UNIVERSITY OF MAIDUGURI CENTRE FOR DISTANCE LEARNING

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1 UNIVERSITY OF MAIDUGURI CENTRE FOR DISTANCE LEARNING ENG 436: Oral Literature in Africa (2 Units) Course Facilitator: Dr. Amos Luka Bwala

2 STUDY GUIDE Course Code/ Title: ENG 436: Oral Literature in Africa Credit Units: 2 Timing: 26hrs Total hours of Study per each course material should be twenty Six hours (26hrs) at two hours per week within a given semester. You should plan your time table for study on the basis of two hours per course throughout the week. This will apply to all course materials you have. This implies that each course material will be studied for two hours in a week. Similarly, each study session should be timed at one hour including all the activities under it. Do not rush on your time, utilize them adequately. All activities should be timed from five minutes (5minutes) to ten minutes (10minutes). Observe the time you spent for each activity, whether you may need to add or subtract more minutes for the activity. You should also take note of your speed of completing an activity for the purpose of adjustment. Meanwhile, you should observe the one hour allocated to a study session. Find out whether this time is adequate or not. You may need to add or subtract some minutes depending on your speed. You may also need to allocate separate time for your self-assessment questions out of the remaining minutes from the one hour or the one hour which was not used out of the two hours that can be utilized for

3 your SAQ. You must be careful in utilizing your time. Your success depends on good utilization of the time given; because time is money, do not waste it. Reading: When you start reading the study session, you must not read it like a novel. You should start by having a pen and paper for writing the main points in the study session. You must also have dictionary for checking terms and concepts that are not properly explained in the glossary. Before writing the main points you must use pencil to underline those main points in the text. Make the underlining neat and clear so that the book is not spoiled for further usage. Similarly, you should underline any term that you do not understand its meaning and check for their meaning in the glossary. If those meanings in the glossary are not enough for you, you can use your dictionary for further explanations. When you reach the box for activity, read the question(s) twice so that you are sure of what the question ask you to do then you go back to the in-text to locate the answers to the question. You must be brief in answering those activities except when the question requires you to be detailed. In the same way you read the in-text question and in-text answer carefully, making sure you understand them and locate them in the main text. Furthermore before you attempt answering the (SAQ) be sure of

4 what the question wants you to do, then locate the answers in your intext carefully before you provide the answer. Generally, the reading required you to be very careful, paying attention to what you are reading, noting the major points and terms and concepts. But when you are tired, worried and weak do not go into reading, wait until you are relaxed and strong enough before you engage in reading activities. Bold Terms: These are terms that are very important towards comprehending/understanding the in-text read by you. The terms are bolded or made darker in the sentence for you to identify them. When you come across such terms check for the meaning at the back of your book; under the heading glossary. If the meaning is not clear to you, you can use your dictionary to get more clarifications about the term/concept. Do not neglect any of the bold term in your reading because they are essential tools for your understanding of the in-text. Practice Exercises a. Activity: Activity is provided in all the study sessions. Each activity is to remind you of the immediate facts, points and major informations you read in the in-text. In every study session there is one or more activities provided for you to answer them. You must be very careful in answering these activities because they provide you with major facts of the text. You can have a separate note book

5 for the activities which can serve as summary of the texts. Do not forget to timed yourself for each activity you answered. b. In-text Questions and Answers: In-text questions and answers are provided for you to remind you of major points or facts. To every question, there is answer. So please note all the questions and their answers, they will help you towards remembering the major points in your reading. c. Self Assessment Question: This part is one of the most essential components of your study. It is meant to test your understanding of what you studied so you must give adequate attention in answering them. The remaining time from the two hours allocated for this study session can be used in answering the self- assessment question. Before you start writing answers to any questions under SAQ, you are expected to write down the major points related to the particular question to be answered. Check those points you have written in the in-text to ascertain that they are correct, after that you can start explaining each point as your answer to the question. When you have completed the explanation of each question, you can now check at the back of your book, compare your answer to the solutions provided by your course writer. Then try to grade your effort sincerely and honestly to see your level of performance.

6 This procedure should be applied to all SAQ activities. Make sure you are not in a hurry to finish but careful to do the right thing. e-tutors: The etutors are dedicated online teachers that provide services to students in all their programme of studies. They are expected to be twenty- four hours online to receive and attend to students Academic and Administrative questions which are vital to student s processes of their studies. For each programme, there will be two or more e-tutors for effective attention to student s enquiries. Therefore, you are expected as a student to always contact your e-tutors through their addresses or phone numbers which are there in your student hand book. Do not hesitate or waste time in contacting your e- tutors when in doubt about your learning. You must learn how to operate , because ing will give you opportunity for getting better explanation at no cost. In addition to your e-tutors, you can also contact your course facilitators through their phone numbers and s which are also in your handbook for use. Your course facilitators can also resolve your academic problems. Please utilize them effectively for your studies. Continuous assessment The continuous assessment exercise is limited to 30% of the total marks. The medium of conducting continuous assessment may be through online testing, Tutor Marked test or assignment. You may be required to submit your test or assignment through your . The continuous

7 assessment may be conducted more than once. You must make sure you participate in all C.A processes for without doing your C.A you may not pass your examination, so take note and be up to date. Examination All examinations shall be conducted at the University of Maiduguri Centre for Distance Learning. Therefore all students must come to the Centre for a period of one week for their examinations. Your preparation for examination may require you to look for course mates so that you form a group studies. The grouping or Networking studies will facilitate your better understanding of what you studied. Group studies can be formed in villages and township as long as you have partners offering the same programme. Grouping and Social Networking are better approaches to effective studies. Please find your group. You must prepare very well before the examination week. You must engage in comprehensive studies. Revising your previous studies, making brief summaries of all materials you read or from your first summary on activities, in-text questions and answers, as well as on self assessment questions that you provided solutions at first stage of studies. When the examination week commences you can also go through your brief summarizes each day for various the courses to remind you of main points. When coming to examination hall, there are certain materials that are prohibited for you to carry (i.e Bags, Cell phone, and any paper etc).

8 You will be checked before you are allowed to enter the hall. You must also be well behaved throughout your examination period.

9 UNIVERSITY OF MAIDUGURI DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH CENTRE FOR DISTANCE LEARNING ENG 436: ORAL LITERATURE IN AFRICA COURSE MATERIAL WRITER AMOS LUKA BWALA

10 GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO THE COURSE The course introduces students to the study of oral literature in Africa. It exposes students to the genre of oral literature as a field of study. The entire course consists of TEN study sessions with a major aim of introducing the students to an introductory nature of oral literature as a field of study. The major topics carry the students along to the understanding of the whole course consisting of the different common genres of oral literature, the basic theories used in doing research in oral literature, the act of performance,the audience and improvisations. Emphasis and illustrations will be on a general survey of the African continent and students localities.

11 GENERAL OBJECTIVES The course is basically designed to enable students understand the branch of literature called oral literature as a field of study. It is further meant to enable students understand the various subgenres of oral literature. It is hoped that this exposure will lead students to appreciate the course and develop in them the culture of studying oral literature of their localities and Africa as a whole.

12 TABLE OF CONTENTS 1.0 STUDY SESSION: THE NATURE OF ORAL LITERATURE 2.0 STUDY SESSION: COMMON GENRES OF ORAL LITERATURE 3.0 STUDY SESSION: CLASSIFICATION OF GENRES 4.0 STUDY SESSION: HOW TO STUDY GENRES 5.0 STUDY SESSION: EUROPEAN RESEACH INTO AFRICAN ORAL LITERATURE 6.0 STUDY SESSION: BASIC THOERIES OF ORAL LITERATURE 7.0 STUDY SESSION: RESEARCH INTO AFRICAN ORAL LITERATURE TN MODERN TIMES 8.0 STUDY SESSION: SIGNIFICANCE OF PERFORMANCE 9.0 STUDY SESSION: IMPROVISATION AND ORIGINAL COMPOSITION 10.0 STUDY SESSION: AUDIENCE AND ACTUAL OCCASION 3.0 STUDY SESSION: CLASSIFICATION OF GENRES 3.1 INTRODUCTION 3.2 LEARNING OUTCOMES BOLD TERMS 3.3 IN-TEXT CLASSIFICATION OF GENRES 3.4 ACTIVITY 3.5 IN-TEXT QUESTIONS (ITQ S) 3.6 IN-TEXT ANSWERS (ITA S) 3.7 SUMMARY 3.8 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS (SAQS) 3. 9 REFERENCES 3.10 SUGGESTED READING 4.0 STUDY SESSION: HOW TO STUDY GENRES 4.1 INTRODUCTION 4.2 LEARNING OUTCOMES BOLD TERMS 4.3 IN- TEXT HOWTOSTUDYGENRES

13 4.4 ACTIVITY 4.5 IN-TEXT QUESTIONS (ITQ S) 4.6 IN-TEXT ANSWERS (ITA S) 4.7 SUMMARY 4.8 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS (SAQ) 4.9 REFERENCES 4.10 SUGGESTED READING 5.0 STUDY SESSION: EUROPEAN RESEACH INTO AFRICAN ORAL LITERATURE 5.1 INTRODUCTION.5.2 LEARNING OUTCOMES BOLD TERMS 5.3 IN-TEXT: EUROPEAN STUDY OF AFRICAN ORAL LITERATURE ACTIVITY 5.5 IN-TEXT QUESTIONS (ITQ S) 5.6 IN-TEXT ANSWERS (ITA S) 5.7 SUMMARY 5.8 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS (SAQS) 5.9 REFERENCES 5.10 SUGGESTED READING STUDY SESSION: BASIC THOERIES OF ORAL LITERATURE 6.1 INTRODUCTION 6.2 LEARNING OUTCOMES BOLD TERMS 6.3 IN-TEXT BASIC THEORIES OF ORAL LITERATURE 6.4 ACTIVITY 6.5 IN-TEXT QUESTIONS (ITQ S) 6.6 IN- TEXT ANSWERS (ITA S) 6.7 SUMMARY 6.8 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS (SAQS) 6.9 REFERENCES 6.10 SUGGESTED READING

14 STUDY SESSION: THE NATURE OF ORAL LITERATURE 1.0 Introduction This study session introduces you to the nature and significance of oral literature in Africa. The session also teaches you the meaning of literature, the difference between literature and other works of art such as painting and sculpture. You will also learn the main differences between oral and written forms of literature. 1.1 Learning Outcomes for Study Session 1 When you have studied this session, you should be able to: explain what literature means and know the differences between literature and other works of art, explain the main differences between oral and written forms of literature and explain the functions of literature. IN-TEXT 1.2The Nature of Oral Literature Literature, whether written or oral, can be defined as the use of language in an imaginative and creative way. However, this does not mean that all creative and imaginative works are literature. There are other fields of study which involve creativity and imagination, such as painting, sculpture and drawing. Theseare also creative and imaginative activities. The major difference between literature and sculpture or painting literature is the material they use in forming their objects. For example, the painter uses paint and brush, while statues can be carved from wood. The literary artist however uses words. Literature generally, and oral literature in particular, can therefore be described as a medium of communication. In Africa, both written and oral traditions are found. The written form is however better known and publicized because of the widespread usage of European languages. However, in terms of expression, the unwritten or oral literature is no less adequate than the written forms of literature. This is because it contains all the devices of language and performs all the functions that the written literature performs. These functions include serving as a vehicle of ideas, reflection of reality or incarnation or personification of transcendental or mystical truth. Both forms are also sources of aesthetic experience which people enjoy and reflect upon. Oral forms of literature are however distinguished from written literature by the nature of their composition and delivery. When the novelist, the poet or the playwright depends on writing to produce his works, the oral artist does not rely on writing. Oral literature is composed orally. For example, oral poetry is made up as the poet goes along. It isusually sung or chanted, often to musical accompaniment. For the composer of oral literature, the moment of performance of a given piece of work is also the time of its composition. In its normal sense, therefore, oral literature paradoxically exists while going out of existence. To compare the nature of oral and written composition, take for instance Chinua Achebe s novel Things Fall Apart. Because it is written, it would continue to exist in its original form, even if a single copy exists in the world. But that is not so with an oral performance such as folktale or songs sung for different occasions in African societies. The moment the performance ends, the composition has also

15 ended and it can neither be repeated the same way nor documented in its entirety even with the assistance of modem sophisticated equipment like the video camera. IN-TEXT QUESTIONS (ITQS) 1. What is the meaning of literature? 2. Explain the main difference between oral and written forms of literature. 3. List three functions of literature. IN-TEXT ANSWERS (ITAS) 1. Literature can be defined as the use of language in an imaginative and creative way 2. The differences between oral and written literature can be explained thus: Oral literature is distinguished from written literature by the nature of its composition and delivery. While the novelist, the poet or the playwright depends on writing to produce his works, the oral artist does not rely on writing. Oral literature is composed orally. For example, oral poetry is made up as the poet goes along. It is usually sung or chanted, often to musical accompaniment. For the composer of oral literature, the moment of performance of a given piece work is also the time of its composition. 3. Functions of literature include the following: Literature can serve as a vehicle of ideas, reflection of reality or incarnation or personification of transcendental or mystical truth. It can also be a source of aesthetic experience. Activity: In your own words explain the term Literature. 1.3 Summary In this study session, you learnt that literature, whether written or oral, can be defined as the use of language in an imaginative and creative way. In Africa both written and oral literature are found. The written form is however better known and publicized because of the widespread usage of European languages. Oral forms of literature are distinguished from written literature because while the poet or the playwright depends on writing to produce his works, the oral artist does not rely on writing. For him, the moment of performance of a given piece of work is also the time of its composition Self-Assessment Questions (SAQ) Now that you have completed Study Session 1, you can assess how well you have achieved its learning outcomes by answering the following questions. Write your answer in your study diary and discuss them with your tutor at the next contact. You can check your answers with notes on the Self-Assessment Questions at the end of this module. SAQ 1.1 (Testing Learning Outcome 1.1) 1. How do you distinguish between oral and written literature?

16 2. What do you think are the functions of oral literature? 1.5 References/ Suggested Reading Finnegan, Ruth. (1970) Oral Literature in Africa. London: Oxford University Press. (1977) Oral Poetry, its Nature, Significance and Social Context. Cambridge University Press. Kuiper, Kathleen (1995) Merriam Webster s Encyclopedia of literature. U.S.A Merriam Webster Incorporated.

17 STUDY SESSION 2: COMMONGENRES OF ORAL LITERATURE 2.0 Introduction This session introduces you the common genres of oral literature in Africa. Genre generally refers todistinctive types or categories of literary composition. Over the years quite a number of genres have been developed through popular and scholar usages. Some of these include epic, tragedy, comedy, novel and short story. However, genres tend to be flexible because a given genre can be broken into sub-genres.furthermore, even standard definitions of genres put forward by scholars are seldom universally followed. 2.1 Learning Outcomes for Study Session When you have studied this session, you should be able to: IN-TEXT understand the meaning and nature of the term genre and list the common genres of oral literature. 2.2 Common Genres of Oral Literature Myth Myth has several meanings. Some describe it as a prose narrative which is considered to be truthful accounts of what happened in the remote past. Myths also can contain dogmas or set of beliefs and thus often cited as authorities. They are therefore usually associated with theology or rituals. Some may account for the origin of mankind, death or characteristics of birds, animals geographical features, phenomena of life or things of nature. They may also recount the activities of deities, their love affairs, family relationships and their friendships. The charactersin myths are usually not human beings, though they may have human attributes. They can be animals, deities or cultural heroes whose actions are set in an earlier world when the earth was different from what it is today. Actions in myths can also take place in another world such as the sky or the underworld Legends, Folktales and other Narrative terms. Legends are different from myths partly because the events take place in the recent past and the setting is the world of today. Legends may deal with secular or sacred matters and the characters are often humans. Other narrative forms include saga. The term saga is sometimes used for prose narratives usually about a famous hero or family or exploits of heroic kings and warriors. Saga can therefore be described as a prose equivalent of an epic. It sometimes also overlaps with legend. Folktales (used interchangeably with fairy tale, household tale) are prose narratives regarded as fiction. They are not considered as dogma or history. The events may or may not have happened and they are not taken seriously. They may also take place anytime, anywhere Epic: An epic, as described in Cudon(1992:284) is a long narrative poem, on a grand scale, about deeds of warriors and heroes. There is therefore no clear limit as to the length of an epic Riddles, Proverbs and Conversational genres

18 Riddle is an ancient universal form of literature. The commonest form of riddles consists of a puzzle question, the following is an example of a riddle: Brothers and sisters have I none. This man s father is my Sons father? Who am I? (Cuddon 1992:798). Conversational genres include word-play, greetings, blessings and jokes. These have not received much attention from researchers OtherForms Other forms of oral literature include poetry, drama and rhetoric. Activity: What do you understand by the term genre? In-Text Questions (ITQ) 1. What is genre? 2. List the common genres of oral literature. In-Text Answers (ITA) 1. The meaning of genre istype or category of literary composition. 2. Common genres of oralliterature include: myth, legend, epic, folktale, riddle and proverb. 2.3 Summary You have learnt in this session that genres generally refer to distinctive types or categories of literary composition. Many genres have been developed over the years. Some of these are the epic, tragedy, comedy, novel and short story. Genres tend to be flexible because a given genre can be broken down into sub-genres. Furthermore you learnt that even standard definitions of genres put forward by scholars are seldom universally followed. The commonest genres of oral literature are myth, legend, saga, epic, riddles, folktales, proverbs and conversational genres. Myth is a prose narrative which is considered to be truthful accounts of what happened in the remote past. Myth contains dogmas and is often cited as an authority. You also remember that legends are said to deal with secular or sacred matters and the characters are often humans. Folktales are prose narratives regarded as fiction and are not considered as history. Saga is a prose narrative usually about a famous hero or family or exploits of heroic kings and warriors. An epic is along narrative poem, often on a grand scale, about deeds of warriors and heroes. 2.4 Self-Assessment Questions (SAQ) Now that you have completed Study Session 2, you can assess how well you have achieved its learning outcomes by answering the following questions. Write your answer in your study diary and discuss them with your tutor at the next contact. You can check your answers with notes on the Self-Assessment Questions at the end of this module. SAQ 2.1 (Testing Learning Outcome 2.1) 1. List the characters found in myth as a genre of oral literature. 2. Outline at least five genres of oral literature in your tribe.

19 2.5 References Finnegan, Ruth (1970).OralLiterature in Africa. London: Oxford University Press. Kuiper, Kathleen (1995).Merriam Webster s Encyclopedia of Literature. U.S.A Merriam WebsterIncorporated. Cuddon, J. A. (1990).Dictionary of Literary Terms andliterary Theory. London: Penguin. 2.6 Suggested Reading Okpewho, Isidore (1979) The Epic in Africa: Towards a Poetics of the Oral Performance. New York: Columbia University Press. (ed.) (1990) The Oral Performer and his Audience: a Case Study of Ozidi Saga. In IsidoreOkpewho (ed.) The Oral Performance in Africa. Ibadan: Spectrum Books

20 STUDY SESSION 3: CLASSIFICATION OF GENRES 3.0 Introduction When a researcher collects oral material from the field, his analysis and evaluation can be facilitated if he classifies the data he has collected. This is partly because it is only by working out the classes of what he has collected that he can make certain generalizations. In this session, you will be introduced to some of the ways into which oral literature is classified. 3.1 Learning Outcomes When you have studied this session, you should be able to: list the ways into which oral literature can be classified and attempt a classification of an oral piece from your own native oral literature. IN-TEXT 3.2 Classification of Genres Scholars have developed a number of approaches to the classification of oral literature. These include the following: i. ClassificationAccording tosubject Matter ii. iii. iv. This type of classification is based on what a given form of oral literature contains. For example, myths are differentiated from legends because they are concerned with origins and presence of the supernatural. Similarly heroic poetry is about heroes and narratives are subdivided into animal tales, wonder tale, trickster tales and stories about people. Classification can also be made according to types of theme such as love, mourning and origins of the world. ClassificationAccording to Families This is also called generic classification. It is classification of material collected into some kind of families such as putting all narratives, poems and drama separately. Even poems can further be classified into narrative and non-narrative poems. Situational or Sociological Classification Context of performance is of paramount importance in this form of classification. Oral material can be classified according to the type ofperformers, place and time of performance and the audience for whom a given performance is made. For example, we often hear people speak of wedding songs, work songs, court songs and hunters songs. Classification According to Stylistic or Formal Features This is classification according to length, form of expression (whether poet ry or prose, or mixture), the manner in which the form is delivered, e.g. sungpoetry, narrative poetry and recited poetry, type of linguistic expression (everyday, obscure or symbolic language) etc. v Classification According to Performance Characteristics This classification is concerned with how a particularform is performed, e.g. is it accompanied by music, dance, etc.

21 But we should bear in mind that classifications are interrelated and the best way is to use multiple approaches that suit the kind of material, you have collected. For example,the best way to undertake stylistic classification is by classifying your material, first by using generic classification to get total perspective of the literature you are studying. It will also be helpful to support your data with situational or sociological approach 3.3Activity: Generate and classify the various genres of oral literature in your locality. In-Text Questions(ITQ) 1. Explain the significance of classification of oral literature. 2. List the ways into which materials of oral literature can be classified. In-Text Answers (ITA) 1 Classification of oral literature is significant because it facilitates analysis and evaluation of oral material collected. Furthermore, working out the classes of what you have collected enables you to make certain generalizations. 2 Oral literature can be classified according to the following: i Subject Matter: For example, myths are differentiated from legends because they are concerned with origins and presence of the super natural. Similarly, narratives are sub-divided into animal tales, wonder tales and stories about people. Classification can also be made according to theme or plot, e.g. such basic human subjects like love, mourning and origins of the world. ii. Generic Classification: This is classification of oral literature into some kind of families such as narratives, poems and drama. iii. Situational or Sociological Classification: This classification is according to whom, where and by whom oral art is performed, e.g. wedding songs, work songs, court songs. iv. Stylistic Features: This is classification according to length, form of expression, the manner in which the form is delivered, e.g. sung poetry, narrative poetry, recited poetry, type of linguistic expression used etc. v. Occasion, Role and Context: This type of classification poses questions such as when and why a text is produced, e.g. Yoruba Ijala poetry is performed by and for hunters at gatherings of hunters. Also in this category are funeral songs, lullabies and children s play songs. vi. Performance Characteristics: This classification is concerned with how a particular form is performed, e.g. whether it is accompanied by music, dance, etc. 3.4Summary You have learnt in this session that classification helps in facilitating analysis and evaluation of oral material collected. The approaches to classification include subject matter classification, generic classification, situational classification and stylistic classification.you have learnt that stylistic classification refers to classification by the manner in which the form is delivered, e.g.

22 sung poetry, narrative poetry and recited poetry. The classifications are interrelated and the best way is to use multiple approaches. 3.5Self-Assessment Questions (SAQ) Now that you have completed Study Session 3, you can assess how well you have achieved its learning outcomes by answering the following questions. Write your answer in your study diary and discuss them with your tutor at the next contact. You can check your answers with notes on the Self-Assessment Questions at the end of this module. SAQ 3.1 (Testing Learning Outcome 3.1) 1. Into how many categories do you think oral literature can be classified? 2. Explain how classification of oral literature is carried according to subject-matter. 3.6 References Finnegan, Ruth (1970).Oral Literature in Africa. London: Oxford University Press. Cuddon, J. A. (1990).Dictionary ofliterary Terms andliterary Theory. London: Penguin. Kuiper, Kathleen (1995).Merriam Webster s Encyclopedia ofliterature. New York: Merriam WebsterIncorporated. Sunkuli, Leteipa Ole and S. O. Miraku (1990). Dictionary of Oral Literature. Nairobi:Heinemann. 3.7 Suggested Reading Vansina, Jan. (1988).Oral Tradition as History. London: James Currey. STUDY SESSION: HOW TO STUDY GENRES 4.0 Introduction In the last study session you have been introduced to some methods used in classifying genres of oral literature. In this session you will be introduced to some methods used in the study of genres of oral literature. 4.1 Learning Outcomes When you have studied this session, you should be able to: IN-TEXT List the methods of studying oral literature Undertake analysis of oral literature by using one of the methodologies studied, 4.2 How to Study Genres The different genres you learnt in the last session can be studied in different ways. The following are some of the ways or methods of studying genres. 1. FormalFeatures: A scholar can focus on the structure of a given text or the form of expression such as the use of dialogue. Focus can also be on the type of linguistic usage in a given a text.

23 2. Subject Matter: A scholar can also focus on a particular subject matter in a piece of oral performance. For example, even a single performance can contain several subject matters such as myths, legends, proverbs and historical fragments. 3. Occasion and Role ofcontexts: You can also study occasions during which oral literature is performed, including the role of the context within which it is performed. For example, particular seasons or occasions can give rise to particular oral performances and the seasons and occasions can have impact on the types of performances and these are aspects to be studied. 4. Local Terminologies and Taxonomies: Sometimes one can study the special terms or the aesthetically critical vocabularies of a given text of oral literature. For example, one can collect terms used commonly inevaluating oral performance or describing voice qualities of oral performers. 4.3 Activity: How do you think oral literature can perfectly be studied? In-Text Questions (ITQ) 1. Mention three methods of studying oral literature. 2. Analyse a piece of oral literature using one of the methods you studied. In-Text Answers (ITA) 1. Three methods of studying oral literature are: i. Situational or Formal Features: This comprises the study of length, form of expression and the type of linguistic usage. ii. iii. iv. SubjectMatter: This is the study of what a genre is talking about or what it contains. For example, myths are different from legends because of what they contain. Occasion and Role of Contexts: You can study occasions during which oral literature is performed, including the role of the context within which it is performed. Local Terminologies Taxonomies: Sometimes one can study the special terms or the aesthetic critical vocabularies of a given text of oral literature. 2. The student can choose material from oral literature of his choice. However, it should not be taken from books, journals etc. already published. 4.4 Summary You have learnt in this session that when studying the genres of oral literature, you can focus on the following areas: the situational or formal features, length, form of expression, the type of linguistic usage, the subject matter and the occasion. Another area of research is use of local termino1ogies and taxonomies. 4.5 Self-Assessment Questions (SAQ)

24 Now that you have completed Study Session 4, you can assess how well you have achieved its learning outcomes by answering the following questions. Write your answer in your study diary and discuss them with your tutor at the next contact. You can check your answers with notes on the Self-Assessment Questions at the end of this module. SAQ 4.1 (Testing Learning Outcome 4.1) 1. In your own words, explain a method you think can best be used to study oral literature in your locality. 2. How do you analyse a popular folktale in your area? 4.6 References Finnegan, Ruth (1970).Oral Literature in Africa. London: Oxford University Press. Qiddon, J. A. (1990).Dictionary of Literary Terms andliterary Theory. London: Penguin. Kuiper, Kathleen (1995).Merriam Webster s Encyclopedia of Literature. U.S.A Merriam WebsterIncorporated. Sunkuli, Leteipa Ole and S. O. Miraku (1990).Dictionary of Oral Literature. Nairobi: Heinemann. 4.7 Suggested Reading Vansina, Jan (1988).Oral Tradition as History. London: James Currey.

25 STUDY SESSION 5: EUROPEAN RESEACH INTO AFRICAN ORAL LITERATURE 5.0 Introduction In the nineteenth century, a lot of works had been published on African oral literature. However,they were in inaccessible books and journals and their importance was not widely recognized. This was largely because of the belief that Africa had no indigenous tradition of literature. Europeans believed that Africa was surrounded by superstition and the people depended on the savage idea of magic of the word. However, it has now been confirmed that African oral literature possesses aesthetic, social and personal significance. This was as a result of intensive research into the field by European scholars. In this session, you will be introduced to the contribution of linguistic studies by Europeans to the documentation of African oral literature. In that direction, the efforts of German linguists will be prominent. 5.1 Learning Outcomes When you have studied this session, you should be able to: recount the efforts of European researchers into African literature in the 19 century and appreciate the role of linguistics in the study of African oral literature, IN-TEXT 5.2 European Research into African Oral Literature European study of African oral literature began in the middle of the 191 century (1 850s). Although there had been isolated efforts before then, it was only in mid 1850s when linguistic studies became a specialist field that serious documentation started. The motive behind the first collection was evangelization of Africa. The second motive was comparative analysis of African literature with the folktales collected by the Grimm Brothers. These early Europeans published grammar books and collection of vocabularies. W.S. Koelle, a German linguist who came to Freetown as a young man in 1848 made some of these collections. He worked as a teacher among the freed slaves in Freetown. He was a missionary, a teacher as well as a professional linguist. Koelle was employed by the Church Missionary Society of England to work as a missionary. Because of his linguistic background, he developed interest in collecting vocabularies of about one hundred languages and published them with the title: Polyglotta Africana. He also worked with Ali AisamiGasirmabe, a Kanuri freed slave. His collaboration with AliAisami resulted in publication of a monumental book on African Literature titled: African Native Literature or Proverbs; Tales, Fables and Historical Fragments in the Kanuri or Bomu Language. The book was published in Koelle and others before him published lengthy collections and translations which includenarratives of various kinds, proverbs, riddles and tales describing local customs. Occasionally, they also documented songs and poems. These collections emphasized linguistic elements and what was thought suitable for children. No attempt was however made to relate the collections to their historical contexts. There was also no description of the normal circumstances of the materials collected.however, one of the greatest values of these researchers was their publication of large collections of literature from a single people. This threw more light on

26 current literary convention among a given people rather than collection of odds and pieces which later became the popular tradition. This serious research in which German linguists played the most prominent role contributed to the founding of African languages in German Universities of Berlin and Hamburg. University chairs forafrican languages were established in these universities and academic journals were also founded. One of the earliest chairs was for Bantu. The scholars also embarked on serious comparative studies of African and European literatures. They also identified categories of African oral poetry and made a list which included war songs, love songs, satirical songs and dirges. As far as provision of basic sources was concerned, the German collections were among the most valuable. This was because they established the study of African languages and literature as a serious field of study. They also helped in recognizing that the collections they made were a form of literature. In-Text Questions (ITQ) 1. Mention two factors that motivated European research into African oral literature in the 19 century. 2. Explain the strength and weaknesses of the European research into African oral literature in the 19 th century. In-Text Answers (ITA) 1. The two factors that motivated European research into African oral literature in the 19 th century are: a) Evangelism of Africa and comparative analysis of African literature with the folktales collected by the Grimm Brothers. 2. The strength and weaknesses of the European research into African oral literature in the 19 th century can be explained as follows: The strength was the emphasis the collections placed on linguistic aspects and what is thought suitable for children. The researchers published large collections of literature from a single people and this threw more light on literary convention among a given people. The main weakness was that no attempt was made to relate the collections of their historical contexts. There was also no description of the normal circumstances of the materials collected. Activity: Do you think linguistics is part and parcel of the study of African oral literature? 5.3 Summary In this session you have learnt that linguistics became a specialist field of study in Europe in the 1850s and it was then that serious study into African oral literature began. There were two main motives behind the collection and documentation of African oral literature. The first motive was evangelization of Africa and the second comparative analysis which aimed at comparing folktales collected by the Grimm Brothers. These early Europeans published grammar books and collection of vocabularies. One of these collections was made W.S. Koelle, a German linguist who worked as a teacher among the freed slaves in Freetown. He was a missionary, a teacher, as well as a professional linguist. Koelle worked with Ali AisamiGasirmabe, a Kanuri freed slave.

27 Their collaboration resulted in publication of a monumental book on African literature titled: African Native Literature or Proverbs, Tales, Fables and Historical Fragments in the Kanuri or Bomu Language, which was published in Self-Assessment Questions (SAQ) Now that you have completed Study Session 5, you can assess how well you have achieved its learning outcomes by answering the following questions. Write your answer in your study diary and discuss them with your tutor at the next contact. You can check your answers with notes on the Self-Assessment Questions at the end of this module. SAQ 5.1 (Testing Learning Outcome 5.1) 1. Explain how evangelism affected research on African oral literature. 2. Do you think materials collected during research on African oral literature are genuine? 5.5 References Finnegan, Ruth. (1970) Oral Literature in Africa. London: Oxford University Press. Cuddon, J. A. (1990) Dictionary of Literary Terms and LiteraryTheory. London: Penguin. Koelle Sigismund Wilhelm (1854) African Native Literature, or Proverbs, Tales, Fables, andhistorical Fragments in the Kanuri or Borno Language. London: Church MissionarySociety. (Reprinted 1968 by Graz, AkadeinischeDruck-und Verlagsanstalt). 5.6 Suggested Reading Koelle, Sigismund Wilhelm (1854) African Native Literature, or Proverbs, Tales, Fables, andhistorical Fragments in the Kanuri or Borno Language. London: Church MissionarySociety. (Reprinted 1968 by Graz, AkademischeDruck-und Verlagsanstalt).

28 STUDY SESSION 6: BASIC THOERIES OF ORAL LITERATURE 6.0 Introduction By the 1920 s European study of African oral literature had reached its peak. When the Germans left, their place was taken over by the South African Linguistic School, which was supported by French and English professional scholars. But these scholars concentrated their studies on aspects of social institutions and not linguistics. Much of the studies made earlier were then neglected. Therefore, until recently, the study of African oral literature remained neglected. To understand the factors that contributed to this neglect, one has to know about the history of anthropological studies in Africa. During the first half of the 20th century, the study of African institutions and cultures was monopolized by anthropologists. The emphasis of these scholars was not the study of African oral literature in itself. The main aim was to research into African political, social and economic organizations and culture in general. Consequently, the theorists that guided these scholars brought a serious setback to the study of African oral literature. The proponents of these theories were the evolutionists, the structural functionalists and the Diffusionistsor the Historical- Geographical. This topic deals with the assumptions and methodologies of these theories and their effects on the research into African oral literature. 6.1 Learning Outcomes When you have studied this session, you should be able to: mention the main assumptions of the Evolutionists, the StructuralFunctionalists and the Diffusionists or thehistorical-geographical and list the methodologies of the evolutionists, the Structural Functionalists and the Infusionists or the Historical-Geographical and their effects to the study of African oral literature. IN-TEXT 6.2 BASIC THEORIES OF ORAL LITERATURE The Evolutionist Theory or Evolutionism Advocates or proponents of the evolutionist theory are Euherus, Max Muller, Jacob Grimm and WilliamGrimm (Sunkuli and Miruka.1990:91). The theory maintains that verbal arts of a people originate spontaneously and that people create their verbal arts collectively from their interaction and cultural environment. The general viewpoint is that there are certain ideas that recur at identical stages ofdevelopment in any society. They further state that this permits the occurrence of independent but more or less similar tales from geographical regions remote from each other. The main assumptions of the evolutionists are:

29 1. Belief in the concept of unilinear (through stages) and parallel (similar) stages of development through which all human societies must pass. 2. Belief that the direction of evolution was upwards and that people progress from crude primitive life towards civilized and differentiated culture of contemporary Europe. 3. Belief that oral literature is work of communal consciousness and group authorship therefore not individually inspired art as in civilized societies. 4. The belief that no individual creativity was expected of primitive people; that among the primitive people, literature was handed down word for word from a distant past. 5. All primitive literaturesare seen as similar and generalized similarly without considering particular history, culture or individual composer. Although the exact stage they assigned to the various non-literate people vary, their perception is that it is generally low and that all folk literature is characterized by magic, totemism and failure to distinguish between themselves and the animals in the stories. 6. No consideration is given to the history of individual cultures. The main methodology employed is concentration on the origins of institutions and materials collected, thus asking questions such as Which type of literature came first in the pre-history of man?, Which aspect of primitive life has survived into the present in form of folklore? The effects of the evolutionist on the study oral literature are as follows: 1. The study of the evolutionists provided what is thought to be scientific proof to some prejudices about the nature of the oral art and this affected the attitude of those working in the field by conditioning their approach. 2. The research dictates the type of literature to be selected among those recorded. It also dictates the kind of interpretation. Since oral literature is considered as survival of primitive stages, interpretations are based on hypothetical customs of the primitive peoples such as primitive matriarchy and totemism. 3. No consideration is given to literary effectiveness. 4. They do not place any emphasis on selection of different types of literature and no questions are raised about individual authorship. 5. And as the primitive people were thought to be concerned with tradition, no new tales or aspects of literature are collected. 6. Due to the emphasis placed on origin and early history, no emphasis is placed on contemporary relevance of folktales. It can therefore be concluded that emphasis of the evolutionists is on general studies and no attention is given to systematic collection or detailed analysis of literary texts. Although the approach has been rejected by many scholars, some of their assumptions still feature in the writings of known anthropologists The Structural Functionalists In the 1930s anthropologists began to pay attention to more systematic and first hand collection of African literature. In those days the research was dominated by the structuralist functionalists. The theory is associated with Levi Strauss. As Sunkuli and Miruka (1990:92) have observed, the

30 theory seesorature as a vehicle of reconstruction of the basis of life, spanning from the past through the present to the future belonging to the local and the universal and the time bound to the timeless. The theorists concentrate particularly on the function of oral literature in stabilizing or validating current order of things. Their idea is that oral literature has a utilitarian role in the society. The main assumption is that oral literature is not worthy of study as a subject in its own right and therefore can be ignored when it does not fit in with a particular interpretation of society. The fusionis to favour tradition rather than the aesthetic aspect of literature. They also give more emphasis to prose narrative than poetry. The research is also characterized by collection of brief summaries rather than detailed recording Historical-Geographical or Diffusionists Theory or Diffusionism This theory originated in Finland and it was very widespread in America. These scholars are interested in the spread of material and non-material culture. Their aimis to discover the life histories of various kinds. They do this by systematically collecting and classifying stories of a given community and indexing them elaborately. They finally compare these with stories from other areas. The effects of their approach are as follows: 1. Focus is on the subject matter of oral literature because it is the subject they use in explaining the origin and spread of stories. 2. No attention is given to detailed study of the role of forms of literature. 3. There are no large transcriptions and translations as the researchers collect only summaries of the contents of what they study. 4. Sometimes unskilled assistantsareemployed to summarize the contents of the stories collected. 5. Emphasis is placed on prose narratives whose motifs can be traced. 6. No attention is given to poetry. Activity: Do you think there are differences between Historical-Geographical and Diffusionism? In-Text Questions (ITQ) 1.List main assumptions of the Evolutionists. 2. List the main effects of the Diffusionists to the study of oral literature in Africa. In-Text Answers (ITA) 1. The main assumptions of the Evolutionists are: a) The study of the Evolutionists provides what is thought to be scientific proof to some prejudices about the nature of the oral art and this affects the attitude of those working in the field by conditioning their approach.

31 b) The research dictates the type of literature to be selected among those recorded and the kind of interpretation. Since oral literature is considered as survival of primitive stages, interpretations are based on hypocritical customs of the primitive peoples such as primitive matriarchy and totemism. c.) No consideration is given to literary effectiveness. d). They do not place any emphasis on selection of different types of literature and no questions are raised about individual authorship. e). As the primitive people are thought to be concerned with tradition, no new tales or aspects of literature are collected. f). Due to the emphasis they place on origin and early history, no emphasis is placed on contemporary relevance of folktales. 2. The main effects of the Diffusionist or the structural functionalist to the study of oral literature in Africa are: a). Attention is on the subject matter of oral literature because it iswhat they use in tracing the origin and spread of stories. b). No attention is given to detailed study of the role of forms of literature. c.) There are no large transcriptions and translations as the researcher collects only summaries of the contents of what they study. d). Sometimes unskilled assistants are employed to summarize the contents of the stories collected. e). Emphasis is on prose narratives whose motifs can be traced. f). No attention is given to poetry. 6.3 Summary You have learnt in this session that during the first half of the 20th century, the study of African institutions and cultures was monopolized by anthropologists. The emphasis of these scholars was not the study of African oral literature. The main aim was to research into African political, social and economic organizations and culture in general. Consequently, the theorists that guided these scholars brought a serious setback to the study of African oral literature. The proponents of these theories were the evolutionists, the structural functionalists and the Diffusionistsor the Historical-Geographical. You learnt that Advocates or proponents of the evolutionist theory are Euherus, Max Muller, Jacob Grimm and William Grimm (Sunkuli and Miruka.1990:91). The theory maintains that verbal arts of a people originate spontaneously and that people create their verbal arts collectively from their interaction and cultural environment. The general viewpoint is that there are certain ideas that recur at identical stages of development in any society. The Structural Functionalists see orature as a vehicle of reconstruction of the basis of life, spanning from the past through the present to the future belonging to the local and the universal and the time bound to the timeless. The theorists concentrate particularly on the function of oral