THE JVC VIDEO ANTHOLOGY OF WORLD MUSIC AND DANCE

Transcription

1 THE JVC VIDEO ANTHOLOGY OF WORLD MUSIC AND DANCE Book IX: Oceania Editor FUJII Tomoaki Assistant Editors OMORI Yasuhiro SAKURAI Tetsuo In collaboration with The National Museum of Ethnology (Osaka) Producer ICHIKAWA Katsumori (JVC) Directors NAKAGAWA Kunihiko (JVC) ICHIHASHI Yuji (JVC) Translation Editors Richard Emmett MINEGISHI Yuki JVC Victor Company of Japan, Ltd. 1

2 Translated in collaboration with Smithsonian/Folkways Recordings Anthony Seeger, Director Edmund O Reilly, Text Editor English Language Version Translation Advisory Committee Mantle Hood J.H. Kwabena Nketia Hiromi Lorraine Sakata Barbara B. Smith English Language Version Production Coordinator Stephen McArthur Special Thanks to : Stephen McArthur (Rounder Records) TAKESHITA Fumio (Heibonsha, Ltd., Publishers) UEHARA Izumi (Heibonsha, Ltd., Publishers) Post Production Video Tech Co., Ltd. Translation Office Asia Published by Victor Company of Japan, Ltd, Distributed by Multicultural Media Montpelier, Vermont The JVC Video Anthology of World Music and Dance books have finally made it into the digital age! The content is unchanged except for spelling and minor punctuation and grammar errors found during the conversion process. There are new Tables of Contents which contain hyperlinks to the sections which start (for the most part) on a new page intended to make printing a section neater. The books are also searchable to help find needed information quicker. The page numbers in the index found in the Introduction book still refer to the old paper books but they should at least get you close to where you want to go. It is hoped that these books will now be easier to use, especially in today s classroom. The complete set will be included in all future purchases of the JVC Video Anthology of World Music and Dance so explore and enjoy! 2

3 TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION How to Use the JVC Anthology OCEANIA I Tape 29 Micronesia The Festival of Pacific Arts Federated States of Micronesia: Pohnpei Island Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands: Saipan Melanesia: Papua New Guinea Other Islands of Melanesia Solomon Islands New Caledonia Australia: Australian Aborigines OCEANIA II Tape 30 Polynesia Tahiti Marquesas Islands Western Samoa Tonga Fiji Tokelau Islands 3

4 Cook Islands Tuvalu Islands New Zealand: Maori GLOSSARY SELECTED REFERENCES MAP 4

5 INTRODUCTION Anthony Seeger Smithsonian/Folkways Recordings The JVC Video Anthology of World Music and Dance is the first music anthology to combine video technology with extensive printed notes about the selections. Until now it has been virtually impossible to obtain samples of musical performances from a wide variety of cultures except by trying to compare many different films, each shot with a different editorial policy and usually interrupted by intrusive narration. The JVC Anthology is a pioneering effort to present some of the variety of the world s musical cultures in a single educational package, combining examples from nearly one hundred countries into a single series, indexed and described in texts written by many Japanese specialists. This anthology was prepared by the Victor Company of Japan, Limited, in collaboration with the National Museum of Ethnology at Osaka, Japan. Using both licensed and original films, the JVC Video Anthology of World Music and Dance presents the diversity of musical and dance forms practiced today throughout the world. Documented in more than 1,000 pages of text written by Japanese scholars, the videos present footage without narration or interruption, which facilitates their use for a variety of educational purposes. Rather than attempting to write all the commentary as a team, many different Japanese scholars have written about areas in which they have done research. Some additional user aids, including glossaries, have been added to this English language edition, which is otherwise very similar to the original Japanese edition, published in All anthologies face problems in the selection of material. There is much more music in the world than can be included in any anthology, and there are many more styles in any single culture than could be represented here. The difficult job of selecting examples from the material available to them was undertaken by Professor Fujii Tomoaki and his staff at the National Museum of Ethnology. Professor Fujii, in his Editor s Introduction, and Professor Omori, in Enjoying Music Visually, (both included in the introductory Book I of the Anthology ) describe the reasons for their choices. No attempt was made to include every country, or every tradition. This is an anthology not an encyclopedia. Areas nearer to Japan are more amply represented than those more distant, reflecting that country s geo cultural perspective; Southeast Asia, for example, is represented by five tapes, whereas North and South America are represented by only one tape each. However, the area focus of the JVC Anthology generally complements the availability of video materials in the United States: most of the footage easily available here is from the Americas and Europe. There are no examples of Japanese music in this anthology; JVC is preparing a separate anthology of Japanese music for future release. Music is performed everywhere in homes, in churches, on the streets, in nightclubs, in theaters, at music festivals, and in recording studios. Studio recordings exclude social context in an effort to record the most uncontaminated sound, and are only occasionally used in this anthology. Video recordings in isolated homes have often been difficult for technical and other reasons. Most of the recordings in this collection are thus of public events (on the streets, at music festivals, or in restaurants, nightclubs, and theaters). Regional, national, and international music 5

6 festivals are found almost everywhere in the second half of the twentieth century. Performances at music festivals are often modified from their original local performance styles because of the festival format or large theater stage, and this is the case with many of the festival recordings here. For each large region, however, the Anthology includes both festival recordings and more local "field" footage. Viewers should keep in mind that just as music in their own society is performed in many different ways, so is other people s music. You are seeing only one of the possible performance contexts in any given example. An anthology, like an encyclopedia, is format for an initial contact with a subject, not its in depth study. Non specialists will find useful supplementary information in some of the printed encyclopedias of music, especially the multi volume The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians (New York: Macmillan, 1980), which has country by country descriptions of musical traditions and covers a broader variety because they use writing rather than video examples At least two other encyclopedias with extensive coverage of musical traditions from many countries are scheduled for release in the next five years. This is a pioneering anthology because it presents music and movement together. Most music making in the world is associated with movements in addition to those required for the production of sound. When people make music, they almost always move in some culturally specific way. Music can accompany dancing, feasting, worshipping, healing, working, putting a baby to sleep, and many other activities. The accompanying music often makes the actions more effective, pleasing, or possible; the actions often lend significance to the music. In this Anthology you can often see the dance, watch the instruments being played, and get a glimpse of the context in which the recordings were made all impossible with audio recordings. Yet since audio recording technology is much older and audio recordings are less expensive to manufacture, there are many audio recordings already available for supplementing the visual examples in this Anthology. In addition to providing further musical examples, some of these recordings give more complete performances than those presented here. A short list of the names and addresses of some of the larger record companies that produce well documented world music recordings can be found in Book I. The JVC Video Anthology of World Music and Dance enables a non specialist English speaking audience to sample the variety of the world s musical traditions, and to read commentary on the performances by Japanese scholars. Language has been a barrier to access to Japanese scholarship, and part of the importance of this anthology is the access it provides to writings by many of Japan s leading ethnomusicologists and anthropologists, as well as to a sampling of the world s rich variety of musical traditions through their eyes. 6

7 How to Use the JVC Anthology The JVC Anthology consists of 30 videos and 9 books. The collection is subdivided into eight regions, each with its own accompanying book. An introductory book includes a general table of contents, an index for the entire series, supplementary information, and some general articles that apply to more than one region. Users interested in a particular country can scan the contents of the tapes for a given region, and should also be sure to look at the documentation in the book for that region. Users interested in particular subject matter should turn to the introductory book and use the combined index. Each geographic region usually has been divided into smaller units often countries each with its own short general discussion and followed by descriptions of each video example. Video examples are identified by the number of the tape followed by the number of the example on the tape (12 7 would be the seventh example on tape number twelve), and by a short title. These numbers and titles appear on the tapes at the start of each example, in the general table of contents, in the headnotes to descriptions of the individual selections, and on the cassette sleeves. Elapsed time indications should facilitate locating the examples on the tape. Each book contains a glossary, providing short definitions of key terms and, often, locations in the text (region or example numbers) where the terms are used. We have attempted to be consistent in the treatment of non English words. A common contemporary form, printed in boldface, is used in the text; alternative forms, sometimes involving diacritical marks, may be noted in brackets in the glossaries. Glossaries are derived from the text and contain only the definitions of terms as they are specifically used in the articles in the Anthology. The glossaries are not intended to be definitive or comprehensive, but only to assist the reader in managing an abundance of unfamiliar terminology. With a little practice, it should be quite easy to use this anthology, and to take advantage of the resources it provides for the investigation and appreciation of world musical traditions. Here are three examples of how the sequences in the videotapes are entitled. The number preceding each title (14 9) refers to the tape number (14) and the sequence number (9). Title formats vary according to the information available. 7

8 OCEANIA I Tape 29 Micronesia Yamaguti Osamu Koide Hikaru Located in the western Pacific, south of Japan, between Hawai i and the Philippines, the islands of Micronesia (literally small islands ) are scattered over an expanse of ocean that equals the area of the United States. Since the time people migrated to and settled on these islands, two types of cultural patterns have been present in Micronesia; one in which people nurtured their own indigenous culture in comparative isolation; and the other in which people utilized sophisticated navigational techniques to reach distant islands and thus frequently interacted with peoples of other cultures in their development. With the arrival of Magellan and the discovery of the islands by European explorers, the Micronesians suffered a series of blows that drastically altered their cultures: massacres, disease epidemics, colonial exploitation, conversion to Christianity, and war. All these contributed to cultural change. A particularly tragic example can be found in the Marianas. At one time virtually all of the male population of these islands was wiped out, and today no pure blooded Chamorro people remain. Instead, the mix of Chamorro with Spanish, Filipino, Carolinian, American, and Japanese elements has formed a neo Chamorro culture. This multiplicity is clearly reflected in the dance and music of the area, which presents a unique example of cultural change. The Marianas are divided into the Territory of Guam which belongs to the United States and, to the north, the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands. Both areas are closely linked to the United States. Today the influence of the U.S. as well as of Japan is still strongly felt in both areas. To the south, covering a vast expanse of ocean, lie many groups of islands which for the sake of convenience are referred to here as the Caroline Islands. Today these islands form the Republic of Belau (old name: Palau), with a population of approximately 12,000, and the Federated States of Micronesia Yap, Truk, Pohnpei (old name; Ponape), Kosrae (old name; Kusaie) with a total population of approximately 95,000. In 1986, these islands were offered sovereignty and all except Belau are now freely associated with the U.S. In a sense, each of the above is virtually independent. However, until 1986, the United Nations entrusted the rule of the entire area to the United States, and the effects of this condition still continue. The maintenance of traditional music and dance on many of the islands was severely impaired by Japanese rule before World War II, as well as by American rule afterwards. Recently, however, the emergence of ethnic consciousness has given rise to a reappraisal of traditional song and dance as a means for demonstrating cultural identity. Although movements to restore older forms are not completely absent, the main trend is to imbue tradition with a feeling of the present age. This is true, for example, in the Marshall Islands (today the Republic of the Marshall Islands) which are located to the east, in the Republic of Nauru (independent since 1968) to the south, and in the Republic of Kiribati (formerly the Gilbert Islands, independent of British colonial government since 1980) to the southeast. The musical culture of Micronesia cannot be reduced to a simple unity. However, all areas are 8

9 similar in that they have an abundance of song and dance. Clapping and other methods of striking the body have been transmitted down to the present day. Minimal natural resources have limited the inventory of traditional instruments to jew s harps, end blown flutes, nose flutes, musical bows, drums, conch shells, and the like. One or two such instrument types have been found in each island group. The social meanings of these songs and dances are often closely linked to communicative aspects of communal life: fishing, seafaring, ceremonies, politics, age specific activities, and lover. Today, these communicative aspects have been turned toward the tourist industry, Christianity, or modern schools. The recordings here show a dance from Pohnpei (in the Federated States of Micronesia) that has retained significant traditional features in a modern setting, and a dance from Saipan (in the Commonwealth of the Northern Marianas) that has undergone large scale transformation. Both recordings are of dances performed at the Fourth Festival of Pacific Arts. The Festival of Pacific Arts Koide Hikaru The purpose of the Festival of Pacific Arts is to protect the arts of all the countries of the Pacific from extinction or excessive transformation, as well as to encourage further development. The Council of Pacific Arts, a subsidiary of the South Pacific Commission, takes the lead in organizing the festival, which has been held every four years since The location of the Festival is rotated among the member countries. Virtually all the arts are represented, including dance, music, theater, sculpture, painting, folk crafts, and the technologies of everyday life. The participants from each country gather to present their exhibits. The Festival has been held in Fiji (1972), New Zealand (1976), Papua New Guinea (1980), Tahiti (1985), and Australia (1988). The original location for the Fourth Festival was to have been New Caledonia, but because of the bloody incidents surrounding the independence movement there, the Festival was postponed until the following year when it was held in Tahiti. In the past, the rapid spread of the arts of the Pacific was occasioned by their use as tourist attractions and objects of mass media attention. One consequence of this dispersal was a kind of pan Pacific standardization. The Festival of Pacific Arts, however, serves to bring forward the distinctiveness of individual traditions while it contributes to the increase in friendship among member nations. The Festival allows the peoples of the Pacific to recognize their double cultural identities; on the one hand, they are all equally people of the Pacific Islands; on the other, they are peoples of individual islands in this area. The Festival, it is hoped, will halt standardization and help to further the process of redifferentiation among the various cultures of the Pacific. 9

10 Federated States of Micronesia: Pohnpei Island Yamaguti Osamu Koide Hikaru The name Pohnpei, means upon a stone altar. This Micronesian island has become famous for the Nan Madol," a remnant of megalithic culture. The people are proud of their traditional culture which is firmly rooted in a rigid social system. Traditional forms have not been completely discarded in the presence of foreign influence, but have been endowed with a new spirit. New music and dance continue to be created. As in most cultures that have not relied on written records, song texts are a useful means for recording and transmitting local history. Even today, with the spread of written culture, song texts are still considered important. In particular, events surrounding the early migrations, and the important cultural contact that the islands maintained with each other are reflected in the songs and movements of the dances. Song ( koul ) is traditionally considered to be an important part of dance ( kahlek ). Songs are imbued with special honorific words, archaic words, and stylized expressions, which are not only related to musical elements such as melody and rhythm, but are associated with the actual sounds of the instruments and the patterns of body movements. It is in this manner that an artistic synthesis has been achieved Canoe navigation dance Kepir men's paddle dance Sapei women s sitting dance Wehn men s standing dance Dokia women's sitting dance with sticks June 4 13, 1985/Tahiti Dance is usually performed on a platform called pahs. The dancers are naked from the waist up, and decorate their hips and heads with special ornaments made from hibiscus flowers and pandanus leaves. In the past, tattoos were also an indispensable part of the dancers ornamentation. One of the features of Pohnpeian dance is that the dancers are in groups, and form a row, side by side. The four basic traditional types of dances are the wehn (men s standing dance), the kepir (men s paddle dance), the sapei (women s sitting dance), and the dokia (women s sitting dance with sticks). The beginning of the dance recorded here is an example of a combination of the kepir and sapei ; this is followed by a combination of the wehn and dokia. The boards that lie across the women s laps are sometimes used as a percussion instrument. According to one explanation, in the past, during the dynasty of Saudeleurs, an expedition set out to capture beautiful birds. This adventure turned into a sea battle, and the women who were accompanying the soldiers drummed on the rims of their canoes in order to raise the men's fighting spirit. Today, however, many Pohnpeians deny this account, pointing out that it would be highly unlikely for women to accompany warriors to battle. Nevertheless, the faint swaying motion of the dancers upper bodies may portray the motion of a 10

11 canoe being rocked by the waves. More significant, however, are the graceful motions of the hands, as they outline patterns by moving to the right and left, up and down, with palms turned upward and downward, and the arms crossed or moving in circles. The men who stand in the back row hold paddles used to paddle a canoe ( paail en kepir ) to dance this kepir. Two long poles are placed in front and in back of the men, and in the space between these poles the men simultaneously dance a different dance from the women. The paddles are swung around and struck against the poles, producing both visual and aural effects. Although the sapei and the kepir are different dances, one can see a synchronization of their two different dance patterns when they are performed at the same time, as shown here. As both groups dance, the musical time that the two dances share is maintained by the song. However, as a totality, the movements of the dancers, who are separated by the poles, present a kind of double layered texture. The spectators enjoy seeing such contrasts. The same duality appears in the wehn and dokia combination which follows. In fact, one can see two types of slightly varying dualities, a spatial one and a temporal one. A comparison of the first half of the dance to the second half reveals the duality of the temporal sequence which structures the dance. The women who dance the dokia hold two short sticks ( lepin tuhke ) in their hands. By waving these sticks and striking them together, the women also produce visual and aural effects. The men in the back row who dance the wehn emphasize the motion of their bodies. When some of them come to the front of the stage, they enlarge the space in which they dance. This adds another complex and entertaining dimension to the dance Lehp marching dance June 4 13, 1985/Tahiti The lehp is a relatively new type of marching dance based on foreign models. It is said to incorporate elements of German, Japanese, and American drills and cadences as practiced in the military. Influences of the Spanish fandango, as well as dances from New Guinea and the Marshall Islands, are also present. Interestingly, the name of this genre, lehp, is said to derive from the English marching cadence command, left! A similar dance, which is now shared by all the islands of Micronesia, is called mass on the island of Yap, and matmatong on Belau. This dance has been readily accepted by foreigners, and so it is frequently performed at shows today. 11

12 Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands: Saipan The Northern Marianas, made up of seventeen islands including the islands of Rota, Tinian, and Saipan, are located to the northeast of Guam. Politically these islands are treated as an autonomous republic of the U.S. The population is about 20,000. Saipan was the site of disastrous World War II battles, but with the passage of time the island has become a tourist spot and is on the road to recovery. This recovery can be felt in the songs and dances of the neo Chamorro culture. Even the island s language might be called neo Chamorro" as it contains a large number of foreign words. Musical and dance terms are also influenced by neighboring Micronesian languages and Spanish, as well as by American and Japanese usage Stick dance June 4 15, 1985/Tahiti The stick dance of the Caroline Islands (outlying islands of the Federated States of Micronesia, Yap Islands, i.e. Ulithi, Ifalik, Woleai, etc.) was once used as tribute when the islands were under the rule of the nearby Yap empire. A similar dance can be found on Truk. The stick dance is popular among Carolinians in the Marianas, as well as among the Micronesians who have emigrated to Hawai i. This dance is said to have originated from a form of training for battle. The complicated manner in which the long sticks are struck together while the formation of the group changes is beautiful to watch and to hear. As might be expected, the best dancers of the stick dance are the inhabitants of the central Caroline Islands, and the people of Yap (Who incorporated the dance into their culture long ago) Dance of welcoming; Hafa adai ( Hello ) June 4 13, 1985/Tahiti Hafa adai means hello in Chamorro. In this dance coconut shells are used as a musical instrument. The half shells are held by the dancers and struck in time to the movements of the dance. Since the dancers strike not only their own shells, but those of other dancers as well, a light hearted effect is achieved. This dance probably originated somewhere in Polynesia, perhaps Samoa, and was introduced to this area via Hawaii Wedding dance June 4 15, 1985/Tahiti This wedding dance ( batsu ) is a local version of a Spanish dance. Spanish style costumes, music and dance are important elements in neo Chamorro culture. A comparison of this 12

13 recording with those of the Philippines raises some interesting sociological questions. Couples step elegantly and the women move their skirts in a graceful manner in this wedding dance. Such dancing would certainly have been unimaginable to ancient Oceanian peoples Dance based on lullabies June 4 13, 1985/Tahiti Many Chamorro lullabies incorporating legends or descriptions of social occurrences still exist. This performance features dancing together with several of these lullabies. The decorations on the dancers heads, the red skirts, and the hand and leg movements all combine to impart a sense of rocking which matches the feeling of the lullabies. This is another example of a new dance. 13

14 Melanesia: Papua New Guinea Yamada Yoichi New Guinea, the world s second largest island, boasts some 1,000 different languages and correspondingly varied cultures and societies. At the present time, the eastern half of the island belongs to Papua New Guinea; the western half is called Irian Jaya and is part of Indonesia. Racially and culturally the two areas are continuous. Despite regional and social differences, one of the most notable characteristics of traditional New Guinean music is its close relationship to religious beliefs. In many New Guinean societies ancestral spirits or supernatural spirits are the object of awe and veneration, and people constantly call upon their power. Because it is believed that vocal and instrumental sounds have the power to summon the spirits, music is indispensable in initiation rites, funerals, and feasts. Another characteristic is that most instruments are used and played exclusively by men. Within New Guinean society s patrilineal social system musical instruments, which are valuable sound producing property, are symbols of a man s honor and dignity. Many kinds of aerophones and idiophones are widely found in New Guinea. Membranophones are also widely distributed but are limited almost entirely to hand held single headed drums. Chordophones are only to be found in limited areas, and few varieties exist. The Iatmul The Iatmul (the local name is Iatmoi) are a relatively large group (population 10,000) of people living along the Middle Sepik River in northwestern Papua New Guinea Tagarangau one stringed tubular zither construction and performance Central Region of the Sepik River /Papua New Guinea The tagarangau is a string instrument unusual in New Guinea. It is made from small stalks or leaf stems of the sago palm which provides the starch that is the staple food of the area. To prevent the ends of the instrument from splitting when the outside layer of the stalk is pared away, both ends are reinforced by tying a cord around them. Then the string is cut out of the surface of the instrument and is elevated by wedging two small sticks underneath it to form bridges. The bridges are placed in such a way that three different pitches can be produced. The two beaters that are used to play the instrument have individual names; the one held by the right hand is called jangut (meaning expressing a message ); the one held by the left hand is called mbapma (meaning making a system ). The right hand plays two pitches, the left hand one pitch. Both hands are generally used in alternation to play a melody. All the melodies have corresponding song texts: one note on the instrument is equivalent to one syllable of the text. The message communicated by the melody is thus systematized by the mbapma of the left hand. In this recording the instrument has been placed on the ground while playing. Occasionally, however, it is placed on a slit drum or on an oil can to further amplify the resonance. 14

15 29 8 Woragutngau one stringed tubular zither performance Central Region of the Sepik River /Papua New Guinea The string pared away from the sago palm leaf stern from which this instrument is made is divided into two sections by means of a bridge. The sounds produced by playing the instrument with beaters are very weak and limited to two pitches. However, by holding the instrument to the mouth and varying the position of the tongue and the strength of the breath, the resonance in the oral cavity changes in volume, timbre, and pitch. This technique of playing is also used for the jew's harp and musical bow. (The musical bow is rarely seen and only in the New Guinea highlands. It is made from a stick bent to form a bow, and strung with fibers of a tree or the outer skin of a bamboo. One end of the instrument is held to the mouth, and the string is plucked to produce a sound.) 29 9 Jew s harp performance Central Region of the Sepik River /Papua New Guinea The jew s harp is widely distributed in an area extending from the Sepik River to the highlands. As can be seen here, the jew s harp of this area is played by directly striking a long, thin lamella which is cut out from a piece of bamboo. A string is attached near the base of the lamella, and the player strikes the center of the lamella while pulling on the string. If one does only this, the sound produced is extremely weak. But when one end of the instrument is held to the mouth, the vibrations of the lamella are resonated in the oral cavity to amplify the sound. The player can vary the pitches and timbres produced by altering the position of the tongue, the shape of the lips and mouth, and the manner of breathing. In New Guinea the Jew s harp is used by individuals or groups of two or three people for entertainment. In many cases the instrument imitates bird calls and other natural phenomena, or the melody of a song Sumi slit drum performance Central Region of the Sepik River /Papua New Guinea The slit drum called sumi (meaning wood for striking ) is made of a large, hard log with the center hollowed out. Carvings of ancestral images, especially women, adorn both ends. The thickness of either side of the slit varies according to the position, and is designed to allow various pitch sound of the instrument is loud enough to be heard several miles away, and thus slit drums are frequently used as a signal to summon people to meetings. The kind of performance recorded here, which often occurs at the harvest festival, summons and expresses gratitude to the guardian spirit Malianmui (Malianmu, who in ancient times appeared in the shape of a catfish, is a mythical being said to have created the world from underwater.) Of 15

16 the two performers, the one who begins the performance is called the elder brother and the one who follows is called the younger brother. In the ensemble sections the elder and younger brothers play the same pattern (right hand, left hand, right hand, left hand) in repetition, and, because the first and last notes overlap, a characteristic rhythm results. In this recording both performers play on the same instrument, but in many cases performers will use separate instruments Kul wood trumpet performance Central Region of the Sepik River /Papua New Guinea Until the 1950s, inter tribal warfare was common around the middle reaches of the Sepik River. At that time, it is said the Iatmul had a reputation as brave fighters, and were feared by the surrounding people. This wood trumpet ( kul ) was used to instill a fighting spirit in the men before setting out on the warpath. The instrument was also used at ceremonies of victory when head hunting expeditions returned. An image of a crocodile or a male ancestor who is believed to be a source of strength is carved onto one end of the instrument. Some instruments display notches that represent the number of enemy that were killed Song of the mythical ancestors Central Region of the Sepik River /Papua New Guinea Iatmul society comprises approximately thirty patrilineal clans. Each clan consists of a group of people who believe they share a common ancestor usually an animal, a plant, or other natural object. The name, origin, character, and actions of this ancestor are all part of a vast system of myths. Fragments of the ancestral myths are also included in song texts. Such songs are performed on many occasions: clan weddings, funerals, or banquets related to canoe construction or house building. On these occasions it is customary for the sponsoring clan to present food and for other clans to present money and clothes in return. Songs of mythical ancestors are sometimes sung solo, and are known as shui. ln this recording, however, many people sing in succession, and this form of singing (which during feasts can continue for over a day) is called shagi. Accompaniment is provided by a single headed hour glass drum ( kangu ), which has a membrane made of lizard skin Ensemble of seven bamboo flutes and drum; Yumanwusmange, village of Aibom Central Region of the Sepik River /Papua New Guinea This ensemble can he found only in the Iatmul village of Aibom, which is renowned for its earthenware pottery. The music is named after the female ancestral spirit Yumanwusntange who 16

17 is believed to be the originator of earthenware pottery. Before the performance, a signal to start is given by striking a slit drum. The leader of the ensemble is the player of the kangu, who plays a different rhythmic pattern in each piece. This pattern is then transmitted to the flute players. The flutes used do not have finger holes and the pipe is closed on the mouth hole end. All the flutes vary in length. The players are divided into three pairs plus one individual player. The pairs play in succession, but the members of each pair face each other and play in alternation. Each player's role is determined; the three players seen in the back always play the main melody and the two pairs near the front play an accompaniment. To end the performance, the drum player first stops playing, and then the flute players cease to play in the reverse order of the beginning of the performance. The Sawos The Sawos live immediately to the north of Iatmul and have a population of some 8,000 people. They are closely linked, both linguistically and culturally to the Iatmul Memorial service in the village of Gaikorobi: prayers and dances for the ancestors; performance of songs and flute music Central Region of the Sepik River 1973/Papua New Guinea This memorial service was held in the village of Gaikorobi. Here, inside a house with an elevated floor, the room is partitioned into two sections: one side serves as a stage on which two dancers, holding poles with figures representing two dead people, dance; the other side is filled with seated spectators. Bark paintings on which the images of the two dead people are drawn are tied to poles near the partition. The heads of the figures held by the dancers are the actual exhumed skulls of the dead men, covered with clay, painted, and decorated with the feathers of a cassowary and a bird of paradise, and the tusks of a pig. Great care has been taken to make the faces of the dancing figures look just like the faces of the two men in life. The skulls are set on top of a kind of torso covered with leaves. During the service, the figures are held from below, and shaken in time with the music. To the audience it appears as if the dead men have come back to life and are dancing. Two types of instruments are used in the accompaniment. Two long bamboo flutes ( war ) with no finger holes are of central importance. The flutes are played in pairs exclusively by adult males, and the instruments are preserved so secretly that women and children are not even allowed to view them. The other instrument is a stone slab struck with the leg bones of a pig. Such an instrument is very rare in New Guinea. Together with the dance of the dead figures (or during pauses in the dancing), the male spectators sometimes sing to the accompaniment of the kangu. The song texts often include the names of the dead as well as the names of many of the ancestors. At another house, the female relatives of the dead gather and sing songs of mourning. The white mud that the women smear onto their face and bodies and the natural straw skirt around their waists indicate that they are in mourning. 17

18 The Eipo The Eipo are a group of about 1,000 people living in the highlands of eastern Irian Jaya Work song Central Plateau, West New Guinea Irian Jaya As one can see in this brief recording, the Eipo have a very simple village, houses, and clothing, compared with the lowland Iatmul and Sawos. However, the Eipo decorate their bodies much more spectacularly when they participate in festivals. There are decorations made of feathers of many types of birds, leaves, rattan, and sea shells. The men in this recording twine the fibers of a tree to make a decorative narrow belt. The song recorded here is simple, sounding almost like the recitation of a spell. This kind of singing is rare in the highlands of New Guinea Jew s harp performance Central Plateau, West New Guinea Irian Jaya This bamboo jew s harp is the type that has a string attached near the base of the lamella. By pulling on the string the lamella vibrates. This type of instrument can be found scattered throughout South Asia, Southeast Asia, and East Asia. The technique by which the vibrations are amplified and modulated is the same as that employed by the Iatmul. However, the lamella is made to vibrate indirectly, and so the Eipo s playing technique is more difficult. The small, thin, and flat construction of the instrument allows for easier vibration of the lamella. In this recording, one can see that the lamella vibrates considerably as it is held to the mouth. 18

19 Other Islands of Melanesia Yamaguti Osamu Koide Hikaru Tai Ryuichi Excluding New Guinea, the culture of the eastern islands of Melanesia is extremely varied, containing elements of New Guinean culture as well as influences of Polynesian cultures. In the Solomon Islands (independent since 1978) near New Guinea there is, on the one hand, a pure Melanesian musical culture using panpipes and stamping tubes which flourishes on Guadalcanal and Malaita; on the other hand, there is a musical culture centering on song in the so called Polynesian Outliers, islands distant from Polynesia that are populated by people of Polynesian descent. Somewhat to the southeast of the Solomon Islands, on Vanuatu (independent since 1980; called New Hebrides when they were a British and French condominium) there are slit drums and conch shells used to play music for all kinds of ceremonies, including rituals of rank. Further south, in New Caledonia (a French territory), whistling and striking the body was common in ceremonial dancing; now, except on the more distant islands, the mixture of native with European populations and the influence of colonialism has reduced the presence of traditional music and dance to tourist attractions. Fiji (independent since 1970) is the easternmost limit of Melanesian culture. Styles of singing and musical forms constitute a variant of Melanesian musical culture that incorporates Polynesian elements as well. The performances presented here are of songs and dances from the Solomon Islands and New Caledonia recorded at the Fourth Festival of Pacific Arts, and of a Fijian dance group recorded in Japan (see also the section on Fiji under Polynesia, 30 18, 19, 20). [Yamaguti and Koide] Solomon Islands Song and dance from Bellona Papa round dance Kapa line dance Ngongole line dance June 4 13, 1985/Tahiti Bellona is an island in the extreme south of the Solomon Islands populated by a Polynesian people. According to legend, the first people to arrive on the island were eight couples who supposedly made their way to Bellona from Ubea (probably Uvea, an island northwest of Samoa now called Wallis island not to be confused with Ouvea of 29 19) twenty four generations ago. This legend suggests that the first settlers came to Bellona from West Polynesia. In any case, the culture of Bellona is shared with the island of Rennell to the south. At present, about one third of Bellona s population resides in or near the capital of Honiara. The major occasions on which music and dance were performed in traditional Bellona society were rituals and after tattooing. The types of performances that have been transmitted down to the present day are largely dominated by men. One typical example where the vitality of men is expressed 19

20 are group dances in which the dancers form lines and columns. When a flat wood sounding board is struck by the leader of the group and all the performers raise their voices in song, a seamless music and dance texture is produced that appeals to both auditory and visual senses. Costume for traditional dance often consists of a loin cloth made from bark cloth (the pounded bark of a kind of mulberry tree), a small dancing mat woven from the leaves of the pandanus plant, and a fan on the performer s back woven from the leaves of the coconut palm. Head ornaments made from bark cloth are also common. All of the dances recorded here were previously performed at ceremonial feasts ( hakatahinga ) relating to harvest festivals and thanksgiving rituals and ceremonies for distributing food ( manga e ). The first performance is a round dance known as papa. In this dance the performers take turns singing and striking the sounding board. The remaining dancers circle around the percussionist in a counter clockwise direction. At first the movement is quite slow, but the pace gradually quickens until the performers are running and leaping. Finally, several of the dancers leap in the direction of the board. The movements of the dancers are based on everyday motions of walking or running, but the dancers also crouch and stretch, jump on one leg, and move their hands. The hard wood sounding board that is used as a percussion instrument (approximately 1 m x 40 cm) is called papa like the dance, and it is supported by the performer s toes. The center and edge of this board are struck with two beaters, producing either a dry, sharp sound or a dull, muffled sound, By varying the force with which the board is struck, the player can further regulate the volume and timbre of the resultant sound and further heighten the "bounce" of the dance. The next performance is a line dance called a kapa. Typical of the dance movements is the manner in which the dancers fold their hands with the second finger extended and swing them toward the shoulders and hips. This gesture is called mongi. The dance, said to have been brought from Uvea (Wallis), was originally performed wearing a fine mat ( malikope ) made from the pandanus plant. Finally, a line dance called ngongole is performed. This dance was supposedly transmitted by shipwrecked sailors from Tikopia Island of the Polynesian Outliers in the early 1900s. Although it does not appear on this recording, there is a unique sequence when the dancers dance between two long poles. The accompaniment consists of only hand clapping as the dancers form vertical lines which pass back and forth between each other. [Yamaguti and Tai] 20

21 New Caledonia New Caledonia (an Overseas Territory of France) consists of the main island, New Caledonia, and the Loyalty Islands. The population stands at approximately 150,000. The earliest inhabitants were of Melanesian origin, and their descendants are today called Kanak. The general term for the islanders dance is often said to be pilou pilou, but this is a name used by the French, not a word in the language of the natives. Although the native inhabitants may be termed Kanak, the island's population consists of a large number of tribes with many local dialects. At a time when these tribes were constantly at war with each other and lacking any real unity, they came under the powerful rule of the white man and their traditional arts were virtually driven to extinction. Recently, however, the Polynesian components of the cultural heritage of the outlying areas of the Loyalty Islands have been used as the basis for creating new music and dance. These arts have now become the island's representative culture and are often performed in the capital city, Noumea, as well as abroad. The recordings presented here are examples of such arts, with the same group performing various dances originating from different islands. This area boasts several unique musical instruments used in dance accompaniment. The djepa is a disk, about forty centimeters in diameter, made of dried grass that is wrapped with long, thin pieces of bark. ll is a percussion instrument, held in the left hand and struck with the palm of the right hand. The djo is a stamping tube a bamboo tube that is struck directly on the ground vertically. It is similar to the Fijian derua, but larger. No indigenous drums or slit drums can he found, although slit drums imported from Samoa are occasionally used today. Whistles are also frequently employed and are another characteristic instrument of New Caledonia Dance from Tiga June 4 13, 1985/Tahiti Tiga is a small island belonging to the island of Lifou of the Loyalty Islands. Traditional communal festivals and related arts are found on this island. The instrument used in the dance is a kind of Whistle which shows the effects of acculturation in recent years. This wild dance is a modern version of a traditional dance which featured whistled accompaniment i.e., human, not instrumental, whistling. Perhaps the dancers judged that the instrument now used is more appropriate to the surroundings in which the newly created dance is performed. In the past, the hissing sound of the air as it passed between the teeth and gums, and the delicate effects produced by human whistling may have seemed to correspond to the bountiful natural environment. Several of the dancers play whistles while shaking bundles of fine fibers held in their hands. Their bodies naturally move up and down as they stamp on the ground. The steps of this dance are more important than the movements of the upper body. The regular rhythm of the beating of the djepa and the hand clapping and vocalizing of the people sitting behind the dancers reinforce the movements of the dancers. 21

22 29 19 Dance from Ouvea June 4 15, 1985/Tahiti Ouvea (Uvea) is a northern island of the Loyalty Islands. The performance recorded here is a war dance, demonstrating the movement of long sticks used in mock fighting. The dancers mingle, striking their sticks together and raising the level of excitement. This mood is further heightened by the sound of the dancers feet as they stamp on the ground. Finally, the dancers form a circle and perform in an orderly fashion that contrasts sharply with the dance that preceded it Dance from the eastern side of the main island (New Caledonia) June 4 15, 1985/Tahiti Even when weapons are not used, e.g., when dance movements portray the actions of fishing or hunting many New Caledonian dances are considered to be War dances ( war pilou ). The example recorded here is one such dance. Several columns of dancers vigorously move their bodies. Bundles of fibers that rustle pleasantly when moved are held in the dancer s hands, hung from their necks, or worn as skirts around the waist The visual effects are augmented by continuous percussion and a torrent of quickly chanted Words. [Yamaguti and Koide] 22

23 Australia: Australian Aborigines Matsuyama Toshio In 1788, when Australia became a British colony, there were approximately 550,000 Aborigines who lived in groups in various specific areas, and spoke several hundred languages. With the advance of the sheep industry in the nineteenth century and the ensuing gold rush, many Aborigines lost their lands to Europeans bent on developing the inside reaches of the continent. The Aboriginal population dropped drastically, reaching a level of only tens of thousands. The Aboriginal population today has risen to approximately 230,000, some eighty percent of whom live in cities, such as Sydney and Darwin, developed by European settlers. Those who live in the Central Desert or in Arnhem Land (on Aboriginal Land Reserves), and retain a traditional lifestyle based on hunting and gathering, account for only around twenty percent of the population. These Aborigines selectively utilize the products of modern civilization, hunting with shotguns and four wheel drive trucks, for example. Even those who aim to live a traditional lifestyle are closely linked to the monetary economy. As hunting peoples, they do not easily adjust to an economy that emphasizes the accumulation of property, or the idea that accumulated wealth produces interest. They find themselves caught in the pincers of tradition and modernization. The Aborigines today are making great efforts to retain their traditional culture. They actively support the continuation of such ceremonies as initiation rites, and they produce works of art bark paintings in Arnhem Land and sand paintings in the Central Desert area that represent their myths. Such activities are also an assertion of ethnic identity. The paintings of the Aborigines continue to receive widespread attention as a form of art that differs greatly from that of the European and American mainstream. In the art of the Aborigines one can see a people s world view. For example, in the bark paintings of Arnhem Land there is often the portrayal of a conception of transmigration. After a man dies he is believed to become a spirit, and may then reside in the sacred land or in a plant or animal. The motifs of sacred land, plants, and animals represented in the paintings are passed down through matrilineal or patrilineal descent (depending on the language group). The paintings become a means of ensuring a group's identity. Music is another important means of reaffirming identity. Compared with the many complex regional differences in their music, Aboriginal musical instruments are very simple. In the northern part of Australia, from Cape York Peninsula via Arnhem Land to the Kimberly Region, the Aborigines use a wood instrument called a didjeridu. This is a wind instrument, made from a piece of eucalyptus wood that has been hollowed out by ants. Because the player s breath causes his lips to vibrate, one might call the didjeridu a kind of trumpet. It is played by using circular breathing techniques. The melodies of the didjeridu are relatively simple, as the instrument can only produce two pitches. [There is however, a remarkable variety of articulations and lipping techniques. ed.] Rhythm is provided by clap sticks, one made of hardwood, the other of softwood. When a performance begins, the singer first strikes the ground several times with the clap sticks, then strikes the sticks together and begins to sing. The didjeridu then enters, following the vocal melody. In the Central Desert area wind instruments are not used. Instead of clap sticks, two boomerangs are struck together to produce a rhythm. Women strike their thighs with the palm of their hands for the same purpose. Besides this type of music, a kind of ceremonial conversation, which functions 23