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1 music theatre Our 57th Season Issue 1, September/October 2015 IN THIS ISSUE Music by Giacomo Puccini Libretto by Luigi Illica and Giuseppe Giacosa English translation by Amanda Holden (c) 2002 This production is generously sponsored in part by The guide is available online at Giacomo Puccini s TOSCA has everything it takes to make opera grand: lust, passion, sex, true love, deception, murder, suicide, torture and more. Toss in a lush and sweeping score, add some of the world s best-known arias and you have all the ingredients for an enduring classic. Audiences have loved TOSCA since its premiere in Rome in The crowdpleasing historical drama is the story of a fiery, tempestuous, deeply religious opera singer who bargains her virtue with a sinister chief of police to save the life of her lover, an artist with political leanings. The power of its music, the inventiveness of its orchestration and the dramatic force of the story continue to fascinate and the work is one of the most frequently performed operas. TOSCA is structured as a throughcomposed work, with arias, recitative, choruses and other musical elements woven into a seamless whole. Puccini used Wagnerian-style leitmotifs, which are musical themes associated with a specific character or situation which heighten the musical storytelling. In discussing the major themes of TOSCA, Director Jill Anna Ponasik said, Tosca s religious faith and Cavaradossi s belief in the power of art are two paths to find meaning. Puccini explores both of these in TOSCA. In the gripping conclusion, they collide with Baron Scarpia, Rome s Chief of Police, who expresses a devout belief in God and the Church, while in reality, he uses his power for evil purposes. Audience Guide Puccini s TOSCA adapted Sardou s play. Their first act conveys the whole of Sardou s exposition and also introduces important elements such as Scarpia s baiting of Tosca with the Marchesa Attavanti s fan and his awakening of her jealous fury. The following two acts are a brilliant synthesis of the original play s integral scenes: the offstage cantata, the torture scene, the announcement of Bonaparte s victory at Marengo, the rape attempt, Tosca s killing of Scarpia and her suicide. The opera differs from the play in both tone and structure. The librettists soften Tosca s jealousy, which in the play is almost pathological, and only hint at Cavaradossi s skepticism. The playwright is said to have found the libretto better than his play, and audiences have agreed. While Puccini s TOSCA remains one of the world s most performed operas, Sardou s play, other than as the source for the opera, is forgotten. Sources include Winston Burdett, 1953 Capitol Records; John Louis Digaetani; Harvey Hatcher Hughes &oldid= AUDIENCE GUIDE Research/Writing by Justine Leonard for ENLIGHTEN, Skylight Music Theatre s Education Program Edited by Ray Jivoff The original Italian libretto by Luigi Illica and Giuseppe Giacosa was adapted from Victorien Sardou s 1887 French play LA TOSCA, an international hit for the great actress Sarah Bernhardt. When Puccini undertook the task of composing the opera, he worked with his publisher Giulio Ricordi and two librettists, Giuseppi Giacosa and Luigi Illica who skillfully condensed and Giacomo Puccini ( )

2 TOSCA and emotion, flaws and strengths. We re highlighting how these forces impact the destinies of our characters by choosing a naked, unfettered visual style to compliment the storytelling, While we pay homage to the roots of the Italianate setting through the rich colors and a scenic scale intended to capture our small human performers reckoning with enormous forces out of their control, we hope to offer a distilled and poetical interpretation of the human condition. We want the audience to focus on the feelings evoked by the soaring and powerful score. Jason Fassl s lighting is a dramatic and dynamic force in this production, working with the intensity of the score to propel the action toward its inevitable conclusion. Our production expresses itself in three languages, says Skylight Stage Director Jill Anna Ponasik. It will be sung predominantly in an English translation by Amanda Holden that debuted in 1999 for a production in London. The prayers and religious services will be sung in Latin, as originally scored. And Tosca and Cavaradossi will sing their emotionally heightened music in Italian. Although the Skylight is known for its presentations of opera in English, Viswa Subbaraman, Skylight Artistic Director and Music Director for this production, explains the reason for keeping the major arias in Italian. It was simply the sound of the arias. Musically, Recondita, Vissi d Arte, E lucevan and the others have such a strong base in Italian that keeping them in the original language allows the audience to just listen to the beauty of the moment. Puccini does such a great job of setting up the arias with the action and the text that the story telling is so clear we could have done it in any language and the audience would understand what was going on. Subbaraman noted that when the opera was composed, Mass was still in Latin and not in the vernacular. So it seemed a smart move to keep the Scenic model by Lisa Schlenker religious service in Latin, keeping the same gravitas as the original. The opera is set in a very specific time and place. The setting is Rome, from the morning of June 17, 1800 to just after dawn the following day. The action takes place in three locations that can still be visited today: The basilica of Sant Andrea della Valle, Palazzo Farnese and Castel Sant Angelo. Director Jill Anna Ponasik says, The Skylight s production is inspired by those details, but places its emphasis on sweeping, abstract gestures rather than on theatrical naturalism. I discovered an excellent book, TOSCA S ROME by Susan Nicassio that puts the play and the opera in a historical perspective. We also found inspiration further afield in images of contemporary Roman street art and in the work of puppeteer Basil Twist, who designs extraordinarily expressive performances using wind, fabric and light. Using these and other references and resources, the designers created a strikingly stylish TOSCA for Skylight. Lisa Schlenker s beautifully spare set pulls its palette from the array of rich colors found in the marble and granite of Sant Andrea della Valle and Palazzo Farnese. Schlenker explains, Puccini shows us raw human passion Kristy Hall s elegant costumes project the mood and feel of TOSCA, while allowing it to become contemporary. The catalyst for Hall s design was in Stage Director s Ponasik s words: We want to show Tosca's emotional landscape and journey. Hall says she designed costumes for the Tosca character first. We wanted to show the power of her love, passion for her art and bravery for her belief. As a team, we gravitated towards this dynamic character, and the rest of the costume design grew out of the designs for that character. The whole team has placed these pockets of beautiful art throughout the production design. I love the ability of all to find beauty in challenging times. Sources include TOSCA'S ROME: THE PLAY AND THE OPERA IN HISTORICAL CONTEXT (2002) Nicassio, Susan Vandiver (paperback ed.). Oxford: University of Chicago Press. ISBN

3 TOSCA At the time TOSCA is set, Italy was not yet a unified country. It had long been divided into a number of small states under various reigns. A French army under Napoleon invaded Italy in 1796, entering Rome in 1798 and establishing a republic there. This republic was ruled by seven consuls. In September 1799, the French, who had protected the republic, withdrew from Rome. As they left, troops of the Kingdom of Naples occupied the city. Following the French Revolution, Napoleon, now the undisputed leader of France, again brought his troops across the Alps to Italy where his army met the Austrian forces at the Battle of Marengo in June The Austrian troops were initially successful, but Napoleon s army ultimately triumphed and for the next fourteen years Rome was under French domination. The history behind the story Act 1: The basilica of Sant Andrea della Valle etching by J. Barbault, 1763 TOSCA locations: ACT I Sant'Andrea della Valle was built in It is one of the great churches of Rome. Its dome is second in size only to that of St. Peter's. ACT II The Palazzo Farnese is admired as the handsomest palace of the high Renaissance in Rome. In Sardou's play, Scarpia's offices were in the Castel Sant'Angelo, but in the opera his quarters are on the top floor of the Palazzo Farnese. In 1874, the palazzo became the French Embassy. Act 2: The Palazzo Farnese by Giuseppi Vasi ACT III The Castel Sant'Angelo was built between 135 and 139 as Emperor Hadrian s tomb. In 271 it became a fortress. The papal state converted it into a castle and prison in the 14th Century. In 1901, it became a museum. The view from the terrace of this powerful symbol of the combined power of the Church and the State is one of the finest in Rome. Act 3: The Castel Sant Angelo by G.B. Piranesi, 1746

4 Giacomo Puccini s personal life was as colorful and melodramatic as his operas. When he died at age 65, he was a millionaire who made more money from his music than any classical composer before or since. His wealth took him far from his early days of poverty in Milan, so when he finally made money, Puccini enjoyed it. He indulged himself with yachts, expensive cars, several estates and a game lodge. He dyed his hair, was always well-dressed and loved fishing, hunting and driving around his estate in one of the cars he collected. Puccini is regarded as one of the great opera masters, alongside Verdi, Wagner, Rossini and Mozart. While his early work was rooted in traditional late-19th century romantic Italian opera, he successfully developed his work in the realistic verismo style, and became one of its leading exponents. Although he composed a number of other works including masses, string quartets and a requiem, Puccini was slow in producing his operas; he wrote just ten. Perhaps that was because he was a perfectionist who involved himself in every phase of the production from selecting singers and conductors to overseeing rehearsals. He traveled all over the world supervising productions of his works to ensure they were being performed to his specifications. Almighty God touched me with His little finger, wrote Puccini, and said Write for the theater.' I have obeyed the supreme command." Giacomo Puccini a one-act opera competition. His first opera, LE VILLI, didn't win, but his supporters funded a production which brought him to the attention of music publisher Giulio Ricordi, who became his life-long business associate and friend. In the autumn of 1884, Puccini began a relationship with Narciso Gemignani s wife, Elvira. They had a son, Antonio, in 1886 but they were unable to marry until 1904, when Narciso was killed by the husband of a woman with whom he had an affair. Ricordi commissioned Puccini s second opera, EDGAR (1889), which was not well received. Parallels to Bizet's CARMEN are numerous. Both feature a confused young man who is struggling to choose between the love of a home town girl and the consuming passion of an exotic gypsy. Through these early failures Puccini realized the importance of good stories, and from then on he chose his own subjects. MANON LESCAUT (1893) was his first selection, and it was an immediate international success. Working on MANON, Puccini constantly changed his mind about the structure of the piece and in the end, worked with a total of five writers. The final two, Luigi Illica and Giuseppe Giacosa, completed the opera. The team returned as librettists for Puccini for his next three operas, probably his greatest: LA BOHÈME (1896), TOSCA (1900) and MADAMA BUTTERFLY (1904). TOSCA The libretto of the opera combines comic elements of the impoverished life of the young protagonists with tragic aspects, such as the death of the young seamstress Mimi. Puccini's own youth in Milan served as a source of inspiration for elements of the libretto. During his years as a conservatory student, he experienced poverty similar to that of the bohemians in LA BOHÈME, including chronic shortages of food, clothing and money to pay rent. Puccini's next work was TOSCA (1900), arguably Puccini's first foray into verismo, the depiction of many facets of real life including violence. The music of TOSCA employs musical signatures for particular characters and emotions, which have been compared to Wagnerian leitmotifs. Puccini saw LA TOSCA, the play by French author Victorien Sardou, when it was touring Italy. He wrote to his publisher, Giulio Ricordi, begging him to get Sardou's permission for the work to be made into an opera: "I see in this TOSCA the opera I need, with no overblown proportions, no elaborate spectacle, nor will it call for the usual excessive amount of music." The melodrama is set in Rome in June 1800, which was then controlled by the Kingdom of Naples and under threat by Napoleon's invasion of Italy. Turning the wordy French play into an opera took four years; during that time the composer repeatedly argued with his librettists and publisher. Giacomo Puccini was born December 22, 1858 in Lucca, in the Tuscany region of Italy. He was one of nine children whose great-great grandfather established a local musical dynasty in Lucca in the 1700s. His father Michele, a choirmaster and organist, died when the boy was five, and Puccini was expected to follow in his footsteps. But after seeing a performance of Verdi's AIDA, he knew that operatic composition was his real future. In 1880, with a scholarship and financial support from an uncle, Puccini became a student at the prestigious Milan Conservatory, where he entered LA BOHÈME, based on the 1851 book by Henri Murger, premiered in 1896, conducted by Arturo Toscanini. Within a few years, it had been performed at many of the leading opera houses of Europe, Britain and in the United States. It remains one of the most frequently performed operas. The trio who created LA BOHÈME, TOSCA and MADAMA BUTTERFLY: Puccini, Giacosa and Illica. (from Archivio Storico Casa Ricordi)

5 TOSCA By 1900, the premiere of a Puccini opera was a national event. Many Roman dignitaries attended the opening of TOSCA including the Prime Minister of Italy with several members of his cabinet and Queen Margherita, though she arrived after the first act. Much of the critical and press reaction was lukewarm, often blaming Illica's libretto. In response, Illica condemned Puccini for treating his librettists "like stagehands" and reducing the text to a shadow of its original form. Nevertheless, any public doubts about TOSCA soon vanished; the premiere was followed by twenty performances, all given to packed houses. On February 25, 1903, Puccini was seriously injured in a car accident. His wife Elvira, and their son, Antonio were flung from the car and escaped with minor injuries. Puccini was pinned under the vehicle, with a portion of the car pressing down on his chest. His injuries included a badly fractured right leg. The injury did not heal well, and Puccini remained under treatment for months. It was also found that he was suffering from a form of diabetes. The accident and its consequences slowed Puccini's completion of his next work, MADAMA BUTTERFLY. After 1904, Puccini's compositions were less frequent. In1906, Giacosa died and in 1909, there was scandal after Puccini's wife, Elvira, falsely accused their maid, Doria Manfredi, of having an affair with Puccini. After being publicly accused of adultery, Doria Manfredi committed suicide. An autopsy determined, however, that Doria had died a virgin, refuting the allegations made against her. Elvira Puccini was prosecuted for slander, and was sentenced to more than five months in prison, although a payment to the family spared Elvira from having to serve the sentence. Some music critics and interpreters of Puccini's work have speculated that the psychological effects of this incident interfered with his ability to complete compositions later in his career, and also influenced the development of characters such as Liù, a slave girl who dies tragically by suicide in his opera TURANDOT. Puccini completed LA FANCIULLA DEL WEST, based on a play by David Belasco, in This was commissioned by and first performed at the Metropolitan Opera in New York. It was the first world premiere of an opera at the Met and it was a great success. The opera has been acclaimed for its incorporation of advanced harmonic language and rhythmic complexity into the Italian operatic form. However, the compositional style employed in the opera, with few stand-alone arias, was criticized and remains a barrier to the opera's complete acceptance into the standard repertoire. PUCCINI'S OPERAS LE VILLI (1884) EDGAR (1889) MANON LESCAUT (1893) LA BOHÈME (1896) TOSCA (1900) MADAMA BUTTERFLY (1904) LA FANCIULLA DEL WEST (1910) LA RONDINE (1917) IL TRITTICO (1918) (Three One-Act Operas) IL TABARRO SUOR ANGELICA GIANNI SCHICCHI TURANDOT (1926) In 1912, the death of Giulio Ricordi, Puccini's editor and publisher, ended a productive period of the composer s career. Puccini wrote the score of LA RONDINE, initially conceived as an operetta, to a libretto by Giuseppe Adami in The least known of Puccini's mature operas, the composer continued to revise it until his death. A modern reviewer described it as "a continuous fabric of lilting waltz tunes, catchy pop-styled melodies, and nostalgic love music." IL TRITTICO, a set of three one-act operas, premiered in New York in The trilogy is comprised of IL TABARRO, a horror story in the style of the Parisian Grand Guignol; SUOR ANGELICA, a sentimental tragedy and GIANNI SCHICCHI, a comedy. A chain smoker of Toscano cigars and cigarettes, Puccini began to complain of chronic sore throats. In 1924, while working on TURANDOT, Puccini was diagnosed with throat cancer. He continued his work on the finale while undergoing treatment. Before he was able to finish, he died of a heart attack, and a colleague, Franco Alfano, completed the opera. The world premiere took place at La Scala in When conductor Arturo Toscanini reached the final notes written by Puccini, he put down his baton, turned to the audience and said, "The opera ends here. At this point Giacomo Puccini broke off his work. Death on this occasion is stronger than art." There was silence. Then someone shouted "Viva Puccini," followed by a tumultuous ovation. In an article in the New York Times, Anthony Tommasini writes: The dramatic sweep and lyrical richness of Puccini s music sometimes obscure the complexity of his contemporary harmonic language. An admirer of Wagner and Debussy, he enriched his scores with unmoored chromatic chords and whole-tone scales. Puccini incorporated wholesale Wagner s technique of leitmotifs: the art of manipulating short themes and motifs associated with characters and incidents of an operatic drama. Although some critics dismiss him as sentimental, his works steadily draw both dedicated opera buffs and occasional fans that might not recognize another note of opera but cherish every note Puccini wrote. Two new Puccini biographies were published in the past few years, GIACOMO PUCCINI: THE MAN, HIS LIFE, HIS WORK by Richard Specht and Catherine Alison Phillips and PUCCINI: HIS LIFE & MUSIC by Julian Haylock.

6 TOSCA The characters: Floria Tosca, a celebrated singer Mario Cavaradossi, a painter Baron Scarpia, chief of police Cesare Angelotti, former Consul of the Roman Republic A Sacristan Spoletta, a police agent Sciarrone, a police agent A short summary: The action takes place in Rome over an eighteen-hour period, starting June 17, 1800 and ending at dawn on June 18. The plot centers on Floria Tosca, a celebrated opera singer; her lover, Mario Cavaradossi, an artist and Bonapartist sympathizer; and Baron Scarpia, Rome's ruthless Regent of Police. Scarpia arrests Cavaradossi and sentences him to death, then offers to spare her lover if Tosca will sleep with him. She appears to acquiesce, but as soon as Scarpia gives the order for the firing squad to use blanks, she stabs him to death. On discovering that Cavaradossi's execution had in fact been a real one, Tosca commits suicide by throwing herself from the castle's parapets. A detailed synopsis: Act 1 Inside the church of Sant'Andrea della Valle Cesare Angelotti, former consul of the Roman Republic and now an escaped political prisoner, runs into the church and hides in the Attavanti private chapel his sister, the Marchesa Attavanti, has left a key to the chapel hidden at the feet of the statue of the Madonna. The Sacristan enters and begins cleaning. The painter Mario Cavaradossi returns to continue work on his picture of Mary Magdalene. The Sacristan immediately notices a likeness between the portrait and a blonde woman who has visited the church recently. Unknown to him, she is Angelotti's sister, the Marchesa. Cavaradossi describes the "hidden harmony" (Recondita armonia) in the Synopsis: Act 1 contrast between the blonde beauty of his painting and his dark-haired lover, the singer Floria Tosca. The Sacristan mumbles his disapproval, He would be wiser to disguise her, and exits. Angelotti emerges and tells Cavaradossi, an old friend who has republican sympathies, that he is being pursued by the Chief of Police, Baron Scarpia. Cavaradossi promises to help him after nightfall. Tosca is heard, calling to Cavaradossi. Cavaradossi gives Angelotti his basket of food and Angelotti returns to his hiding place. Tosca enters and suspiciously asks Cavaradossi what he has been doing she thinks that he has been talking to another woman. Cavaradossi reassures her and Tosca tries to persuade him to take her to his villa that night: (Non la sospiri la nostra casetta?; Do you not pine for our secret lovenest?). Tosca recognizes the woman in the painting is the Marchesa Attavanti and becomes angry and jealous. Cavaradossi explains the likeness; he has merely observed the Marchesa at prayer in the church. He reassures Tosca of his fidelity and asks her what eyes could be more beautiful than her own: (Qual'occhio al mond; What eyes in the world). After Tosca leaves, Angelotti reappears and tells the painter his plan to flee using clothes left in the chapel by his sister as a disguise. Cavaradossi gives Angelotti a key to his villa, saying, If you are in danger, run quickly to the well in the garden.there s water at the bottom, but half-way down the shaft you will find another passage that leads to a hiding place, and nobody will ever find you there! The sound of a cannon signals that Angelotti's escape has been discovered. He and Cavaradossi hurry out of the church. The Sacristan returns with members of the choir, celebrating the news that Napoleon has apparently been defeated at Marengo. The celebration stops abruptly with the entrance of Scarpia and his henchman Spoletta. They have heard that Angelotti is hiding in the church. Scarpia orders a search, and the empty food basket and a fan bearing the Attavanti coat of arms are found in the chapel. Scarpia questions the Sacristan, and his suspicions are aroused further when he learns that Cavaradossi has been in the church; Scarpia mistrusts the painter, and believes he is involved in Angelotti's escape. When Tosca arrives looking for her lover, Scarpia arouses her jealousy by implying a relationship between the painter and the Marchesa Attavanti. He shows Tosca the fan and suggests that someone must have surprised the lovers in the chapel. Tosca angrily rushes off to confront Cavaradossi. Scarpia orders Spoletta and his agents to follow her, assuming she will lead them to Cavaradossi and Angelotti. He privately gloats as he reveals his intentions to possess Tosca and execute Cavaradossi. A procession enters the church singing the Te Deum. Scarpia declares 'Tosca, you make me forget even God!', then joins the chorus in the prayer. Tosca in Act 2; Designed by Kristy Hall

7 TOSCA Act 2, scene 1 Scarpia's apartment in the Palazzo Farnese, that evening Scarpia, at supper, has asked Tosca to come to his apartment. He has not found Angelotti, but has arrested Cavaradossi. As Cavaradossi is brought in and questioned, the voice of Tosca, singing a celebratory cantata in another room in the Palace, can be heard. Cavaradossi denies knowing anything about the escape of Angelotti. Tosca arrives, just in time to see her lover taken to an antechamber to be tortured. He is able to speak briefly with her, telling her to say nothing. Scarpia tells Tosca that she can save her lover from indescribable pain if she reveals Angelotti's hiding place. She resists, but hearing Cavaradossi's cries of pain, eventually tells Scarpia that Angelotti is in the well in the garden of Cavaradossi's villa. Synopsis: Act 2 Scarpia stops the torture of Cavaradossi and the wounded painter is brought back in. He recovers consciousness and is furious when he learns of Tosca's betrayal. Sciarrone, a police agent, enters with news of Napoleon's victory at Marengo. Cavaradossi gloats, telling Scarpia that his rule of terror is over, before being dragged away by Scarpia's men. Scarpia, left with Tosca, proposes a bargain: if she gives herself to him, Cavaradossi will be freed. She is revolted, and repeatedly rejects his advances. She hears the drums that announce an execution. As Scarpia awaits her decision, she prays to God for help, asking why He has abandoned her: (Vissi d'arte; I lived for art). Scarpia remains adamant despite her pleas. When Spoletta brings news that Angelotti has killed himself, and that all is prepared for Cavaradossi's execution, Tosca, in despair, agrees to submit to Scarpia in return for Cavaradossi's freedom. Scarpia tells Spoletta to arrange a mock execution, "as we did with Count Palmieri". Following Spoletta's departure, Tosca imposes the further condition that Scarpia provide a safe-conduct out of Rome for herself and her lover. While he is signing the document, Tosca quietly takes a knife from the supper table. As Scarpia triumphantly embraces her, she stabs him, crying "There s your kiss from the diva!. When Scarpia falls dead, she declares that she now forgives him. She removes the safe-conduct from his pocket, saying To think that Rome once trembled before him! Tosca then lights candles in a gesture of piety and places a crucifix on the body before leaving. scene 2 The platform of the Castel Sant' Angelo, early the following morning A shepherd sings as church bells sound for matins. Cavaradossi is led in by guards and informed that he has one hour to live. He refuses to see a priest, but asks permission to write a letter to Tosca. He begins to write, but is soon overwhelmed by memories: (E lucevan le stele; And the stars shone). Tosca enters and shows him the safeconduct. She tells him that she has killed Scarpia and that the imminent execution is a sham. Cavaradossi must feign death, and afterwards they can leave Rome together, before Scarpia's body is discovered. Cavaradossi is amazed at her courage: (O dolci mani; Oh sweet hands). The pair ecstatically plans the life they will live away from Rome. Tosca then anxiously instructs Cavaradossi on how to convincingly play his part in the mock execution. She tells him that he will be shot with blanks by the firing squad and instructs him to fall down as if dead. He agrees to act "like Tosca in the theatre". Cavaradossi is led away, and Tosca watches with increasing impatience as the execution is prepared. The men fire, Cavaradossi falls and Tosca exclaims "He s a true artist! When the soldiers have all left, she hurries to Cavaradossi, only to find that he is dead and Scarpia has betrayed her. Heartbroken, she clasps his lifeless body and weeps. The voices of Spoletta, Sciarrone and soldiers are heard, meaning Scarpia's body has been found, and they know Tosca has killed him. As Spoletta, Sciarrone and the soldiers rush in, Tosca pushes them away and runs to the parapet. Crying out, Oh Scarpia, our judge is God! she hurls herself over the edge to her death. Scarpia costume sketch by Kristy Hall

8 Victorien Sardou ( ) is a French dramatist whose play, LA TOSCA (1887), is the source for Puccini's opera, TOSCA (1900). Sardou is known today for his development of the well-made play, which called for complex and highly artificial plotting, a build-up of suspense, a climactic scene in which all problems are resolved and a happy ending. Sardou was not the greatest dramatist of his time, but he was by far the most popular. For almost fifty years, his plays appeared regularly in every country of the Western World and his influence is still seen in much of the drama of today, though his work is seldom performed. Born in Paris to poor parents, he was unable to complete his studies in medicine, the profession his father had chosen for him. He supported himself by private tutoring, writing his first plays in the meantime. In 1857, he was stricken with typhoid fever and Mlle. de Brecourt, an actress living in the same house, nursed him back to health. This marked the turning point in his career. Mlle. de Brecourt, whom he soon married, introduced him to Déjazet, a famous actress who commissioned him to write a play for her. Over the next five years, Sardou produced three or four plays a year. One of these, LES PATTES DE MOUCHES, made him famous and remains one of the best examples of the comedy of intrigue. He excelled in creating an exciting and clever story. But while his plays easily held the audience, his characters have little semblance of reality. He wrote seventy plays, ranging from farce to tragedy. His later work was confined to devising roles for Sarah Bernhardt, including Floria Tosca. Unfortunately, Bernhardt s cleverness and technical dexterity, coupled with her inability to suggest sincerity or depth of emotion, only accentuated Sardou s weaknesses, and apart from her highlighting Bernhardt s personality, these plays have little value. TOSCA Original Playwright Victorien Sardou and Original Tosca Sarah Bernhardt Victorien Sardou ( ) Sarah Bernhardt as Tosca, 1888 Radio Times Hulton Picture Library Sarah Bernhardt ( ) was a French actress, referred to as "the most famous actress the world has ever known." She made her fame in France in the 1870s, developing a reputation as a serious dramatic actress, earning the nickname "The Divine Sarah." She was born in Paris as Rosine Bernardt, to Julie Bernardt and an unknown father. When her mother, the daughter of a petty criminal, moved to Paris to become a courtesan she sent Sarah to a convent school. Bernhardt's stage career started in 1862 while she was a student at the Comédie-Française, France's most prestigious theater. However, she soon left the school after slapping another actress across the face during an argument. She moved to Belgium, where she became the mistress of Henri, Prince de Ligne, and gave birth to their son, Maurice, in She resumed the life of a courtesan and made considerable money during the period of During this time, she acquired her famous coffin, in which she often slept in lieu of a bed, claiming that it helped her understand her many tragic roles. In 1899, Bernhardt took over a theatre on the Place du Châtelet, renamed it the Théâtre Sarah-Bernhardt and opened in one of her most admired roles in Victorien Sardou's LA TOSCA. In 1905, while performing the role in Rio de Janeiro, Bernhardt injured her right knee when jumping off the parapet in the final scene. The leg never healed properly. By 1915, gangrene set in and her leg was amputated. She continued to perform with the use of an artificial limb. She played in her own productions almost continuously until her death. Sarah Bernhardt died from kidney failure in She is believed to have been 78 years old. by Harvey Hatcher Hughes, (1881 Bartleby.com