Excursions Instructor s Manual Chapter 11: Caribbean (Timothy Rommen)

Transcription

1 Excursions 11: Caribbean 1 Excursions Instructor s Manual Chapter 11: Caribbean (Timothy Rommen) Instructor s Preface A great deal of this chapter deals with the relationship between music and identity. Rommen shows how musical genres and practices are central to the ways in which social groups define themselves and those around them, both from positions of power and from the margins. The way in which musical practice intersects with ideas about identity has everything to do with power, race, class, and gender, which in turn are determined by the colonial context. Throughout this chapter, music intersects with these themes in several ways Music that is closely associated with centers of power, which in this case is to say European-derived aesthetic preferences and contexts, is considered refined, art music, or high culture Music that is associated with marginal social groups, usually poor, ethnically othered groups, is considered lowbrow, vulgar, uncivilized, etc. One of Rommen s working assumptions and it is not too much of a stretch to say that there is scholarly consensus within ethnomusicology around this point is that these perceptions of high and low cultural status stem more from prevailing power relationships than they do from the actual character of the music itself These power relationships, and the broadly circulating assumptions that accrue to ideas of race are all at least partially determined by the colonial context o The people who seize or inherit a position of power through the deeply unequal experience of colonialism got to define not only their own identities but also those of the people who surrounded them. o They created both the lines of social division and the discourses that characterized each of the groups separated by these lines o These perspectives had a de facto authority because they were backed up by the constant threat of violence, and because the group that created them had sole access to public discourse o Thus, the colonial encounter shaped the ways in which people thought about race and identity in ways that have persisted and will continue to persist long after the end of the official colonial period The categories that define social distinction (black/white, highbrow/lowbrow, refined/uncivilized), which were put in place to buttress the power of a specific social group, have long outlasted the institutions they were created to support, and will continue to help maintain residual power imbalances along race, class, and gender lines for years to come In this context, the fight for radio airtime, for official recognition, for freedom of expression can be interpreted as efforts to correct this skewed perspective o Musical works that creatively leverage instruments, linguistic practices, and formal dimensions associated with marginalized social groups can

2 Excursions 11: Caribbean 2 often be interpreted as specifically political acts aimed at counteracting prevailing discourses of value This relation between music, race, nation, and power plays out differently in different scenarios. One pattern that can be seen with various styles discussed in this chapter is rejection at home, acceptance abroad, and reconsideration at home. A musical genre or style associated with a marginalized social group is maligned and heavily stigmatized not only by provincial or colonial authorities, but also by a multi-ethnic local middle class doing its best to align itself with power, which usually means adopting European-derived aesthetics and embracing the high/low distinctions offered by official voices Later, this maligned musical style gains acceptance in metropolitan centers outside the country or island of origin (New York City, Paris, London, etc.) Suddenly, the very people who had for years condemned this style now embrace it as a proud emblem of their cultural identity. This process can occur via international fads, or during moments of heightened national sentiment at home (wars, independence movements, etc.) o Versions of this process occurred with tango, rumba, calypso, and many other styles. Opening Vignette: Rake n Scrape The author uses a vivid description of a festival dedicated to rake n scrape music to ruminate on some of the chapter s central themes o This style reflects diasporic and transnational processes and connections o It is also made meaningful in ways that are also fundamentally local Rake n scrape Traditional music of the Bahamas o Usually for accordion, goatskin drum, and carpenter s saw o Defined by its signature rhythmic pattern See TUBS notation in listening guide o Traditionally accompanies quadrille dancing o Dance contexts are uncommon today Style has influenced a great deal of popular music in the Bahamas Example: Times Table by Ophie and the Websites Cat Island Small island in the Bahamas with a relatively small population (ca. 1,600 people) One of the many Family Islands Center for rake n scrape and straw work Center for the practice of obeah: folk belief and practice derived from African models o Great suspicion among surrounding obeah among non-practitioners o Associated with magic and (at times) black magic

3 Excursions 11: Caribbean 3 Government holds these areas up as great repositories of distinctly Bahamian traditions o Ironically, these are exactly the areas to which the government devotes the least attention and investment Most people leave the island to find employment when they come of working age Those who can, return for the rake n scrape festival o Site for the production of identity and instantiation of community Events like this bring large numbers of people together Communities are musically instantiated It is this music s distinguishing features and its way of engaging a public with specific ties to the Bahamas and to Cat Island that make it a local tradition Rake n Scrape as Transnational Music Pan-Caribbean currents and transnational shared culture o Caribbean as a site of transnational activity o Broader Caribbean rhythmic pattern used, interpreted, and negotiated in the local context o Use of accordion, the basic harmonic conception, and quadrille dancing reflect colonial heritage o Improvisatory, call-and-response interaction between melody and goatskin drum point toward and African-influenced approach Ancient Man: innovative popular rake n scrape performer o Incorporates key elements of rake n scrape into a sound that includes drum kit, bass guitar, keyboard, etc. o Draws in elements of other African diasporic musical styles o Appears on stage with a scarf that bears the word, Kuumba Sixth day of Kwanzaa, means Creativity Rastafari colors (yellow, red, green, black) By wearing this scarf, Ancient Man is simultaneously affirming his affinity for African American cultural symbols and his solidarity with his Caribbean neighbors (314) Gospel music takes center stage on the third night of the festival o Variety of sacred music traditions Includes anthems, which tie Bahamians to other Protestants throughout the Caribbean, but are sung in a particularly Bahamian way Also includes broader influences, such as African American gospel and R&B (played by local artists such as Tracy Tracy) Shared Histories, Mutual Challenges Several experiences, shared across locations, have shaped Caribbean musical life Diaspora: the movement of people (who often share ethnic or national history) from their homeland

4 Excursions 11: Caribbean 4 o Exile that usually precludes the possibility of return Colonialism o Violent encounter of dominance, slavery, indentured servitude, imposition of European laws, languages, religions, economies o Vestiges visible in political structures, language, religious life, forms of ethnic identification at stake in the Caribbean Syncretism o Language Various creole and patois languages are in broad use Regarded through colonial lens European languages characterized as official, proper, literate Creole (usually African-influenced) languages regarded as unofficial, vulgar, oral o Religious syncretism Christianity Voudoun, Santería, Obeah, shango, etc. Folk Catholicism Afro-Christian religions Like revival churches in Jamaica Devastation of indigenous populations o Through forced labor, introduction of European diseases, removal from various locations to centers of production o Only very small surviving populations in a few locations Strong influence of African- and European-derived musical practices o African-derived Instruments: lamellophones, drums, shakers, scrapers Dances like rumba and bèlè Rhythmic concepts: timelines, clave More subtle African-derived concepts and practices Call-and-response structure Rhythmic complexity: syncopation, interlocking parts, patterns Cellular construction (cyclical, open-ended form based on an ostinato pattern) o European-derived Instruments: strings, wind, brass, piano, accordion Dance forms: waltz, mazurka, quadrille Verse forms: copla, décima o East Indian influences in Trinidad, Guyana, Suriname Instruments: dholak, dhantal, harmonium o Principal Native American influence is the maraca (little else survived the colonial encounter) Powerful influence from the U.S. o Cultural influence exerted through mass media o Physical presence via military intervention

5 Excursions 11: Caribbean 5 Themes in Caribbean Music Cuba, Haiti, DR, Trinidad, Grenada, etc. Four principle themes organize the case studies in this chapter 1) Patterns of musical reception 2) Questions of identity 3) Class and cultural politics 4) Tourism and travel Calypso in New York, Rumba in Paris: Patterns of Musical Reception in the Caribbean Rommen pivots here to a performance whose details provide an excellent perspective on some of the ways in which music circulates in the Caribbean. This performance will become a sort of touchstone for the section on patterns of musical reception Performance: George Symonette (Bahamian goombay singer), performing a song he called Love Alone in Nassau in the 1950s Performance takes place as Symonette s career surges during the early days of tourism in Nassau Symonette s performance o Includes rake n scrape rhythms played on goatskin drum and maracas (instead of saw) o Ensemble also features piano, guitar, upright bass, clave (from Cuba) Love Alone o Calypso, originally titled Edward VIII by Lord Caresser (from Trinidad) o Incorporates Cuban clave rhythm o Also uses rhythmic patterns associated with rake n scrape on goatskin drum In order to cater to tourist audience s tastes, Symonette and other goombay artists draw on a complex combination of sounds o Over the next several sections, Rommen explores the histories, stylistic characteristics, and patterns of circulation for Trinidadian calypso and Cuban rumba, the foreign styles that inform this rendition and make this specific performance possible Calypso Afro-Trinidadian genre of popular music Strong associations with Carnival o Last days before Lent in the Catholic liturgical calendar o Last time of festivity before a time of solemnity, prayer, and selfpurification o Long history of ambivalence

6 Excursions 11: Caribbean 6 Inversion of social roles Streets of cities and towns become the space for celebration Public assembly by African descendants and public performance of African-influenced traditions o In a place with great inequality and tension surrounding race and class, this produces a lot of anxiety History of Calypso Modern calypso stems from cariso and kalenda Kalenda: form of stick-fighting o Bands organized by neighborhood would square off First in song, then often through stick-fighting Cariso music (first mentioned in 1780) accompanied kalenda o Sung primarily by female chantwells, with chorus and percussion accompaniment o Kalenda was central to early Carnival celebrations Canboulays were Carnival processions o Commemorated the harvesting of sugar cane during slavery Sugar cane was extremely labor intensive Fields are burned and then the entire crop must be harvested quickly before it spoils o Canboulay processions were popular and often involved kalenda After emancipation (1834) Afro-Creoles took over the streets for Carnival o Official unease about these celebrations grew over the 19th century as class and racial conflict play out around musical performance Trinidadian government attempts to proscribe these forms of expression o 1881: Trinidadian government attempts to ban canboulay processions This led to open riots between Afro-Creole revelers and police Heightened resentment toward government and increased elite mistrust of the black working class o 1883: Government banned all drumming o 1884: Banned stick-fighting itself Faced with these limits on Afro-Trinidadian cultural expression, people find alternatives Men become more involved in singing of carisos o Formerly physical competition plays out in song o Women relegated to the sidelines Tamboo bamboo introduced in 1890s o Ingenious substitution for drums and sticks o Musical style using three sizes of bamboo sticks Boom bass Five feet, stamp on ground Foulée higher range Two sticks, one foot each, hit end to end Cutter highest range Thin bamboo, hit with stick

7 Excursions 11: Caribbean 7 o Used to accompany chantwells String bands (based on Venezuelan ensembles) come to prominence as well (1890s) o Eventually supplanted by steel bands Calypso in the early 20th century: Several key characteristics o Social Commentary Example Edward VIII (the 8th) by Lord Caresser Discusses the abdication of King Edward VIII of England Major scandal throughout the British Empire, of which Trinidad was still a part o Competitive Spirit Picong: verbal duel of improvised verses between two calypso singers Comes from the French word, piquant (spicy) By the 1920s, Carnival celebrations had expanded to include processions in the streets and concerts in tents In 1939 Calypso Monarch (1939) 1940s: U.S. Military base in Trinidad o U.S. presence becomes fodder for social commentary o Increased exposure to U.S. popular music leads to changes in calypso instrumentation Jazz combos become the norm: Horn line, drums, percussion, bass, guitar, keyboard As calypso emerged, authorities saw it as dangerous o Uncomfortable association with Carnival Afro-Creole middle class rejected it o Incisive political commentary o Large following for calypso artists Commentary swayed public opinion, especially on government officials o Government censored songs, banned albums, etc. International Exposure o 1920s: Calypsonians began going to New York to record tracks for the export market o 1937: Edward VIII by Lord Caresser gains huge publicity Brings calypso to homes throughout the U.S. o Mid-1940s: artists like the Andrews Sisters cover calypsos like Lord Invader s Rum and Coca Cola o 1956: Jamaican artist, Harry Belafonte released an album called Calypso First full-length album ever to sell more than a million copies Steel Band Ensemble made of idiophones o Steel pans: originally tuned oil drums

8 Excursions 11: Caribbean 8 o Came to replace tamboo bamboo in the 1940s o 4-Part Ensemble Tenors play melody Seconds play harmony and countermelodies Cellos fill in harmonic material Basses play the bass line Melodic instruments combine with engine room (percussion) o Bands can range from around a dozen to over 120 musicians 1951: the Trinidad All Steel Percussion Orchestra toured London o Rave reviews Recognition abroad leads to acceptance at home, across social groups that had previously rejected the music o Calypso in the 1930s o Steel band in the 1950s Steel band and calypso became the expression of Trinidadian identity during independence movement in the 1960s Example: No, Doctor, No by The Mighty Sparrow Rumba Secular form of Afro-Cuban music o Emerged in the late 19th century o Original Cuban style Draws on Congolese influences Three sub-styles o Guaguancó: o Yambú o Columbia (danced only by men) Guaguancó was the most important style for dance bands later on Instruments o Two or three congas (tumbadoras) One or two play a basic pattern Other(s) play improvised lines o Palitos sticks tapped on the side of the conga drums Interlocking pattern o Clave: Two wooden sticks struck together on ostinato pattern o Lead singer and chorus Two formal sections: canto and montuno o Canto Narrative text Long melodic lines Strophic or through composed form o Montuno Call and response Short ostinato patterns Improvisation Heightened intensity, rhythmic density, and often faster tempo

9 Excursions 11: Caribbean 9 Couples dance begins during montuno section (guaguancó) o Ritualized enactment of male conquest o Male dancer pursues, female dancer evades Rumba was banned or severely limited at several points in the late 19th century (including in 1888) Example: Rumba Guaguancó, Consuélate Como Yo, Carlos Embale Ensemble The 20th-Century Rumba Early 20th century: Cuba was facing military, political, and economic interference from the United States and other major powers Elites were looking for a musical style that would express their national identity (Cuba gained independence from Spain in 1898) o Several light classical national forms danzón, zarzuela, etc. were too European to serve as a national emblem o Afro-Cuban styles like rumba were barely permitted by law Perceived as too primitive to represent the nation o Central paradox: how to create a national culture (a project virtually inconceivable without incorporating Afro-Cuban expression) and present it as civilized and modern (for which it seemed necessary to marginalize blackness ) (331) European audiences were fascinated with representations of African and diasporic expression at this time This was the time of Josephine Baker, jazz, tango, primitivism in the art world o A few Cuban entertainers develop a cleaned-up form of rumba and performed in Paris to great success in 1927 Once again, acclaim abroad led to somewhat greater acceptance at home Son o New genre that becomes the international face of Cuba o Deeply syncretic style, drawing on both African- and European-derived practices Used clave, two-part formal structure, and associated practices (African-derived) Also used guitar, tres (instrument), European-derived vocal technique and harmonic system o Exported across Caribbean and around the world Major influence on salsa, other styles Influences show up in calypso, Jamaican mento, and George Symonette s cover, Love Alone Bèlè Like rumba, these styles have played foundational roles in the development of popular music in the Caribbean Bèlè Drumming

10 Excursions 11: Caribbean 10 o From rural Martinique o Features interlocking rhythms played on the head and sides of a drum, also called bèlè o Practice is of West African origin o Now largely played in folkloric contexts One of the central rhythmic patterns is called cinquillo X x X x X This rhythm becomes central to genres that develop later: biguine, zouk Also appears in Cuban danzón, Haitian meringue, occasionally in calypso Bomba Puerto Rican style that emerged from the slave barracks Strongly African-influenced genre featuring percussion and vocals, like bèlè and rumba Performance is rare today Rhythmic patterns and practices are still extremely influential in more recent popular styles: salsa, Puerto Rican dance band music (Cortijo and Ismael Rivera) We, The People: Nation and Identity in the Caribbean Theme #2 for chapter: musical style reveals national or communal struggles with identity Junkanoo Through the colonial and postcolonial periods, Bahamians struggle to define national culture o Like Cuban elites in the late 19th century, middle class felt that Afro- Bahamian forms of expression were too backward to represent the nation Musicians were central in bringing Bahamian culture into the public eye Junkanoo o Street procession celebrated on Boxing Day (12/26) and New Year s Day o Developed during the 19th century, style was codified in the early 20th c. o Maligned, banned, limited by authorities during the 19th and early 20th centuries o After WWII, as tourism industry grew, tourists began expressing an interest in junkanoo Between this and the independence movement, in the 1950s, junkanoo becomes a symbol of Bahamian identity Gains broad acceptance By the time of independence, 1973, parade had become institutionalized, enjoyed broad support across Bahamian society Zouk Comes from the French Antilles, which are foreign departeménts of France o Effort to articulate identity unrelated to a national independence movement

11 Excursions 11: Caribbean 11 The French Antilles did not have much of a voice in the transnational Caribbean music market during the 20th century o Biguine had been extremely successful early on In the 1970s, a musician named George Decimus decided to fill this void Decimus founded the band, Kassav o Aimed to create virtuosic, unquestionably Antillean music for world consumption o Wanted to defend the sounds of the Antilles while also connecting to other Caribbean and African diasporic traditions, with a product that would be accessible for non-caribbean audiences Sung lyrics in Creole Kassav is a cake made from manioc Becomes toxic if prepared badly Zouk-la se sel medikaman nou ni (Zouk is the only medicine we have) o Band foregrounds hybrid sound Proposes a new vision of Antilleans as hybrid, culturally rich, modern world citizens Successfully negotiated the exoticism that drives the world music industry and a regional pride inspiring Antillean listeners Punta and Punta Rock Music of the Garifuna o Garifuna are of West African and Amerindian descent o Originally from the island of St. Vincent o Late 18th century: defeated by British military and spread out across Guatemala, Nicaragua, Belize, Honduras, and eventually a secondary diaspora that includes many major U.S. cities o Spread out in this way, it becomes extremely difficult to maintain a sense of collective identity Punta o Song genre usually composed by women o Secular, duple meter, accompanied by dance o Symbolically reenacts the cock-and-hen mating dance o Performed at festivals, wakes, and after religious ceremonies o Call-and-response singing, drums, rattles, sometimes conch trupets o Example: Punta, performed by Henry, Bobsy, and Lena Nuñez Punta Rock o Adaptation of punta from the 1970s and 80s o Became extremely popular in Belize, Guatemala, Honduras o Sung in Garifuna language (major marker of identity) o Created to compete with transnational popular music (from Bob Marley to James Brown) o Performers added guitar, keyboard, drum machines o Part of a broader effort to maintain cultural identity

12 Excursions 11: Caribbean 12 Preserve language, customs, rites in the face of challenges to identity and the temptation to assimilate into broader national culture All O We Is One : Class and Cultural Politics in the Caribbean Class is a major factor informing political and musical negotiations of identity politics in the Caribbean Junkanoo is a good example o Participants and the Bahamas Ministry of Tourism hail it as a the great national unifier Parades are hailed as spaces in which the society throws away divisions of class and race, and celebrates together o However, race, class, and gender seem to inform how different people participate Junkanoo troupes have several sub-sections Front line: dancers and set pieces Back line: instrumentalists Women gravitate toward costume arts Men play instruments Instrumental roles fall along class and ethnic lines o Thus junkanoo performance preserves the division of labor that exists in Bahamian society more broadly Chutney and Chutney-Soca In Trinidad, Afro-Creoles and East Indians make up the largest portions of the population Hundreds of thousands of indentured laborers migrated from India to Trinidad, Guyana, and Suriname between 1838 and 1917 o Brought religions (Hinduism and Islam), traditions, music, and other cultural practices with them Despite professed interest in equal cultural representation, the government has historically chosen Afro-Creole forms of expression to represent the nation o This contributed to complicated interethnic relations o Increasing economic success and political power of East Indians has played a role as well Music becomes an important site for the negotiation of this relationship o Each style expresses a particular identity and subject position o Calypso and soca are tied to the Afro-Creole community o Chutney and tan-singing are understood as East Indian Chutney-Soca serves as a case in point o Blends aspects of chutney and soca (East Indian and Afro-Creole) o In the 1990s, chutney-soca artists began competing in the Soca Monarch competitions Some East Indians were upset that these musicians were participating in carnival

13 Excursions 11: Caribbean 13 Afro-Creole judges and audiences did not know how to evaluate this music in a competition designed for soca o New category of competition, Chutney-Soca Monarchy created in 1996 o Reaffirmed separate but equal policies o Controversy shows how music relates to cultural politics Chutney and Tan Signing o Tan-singing is a light-classical tradition Thumri is the most important sub-genre Serves as a tangible link to South Asian musical practice Strongly influenced by South Asian music, but it is uniquely Caribbean o Instrumentation Solo male or female singer Harmonium Dholak (drum) Dantal (metal clapper) o Chutney Traditionally sung by and for women at celebrations like weddings In the 1970s, artists like Sundar Popo brought it into the popular realm Added electric and electronic instruments Played in different contexts, including carnival tents o Traditional styles wane as hybrid styles come to prominence o Exchange and mutual influence across ethnic lines belies the separate but equal policies that leaders promote Merengue Developed in the mid-19th century Grew out of salon-oriented danza and contradanza Spread out across the country and into rural areas o Many varieties and sub-genres o Rural versions were stigmatized among elites as vulgar and primitive 1870s: button accordion becomes the primary melodic instrument (replaces strings) By the 1920s, a version from the Cibao region called merengue típico became standardized o Accordion, tambora, guira, voice, sometimes saxophones o Strong emphasis on downbeat within 2/4 meter o Two sections: merengue and jaleo (like canto and montuno) o Sometimes featured introduction called a paseo 1930s Dictator Rafael Trujillo (ruled ) adopts merengue as the national music o Emphasized European influences and vehemently denied African influences This was a way to depict the Dominican Republic as different from Haiti

14 Excursions 11: Caribbean 14 o Trujillo mandated that merengue típico be taken up in ballrooms and urban contexts o He saw this as a way to unite Dominicans across class lines Merengue de orquesta, a new style that used swing band instrumentation, emerged during this period o Urban and rural forms of merengue existed side by side o In the 1980s and 90s, a style of merengue that drew on commercial dance music spread throughout the international scene Example: Merengue Típico: Consangración de Cariña, La India Canela Travel and Tourism: Reconfiguring Home and Away In this section, Rommen describes how global travel (by musicians, audiences, and sounds) affects the ways in which music articulates concepts of home and away Carnival celebrations outside the Caribbean Include Labor Day Carnival in New York, Notting Hill Carnival in London, and Caribana in Toronto o Musical styles travel to these cities o People do the same, possibly for employment or education o These festivals work largely because these cities themselves are deeply transnational o These events are not just an opportunity to get together and engage in familiar cultural practices Rather they are opportunities to recognize the twice-diasporized life in these major cities o In diaspora, these events and the music that pervade them also become a way of recovering a way of being in the world that works toward the good old place, the homeland of the past (nostalgia) New traditions in new places become possible and desirable o Salsa is a pertinent example Emerged in the 1960s in New York Combined elements of Cuban and Puerto Rican musical styles (with others as well) Spread to urban centers all over the Spanish-speaking world and beyond Music can travel independently of communities living abroad o Reggae surges to global popularity in the 1970s and 80s o Dub music was extremely influential on early hip hop in New York o Dancehall, itself influenced by hip hop, has had a reciprocal effect on it These travels create powerful musical practices that offer people within and outside the Caribbean new ways of constructing their identities Sacred Music

15 Excursions 11: Caribbean 15 Different forms of travel to and from the Caribbean have given rise to different sacred music traditions Catholic and Protestant faiths were imposed on many people o Religious syncretism resulted o See Stuart Hall quote (347) o Combine African cosmologies and practices with Catholic and Protestant doctrines o Syncretic religions include: Cuban santería, Trinidadian shango, Hatian Vodoun All of these traditions use African-derived drumming systems o Jamaicans deployed a rich range of responses to Protestant missionizing Myal, convince, Rastafarianism o Gospelypso: Pentecostal missionaries make use of local genres as missionizing tools o Muslim and Hindu musical traditions in Trinidad This range of religious practices are all informed by various kinds of travel Summary: Themes and practices that unify Caribbean music are powerful, and they play out in extremely different ways in each context. Additional Resources Youtube clip of Ancient Man singing I Ain t Asking for Much (poor sound quality) Tamboo Bamboo Edward VIII by Lord Caresser Picong Duel between The Mighty Sparrow and Lord Melody