theorized that the root of the problems of the hysteric or persons suffering from hysteria (depicting anxiety and fear), was not physical but psychological. From the analysis

32 ENG 434: Criticisms of African Literature 32 of both his own neurosis and that of his patients, he posited or put forward for consideration that fantasies and wishful thinking play a large part in the beginning of neurosis. This means that neurosis is caused by actual experience. In a nutshell, the theory holds that we humans are complex and yet understandable creatures who often fail to notice the influence of the unconscious on our motivations and everyday dreams. Freud asserts that our minds are divided into conscious and unconscious. The conscious is said to be rational while the unconscious is not. In other words, the conscious is the reasoning part of our mind which perceives and records external reality. It is the unconscious, not the conscious, which governs a large part of our actions. The unconscious part of our psyche receives and stores hidden desires, ambitions, fears, passions and irrational thoughts. It also stores our supressed and unresolved conflicts. The unconscious is described as the storehouse of disguised truth and desires which want to be revealed in and through the conscious. The disguised truth and desires make themselves known through our dreams, art, literature, play and accidental slips of the tongue, known as Freudian slip. According to Freud, the unresolved conflicts that give rise to neurosis are the stuff of literature. A work of literature is the external expression of the author s unconscious mind. Therefore, a literary work must be read as a dream. This is done by applying psychological techniques to the text to uncover the author s hidden motivation and repressed desires. According to him, people being unaware of the presence of their unconscious, operate consciously, believing that their reasoning and analytical skills are solely responsible for their behaviour. Main Assumptions The main assumptions of psychoanalytic criticism are as follows:

33 ENG 434: Criticisms of African Literature 33 All artists, including authors, are neurotic. However, in the act of creating, the artist escapes many of the outward manifestation of neurosis such as madness and self destruction. In other words, creative activity allows the artist a pathway back to saneness. The chief motivation for writing is to gratify some secret desire or some forbidden wish that probably developed during the artist s infancy and were immediately suppressed and dumped in the unconscious (all present wishes are recreations of past infantile memory). The outward manifestation of such suppressed wish becomes the literary work itself. The literary work is therefore the author s dream or fantasy. Methodology The following are some of the methodologies used by psychoanalytic critics: Some psychoanalytic critics study the text as sexual image. This approach is based on the assumption that all human behaviour is sexually driven. Concave images such as flower, cup, cave, vase etc are seen as female symbols. Objects such as tower, sword, knife, pen etc are viewed as male symbols. Like in dream therapy, use of psychoanalytic techniques can enable critics unlock the hidden meanings contained within the stories and symbols. Like the dream analyst, the critic sees the work of art or a story as dream that on the surface reveals only the manifest content of the true tale. The analyst carefully strips back the various layers of the dream and analyzes it. Collection of biographical data of the author through biographies, personal letters, lectures and other related documents. Using this data and the author s canon, the critic can theoretically construct the author s personality with all its idiosyncrasies, internal and external conflicts and neurosis. This will illuminate the author s individual works, giving

34 ENG 434: Criticisms of African Literature 34 rise to the latent content in his works. This method of collecting data is called psychobiography. In the 1950s, attention was shifted from psychobiography to character analysis. Various aspects of the character s mind found in the author s canon were studied. There was focus on individual characters, believing that the author has in mind a particular personality for his character. Critics also noted that readers develop their own conceptions of each character s personality. A character s motivations and actions are more complex than the author s ideas. How the readers interpret the characters becomes integral part of the text s interpretation. The author creates the character, the reader recreates by bringing to the text and to an individual character all his past experiences and knowledge. The character simultaneously becomes a creation of both the author and the reader. Some psychoanalytic critics assert that the reader plays a major role in interpreting a work. 4.4 Existentialism and Modernism The existentialist movement was pioneered by scholars like Jean Paul Sartre. They made European criticism to move towards absurdism. Giving examples from literary texts by authors like Frank Kafka and Albert Camus concrete examples are given of the world view that depicts man as a victim of the human in a fragmented universe, darkened by illusion, where man feels himself to be a stranger whose movement is from nothingness whence he came toward the nothingness where his life must end. In this sense, human life, in essence is anguished and absurd. The Metamorphosis of Kafka and Waiting for Godot of Beckett are examples of existentialist literature. Character in the existentialist text find themselves in fantastic and nightmarish worlds that are grotesquely comic and irrational. In such worlds, occurrences enacted are absurd, comic, horrifying and irrational.

35 ENG 434: Criticisms of African Literature 35 The following are examples of literary works that contains elements of existentialism:- 1. Metamorphosis by Kafka 2. Waiting for Godot by Beckett 3. Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are dead by Tom Stoppard. The features existentialism also form part of modernism and post modernism. The showed a radical break from the traditional bases of Western culture by questioning the certainties that championed, advanced, and supported the West s religious, moral, and social organization of the past.. These were represented by writers like James Joyce and Eliot. Movements like cubism and surrealism also became part of features of modernism and existentialism. 4.5 Linguistic Criticism Linguistic criticism in Europe and America is concerned with linguistic aspects of literature, pointing towards semiology, structuralism and deconstruction. The approach originated from the distinction made between langue and parole, enunciated by the French linguist, Ferdinand de Saussure. This flourished into semiology based on the concepts of signifier and signified. It also came to be used by formalists and structuralists. The two approaches posit that it is the factors within a given literary work that generate literary effects, and not references to realities outside the text. From structuralism, Anglo-American criticism moved to poststructuralism and later deconstruction Structuralism and Post Structuralism The main assumptions of Structuralism are: Belief that codes, signs and rules govern all human social and cultural practices, including communications. The communication can be language of fashion, sports, education, friendships, or literature.

36 ENG 434: Criticisms of African Literature 36 Each of the above is systematized combination of codes or signs governed by rules. These codes are believed to give meaning to all our social and cultural customs and behaviour. Literary interpretation needs no outside referent. It depends on its own. All texts are believed to be part of the shared system of meaning that is inter-textual, not text specific. In other words, all texts refer the reader to other texts. Methodology By studying the system of rules governing literary interpretation. The system behind these practices must be investigated for effective study of meaning. By discovering how all parts of a literary work fit together and function..the approach does not focus on individual practices; the aim is Study the system whereby texts relate to each other, not examination of an isolated text Deconstruction Deconstruction is concerned with the relationship between text and meaning. According to the theory, meaning is never present in a given text. A concept then must be understood in the context of its opposite, such as being/nothingness, normal/abnormal, speech/writing, etc. It calls into question the possibility of the coherence of discourse, or the capacity for language to communicate. Deconstruction" calls into question the possibility of the coherence of discourse, or the capacity for language to communicate. "Deconstruction," Semiotic theory (a study of signs with close connections to "Structuralism," "Reader response theory" in America ("Reception theory" in Europe), and "Gender theory" informed by the psychoanalysts Jacques Lacan and Julia Kristeva are areas of inquiry that can be located under the banner of "Poststructuralism.