Page37 Skill Standard

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2 Table of Contents Page37 Skill Standard 1-2 Making Inferences RL 6.1, RI Citing Evidence, Using Quotation Marks, Text Talkers RL 6.1, RI Theme RL Main Idea RL 6.2, RI Writing Summaries RL 6.2, RI Elements of a Plot RL 6.3, RL Types of Conflict RL Characters/Character Traits RL Character Traits RL Character Motivations, Character Types RL Using Context Clues to Determine Unfamiliar Word Meaning RL 6.4, RI Figurative Language RL 6.4, RI Tone and Mood RL 6.4, RI Text Structure RI Point of View RL 6.6, RI Comparing and Contrasting/Venn Diagram RL 6.7, RI 6.7, RI Evaluating an Argument RL Author s Purpose RL 6.9, RI Close Reading, Text Annotation RL 6.9, RI A.C.E. W 6.1 W Writing Hooks and Transition Words W 6.1 W Informative Writing W 6.2, W 6.4 W Argumentative Writing W 6.1, W 6.4 W Glossary of Academic Vocabulary Note-Taking Templates

3 Citing Textual Evidence: Cite evidence to support what the author says explicitly or through inferences drawn from the text. What does it mean to infer? Use text evidence, background knowledge, and logic to come to a reasonable conclusion. An inference is an educated guess. Ask Yourself: Do details from the text, my background knowledge, and logic combine to reveal a certain emotion, concept, trait, or idea?

4 Citing Textual Evidence: Cite evidence to support what the author says explicitly or through inferences drawn from the text. Citing Evidence to answer a multiple choice question: 1. Read the question carefully. Example: 1. Which quote from the text supports the inference that the Dad liked to play jokes on his children? 2. Mark key words in the question. 1. Which quote from the text supports the inference that the Dad liked to play jokes on his children? 3. Read ALL answer choices carefully, and mark key words in each answer choice.(one word can make it wrong). As you read each answer choice, think to yourself: Does this this prove the what the question is asking? Remember: The evidence needs to make sense to someone who has never read the passage. A. "Of course, that had been a surprise, too. He had taken us all for a walk and had ended up at a garage where the car had been parked." B. "He named it Foolish Carriage because he said it was foolish for any man with as many children as he to think he could afford a horseless carriage." C. "We had seen Dad nick fenders, slaughter chickens, square away with traffic policemen, and knock down fullgrown trees, and we weren't taking any chances." D. "Kadookah, Kadookah.' The horn blaring right in your ear was frightening and you'd jump away in hurt amazement. Dad would laugh until the tears came to his eyes." A and B both have words that can be associated with practical jokes, but do not show a joke or Dad being amused. C shows that the father is known as a bad driver. D shows the car horn honking, scaring the child, and Dad laughing. D is the correct answer. Always double check your answers! Evidence is meant to prove something. 2

5 Citing Textual Evidence: Cite evidence to support what the author says explicitly or through inferences drawn from the text. According to the text (passage, excerpt, poem, account, etc.) The text states The author wrote The text explicitly sates One can infer from The illustration (diagram, chart, etc.) shows When citing evidence that contains dialogue or quote within a quote, use a single quotation mark (an inverted comma) around the dialogue or quote, and use double quotation marks around your textual evidence Example: I got an A on my test! Billy told his mom. The text states, I got an A on my test! Billy told his mom. 3

6 Theme Readers are often asked to determine the theme of a story. 1. The theme of a fable 1 is its moral The theme of a piece of fiction is its view about life and how people behave. 1. In fiction, the theme is not intended to teach or preach. You extract it from the characters, action, and setting that make up the story. In other words, you must figure out the theme yourself. Determining a Theme: 1. Check out the title. Sometimes it tells you a lot about the theme. 2. Notice repeating patterns and symbols. Sometimes these lead you to the theme. 3. What allusions 3 are made throughout the story? 4. What are the details and particulars in the story? What greater meaning may they have? Remember that theme, plot, and structure are inseparable, all helping to inform and reflect back on each other. Also, be aware that a theme we determine from a story never completely explains the story. It is simply one of the elements that make up the whole. 1. Fable: a short story, typically with animals as characters, conveying a moral 2. Moral: a lesson, especially one concerning what is right or wise, that can be derived from a story, a piece of information, or an experience; a lesson that be used in the reader s life 3. Allusion: a reference to something well-known or famous 4

7 Theme: The message, moral, or lesson of a text. It is usually implied rather than stated. Common Themes: Respect: The characters learn to show respect to someone in the story. Acceptance: The characters learn to accept others for their differences. Courage: The characters learn to face their fears. Responsibility: The characters learn to do the right thing. Compassion: The characters find ways to show concern for other characters that were hurt or suffering. Perseverance: The characters learn to face challenges and obstacles but do not give up. Friendship: The characters know what it mean to be good, trustworthy friends. Questions to Ask Yourself: What did the character learn? How did the characters grow or change? What message is the author trying to send? What important part of life is the story about? 5

8 Determining the Main Idea or Central Idea of a Text Fiction: What is the story mostly about? What do I notice over and over? Non-Fiction: What does the author want me to notice about the topic? First and last sentence can give you a clue. Use headings. 8 6

9 Writing Summaries: A summary is a SHORT retelling of a text. It should be re-told in your own words in a logical order. You should only include key details. Think: Does this detail support or lead to the main idea? Only include details that are needed to explain or support the main idea. Important Note: Summaries must be free of personal opinion or judgment. The author s opinion is okay. Don t use personal pronouns (I, me, my) your summary. For non-fiction texts, pay attention to the text format. Think: Is the text broken down by sub-headings, does it follow chronological order, etc. It s up to you to use the format for your summary. 7

10 Plot Readers are often asked to determine how piece of a story contributes 1 to the plot. In order to do this, you must: 1. Have an understanding of the elements of a plot 2. Understand how a each piece contributes to the story as a whole Elements of a Plot 1. Introduction/Exposition: the beginning of a story where the setting is established and main characters are introduced. 2. Inciting Incident/Main Confict 2 : the event or decision that begins a story's problem. Everything up and until that moment is backstory; everything after is "the story. 3. Rising Action: in a plot is a series of relevant incidents that create suspense, interest and tension in a narrative. In literary works, a rising action includes all decisions, characters' flaws and background circumstances that together create turns and twists leading to a climax. Smaller conflicts throughout the story. 4. Climax: the turning point and the most intense point in a story. To decide where the climax of a story takes place, always look at when we know the outcome of the inciting incident/main conflict the climax usually occurs just before this. It usually involves an important event, decision, or discovery that affects the final outcome of the story. 5. Falling Action: The events that follow the climax and lead up to the resolution. During the falling action, the minor conflicts presented during the rising action are resolved; previously unanswered questions are answered for the reader. 6. Resolution: The end of the story in which conflicts are resolved. Provides a sense of closure. Indicates an ending. 1. Contributes: adds 2. Conflict: problem presented in a story 8

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12 Characters in Literature There are many questions readers can be asked about a character and characteristics. 1. What can the reader infer 1 based off of the character s actions? 2. How has the character changed throughout the story? 3. What can the reader infer 1 about s character? 1. Infer: the act of making an inference (educated guess) Character Character Character Traits Characteristics Characterize A person or individual in a story The moral qualities of a person or individual; reputation Aspects of a person's behavior and attitudes that make up that person's personality (Examples Below) Qualities that are unique or distinct to a person or individual To describe someone or form an opinion of someone based off of his/her character traits or characteristics adventurous anxious appreciative argumentative bitter boastful bold boring bossy brave bright capable carefree careful cautious charitable clever coarse cold conceited considerate consistent content cooperative corrupt courageous cowardly creative cruel dependent determined dignified evil fair fearless foolish forgiving friendly generous gentle grumpy gullible happy harsh hateful helpful heroic high-maintenance humble humorous idealistic imaginative impatient impulsive incompetent intelligent irresponsible jealous joyful kind knowledgeable lazy loving low-maintenance loyal mean messy mischievous modest naïve observant open-minded optimistic patient patriotic peaceful persistent persuasive pessimistic polite proper proud punctual quiet realistic rebellious reckless reliable reserved resourceful respectful responsible rude sad sarcastic self-centered selfish sentimental skeptical sophisticated spontaneous stern studious thrifty trustworthy truthful 10

13 When trying to infer what a character is like, think STEAL: Says What does the character say out loud? Look for monologue or dialogue in quotation marks. Thinks What are the character s thoughts and feelings? What effect does the character have on others in the story? Effect Actions Look How is the character affected by others? What are the character s actions and reactions? What does he/she do? What is the physical appearance of the character? What facial expressions do they make? 11

14 Motivation is what causes a character to act in a specific way. This can be applied to the main character and to supporting characters that affect the main character. Terminology of Character Types 12

15 Using Context Clues to Determine Unfamiliar Word Meaning There are several ways you can determine the meaning of an unfamiliar word. Do 1. Remember that context clues are usually close to the word in question. 2. Plug in the multiple choice answers to replace the unfamiliar word; check to make sure your answer makes sense in the passage. 3. Use the process of elimination. 4. ALWAYS use connotation 1. Don t 1. Don t pick a multiple choice answer just because you don t know the word. Think Stranger Danger! Only pick an unfamiliar word for your answer if you have ruled out the other options. 1. Connotation: the feeling people associate with a word. Can be positive, negative, or neutral. Definition Synonym Antonym Example Inference Look for the word s meaning (in the from of a definition) in the text before or after the unfamiliar word. The connotation will match. Look for a word that means the same as the unfamiliar. The connotation will match. Look for a word that means the opposite as the unfamiliar word. Remember The Rule of But : If you see a but word (but, yet, however, ), the connotation will change. Look for an example, typically following the unfamiliar word, that shows what the word means. The connotation will match. Make an educated guess as to what the word may mean based off of the information in text. The connotation will match. Mr. Fry is an affable neighbor. He is pleasantly easy to approach and always friendly. Mr. Fry is quite affable. In fact, he reminds me of Ms. Baker. Do you remember how kind she way? I miss Mr. Fry. Our new neighbor is cranky and unapproachable, but Mr. Fry was so affable. Mr. Fry is an affable neighbor. He knows everyone s name. If you have a problem, you can talk to him. You don t need to worry about talking to Mr. Fry. He is an affable neighbor. 13

16 Figurative Language Figurative language uses words or expressions with a meaning that is different from its literal 1 meaning. 1 When a writer uses literal langue, they state facts/opinions exactly as they are. (Example: I am very hungry.) When a writer uses figurative language he/she uses exaggerations or alterations to make a point. (Example: I am so hungry, I could eat a horse.) Figurative language is common in poetry, but it is used in fiction writing (and occasionally non-fiction writing) as well. Type Definition Example Notes Simile Metaphor Personification Symbolism Compares two unlike things using LIKE or AS Compares two unlike things. Does NOT use like or as. Gives human qualities to nonhuman things. Using a word/symbol to represent something else I m as hungry as a hippo. Aunt Jan s cooking tastes like garbage. Drew Brees is a beast. The air conditioner hummed on the hot summer day. Spring can represent new life or a fresh start. Hyperbole An exaggeration. I ve told you a million times, it s not hyper bowl. Idiom Allusion An expression that means something other than its literal meaning. A reference to something famous or well-known Raining cats and dogs, Kick the bucket, Hit the road, Pay the piper, Show you the ropes Bud looked like one of George Washington Carver s experiments. Like or As comes between the two things being compared. These sentences are harder to identify. Think: Is Drew Brees actually a fake creature? Nope must be figurative language. Air conditioners make noise, but they don t actually hum. People hum. Symbolism is seen often in poetry. Pay attention to the words that surround it to look for an alternative meaning. Uses an exaggeration to make a point, add emphasis, or add humor. Often the meaning of idioms cannot be determined from the literal meaning. Use context clues for help. Knowing that Carver invented peanut butter would help the reader understand this meaning. 14

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18 Text Structure: The manner in which ideas are organized and information is presented 16

19 Point of View When readers are asked to determine an author s, character s, or narrator s point of view, this could mean two things: 1. Which person is the story written in first, second, or third? 2. What is the author s, character s, or narrator s perspective? (THIS IS THE ONE WE USUALLY SEE.) It s up to you decide what the question is asking of you. Look at your answer choices for clues if needed. 1. Which person is the story written in first, second, or third? 1. First person is a first-hand account. We see the story from his/her point of view. We know what they are thinking and we see what they see. 1. Words to look for inside and outside of dialogue 1 : I, me, my, us, we 2. Think I looks like the number Second person is something we rarely see in literature. Second person gives commands. 1. Examples: Determine the author s point of view, Turn to page 6, Preheat the oven to These commands are given with a You or an implied you 2 3. Also known as breaking the fourth wall. This is when the character speaks directly to the reader. 1. Example: When Percy told us to shut the book if we thought we might be a half-blood. 3. Third person is when the story is written from the point of view in which the narrator is NOT a part of the story. 1. Words to look for outside of dialogue: They, them, their, him, her, etc. 2. Note that the words inside of dialogue can still contain: I, me, my, us, we 1. Third person limited: the narrator only knows the thoughts and feelings of one character. All characters are described using pronouns, such as 'they', 'he', and 'she'. But, one character is closely followed throughout the story, and it is typically a main character. 2. Third person omniscient: literary technique of writing narrative in third person in which a narrator knows the feelings and thoughts of every character in the story. 1. Dialogue: The words spoken in a text. Dialogue is marked by quotation marks. Only one person can speak per paragraph. 2. Implied You: Used in directions (or second person). Instead of saying, You, clean your room., we say Clean your room. The You part is implied. 17

20 Point of View When readers are asked to determine an author s, character s, or narrator s point of view, this could mean two things: 1. Which person is the story written in first, second, or third? 2. What is the author s, character s, or narrator s perspective? (THIS IS THE ONE WE USUALLY SEE.) It s up to you decide what the question is asking of you. Look at your answer choices for clues if needed. 1. Which person is the story written in first, second, or third? 1. First person is a first-hand account. We see the story from his/her point of view. We know what they are thinking and we see what they see. 1. Words to look for inside and outside of dialogue 1 : I, me, my, us, we 2. Think I looks like the number Second person is something we rarely see in literature. Second person gives commands. 1. Examples: Determine the author s point of view, Turn to page 6, Preheat the oven to These commands are given with a You or an implied you 2 3. Also known as breaking the fourth wall. This is when the character speaks directly to the reader. 1. Example: When Percy told us to shut the book if we thought we might be a half-blood. 3. Third person is when the story is written from the point of view in which the narrator is NOT a part of the story. 1. Words to look for outside of dialogue: They, them, their, him, her, etc. 2. Note that the words inside of dialogue can still contain: I, me, my, us, we 1. Third person limited: the narrator only knows the thoughts and feelings of one character. All characters are described using pronouns, such as 'they', 'he', and 'she'. But, one character is closely followed throughout the story, and it is typically a main character. 2. Third person omniscient: literary technique of writing narrative in third person in which a narrator knows the feelings and thoughts of every character in the story. 1. Dialogue: The words spoken in a text. Dialogue is marked by quotation marks. Only one person can speak per paragraph. 2. Implied You: Used in directions (or second person). Instead of saying, You, clean your room., we say Clean your room. The You part is implied. 18

21 Point of View When readers are asked to determine an author s, character s, or narrator s point of view, this could mean two things: 1. Which person is the story written in first, second, or third? 2. What is the author s, character s, or narrator s perspective? (THIS IS THE ONE WE USUALLY SEE.) It s up to you decide what the question is asking of you. Look at your answer choices for clues if needed. 2. What is the author s, character s, or narrator s perspective? 1. Perspective: How someone views something; an individual s attitude toward something 1. Fiction (fake or made up): Determine how the character responds to the events in the story, particularly the event in question. 2. Non-Fiction (not fake or something that really happened or exists): Determine how the author chooses to discuss the topic. 1. For both fiction and non-fiction use connotation 3 to help you. Look for positive and negative words. 3. Connotation: The feeling people associate with a word. Can be positive, negative, or neutral 19

22 When I compare, I identify what is similar or the same. Words to use: as, both, like, alike, similar, similarly, have in common, same, too When I contrast, I identify what is different. Words to use: However, although, as opposed to, but, contrary to, instead What am I suppose to compare and contrast? Here are some ideas: Characterization: Are the characters similar in anyway? Think of their personalities and mannerisms Think STEAL: What they say, how they think, the effect they have or how they are affected by others, how they act, how they look Author s Approach: Genre Purpose (PIE) Tone/Mood Plot Elements: Setting Conflict Type (Character vs. Character/Self/Nature/Society) Resolution 20

23 Evaluating an Argument Use FELT to evaluate an argument: Evidence: Fairness Evidence Logic Tone Is the argument fair and balanced? Is it biased? Is it too emotional? Is the evidence reliable and relevant? Is the conclusion a logical result of the evidence? Is the tone appropriate? Is it is too serious? Too emotional? Sarcastic or dismissive? Is it overly dramatic? Facts Reasons Examples Details Information that can be proven true Why you should agree with the author Examples for the argument and against an alternative The author should be specific (not vague) 21

24 Question: What is the author s purpose for writing this selection? Authors typically write to: Persuade The author tries to convince someone to do something or to believe something Look for synonyms: convince, encourage, urge, advise Look for opinion words: should, believe, important Look for a lesson learned Inform The author gives information or knowledge; teaches about a topic Look for synonyms: teach, show, tell, explain Look for facts Entertain The author tells a story that is meant to be enjoyable Note: Just because you enjoy science class, your text book s purpose is not meant to entertain. Don t confuse author s purpose with your personal opinion. 22

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27 Writing Example Put it Together Answer Cite Explain 1. Refer to the title of the article 2. Restate the question in your answer 3. Answer the question fully and accurately in your own words 4. Use a text talker 5. Cite relevant evidence word for word and use quotation marks 6. Write This evidence (explains, proves, or shows) 7. Explain and clarify how your evidence supports your answer. Refer to your A and your C. A: According the text, The Coliseum, the famous landmark has been damaged since it completion in the year 70 by natural events including a lighting strike, which caused a fire, and by an earthquake. C: The text states, It was struck by lightning in the year 217. This started a fire. Much of the Coliseum is made of stone. But the fire damaged the upper levels. The text also states, The worst damage happened in A mighty earthquake shook Rome and the Coliseum. The south side of the building collapsed. E. This evidence shows how two separate natural disasters, a lightning strike and an earthquake, caused damage this well know Roman landmark. According the text, The Coliseum, the famous landmark has been damaged since it completion in the year 70 by natural events including a lighting strike, which caused a fire, and by an earthquake. The text states, It was struck by lightning in the year 217. This started a fire. Much of the Coliseum is made of stone. But the fire damaged the upper levels. The text also states, The worst damage happened in A mighty earthquake shook Rome and the Coliseum. The south side of the building collapsed. This evidence shows how two separate natural disasters, a lightning strike and an earthquake, caused damage this well know Roman landmark. 25

28 Text and Question for Example A.C.E. The Coliseum The Coliseum is an ancient stadium in the center of Rome. It is the largest of its kind. It is very old. They started building it in the year 70. It took ten years to build. It is still around today. The Coliseum has been used in many ways. In ancient Rome, men fought each other in it. They fought against lions, tigers, and bears. Oh my! It was dreadful. But most of the people loved it. As many as 80,000 Romans would pack inside to watch. These gruesome events went on until 523. The Coliseum has been damaged many times over the years. It was struck by lightning in the year 217. This started a fire. Much of the Coliseum is made of stone. But the fire damaged the upper Coliseum. The south side of the building levels. They were made of wood. This damage took many years to repair. It was not finished until the year 240. The worst damage happened in A mighty earthquake shook Rome and the collapsed. Pieces of the arena were all over the ground. Many people took the fallen stones. Others took stones from the seating areas. They used them to repair houses and churches. The Romans of those days were not connected to the Coliseum. It had last been used as a castle. Before that it was a graveyard. It has been hundreds of years since the games. The damage to the Coliseum was never repaired. It's a good thing the outer wall of it still stands strong. Today the Coliseum is one of Rome's most popular attractions. People from all over the world come to Italy to see it. The Pope leads a big march around it every Good Friday. It is a symbol that many know. It has even appeared on the back of a coin. I guess that makes it a symbol that many people want too. How has the famous landmark, the Coliseum, been damaged by natural events since it s completion in the year 70? 26

29 Personal pronouns are okay to use in a hook, but are not to be used throughout the paper unless a writing prompt asks you to write your opinion or to write a reflection. 27

30 Informative Writing: Example Writing Prompt Informative Writing: Example Article What characteristics help classify a cottonmouth snake? TIP: As you read, look for characteristics (how they look, what they act like, where they live, etc.) Mark these traits as you read. Also make notes of what connection you may have to the article this will help with your hook and background information. NOTE: An informative essay should have the following things in this order: An introduction paragraph with a hook, background information, and a thesis. 30 Multiple body paragraphs. For this example, we will do three. A conclusion paragraph with a restated claim, restated background information, and a restated, continued, or connected hook. 28

31 Informative Writing: Body Paragraphs. (These questions are based off of cottonmouth characteristics found in the article. These characteristics will be listed in the thesis.) 29

32 Informative Writing: Introduction and Conclusion Paragraphs Conclusion Paragraph: The LAST paragraph in your essay. It reminds the reader of the main points of the essay through a brief summary and leaves them with a sense of closure on the topic. Introduction Paragraph: The FIRST paragraph in your essay. It hooks the reader and introduces the reader to the topic discussed in your essay. 30

33 Informative Writing: Editing A.C.E.s to form body paragraphs Don t forget to use a variety of transition words to begin each paragraph and throughout paragraphs as needed. 31

34 Argumentative Writing: Transitioning from Persuasive Writing to Argumentative Writing (We start the counterclaim in 7 th grade) 32

35 Argumentative Writing Tip: Writing a claim with two reasons makes it easier to write two body paragraphs one for each reason. Hook and Background Information: Use what you already know from informative writing. Grab your reader s attention and provide background information on the topic. Thesis (informative) vs. Claim (argumentative): A thesis tells your reader what they are going to read about. A claim is a statement the writer presents as true. (A claim is an opinion disguised as a fact does NOT use phrases such as I think. ) The writer will provide facts, reasons, examples, and details throughout the essay to support this statement. Claim Example: In order for students to improve academically, and avoid the summer slide American students should be in school year-round. Topic Sentence Example (state your first reason): Students who attend school year-round are more likely to improve academically. You are bridging or connecting your evidence back to your claim. Don t wander off topic. Everything leads back to the claim! Evidence Example (both pieces of evidence for Body Paragraph 1 must support the topic sentence for Body Paragraph 1 students will improve academically): For example, Balsz, a district in Arizona, saw reading test scores go up from 51 percent to 65 percent after extending the school year by twenty days. Bridge Example (explain how your evidence support your claim): This significant increase proves that students benefit by having more time in school. (Give another piece of evidence related to your topic sentence and another bridge related to the claim.) Conclusion Example (end with a strong statement related to your topic sentence): It is possible to improve student test scores by requiring more days in school. 33

36 Body Paragraph 2 is formatted in the same way as Body Paragraph 1. Body Paragraph 2 will present additional information that supports the same claim. Claim Example (from Introduction Paragraph): In order for students to improve academically, and avoid the summer slide American students should be in school year-round. Body Paragraph 1 focused on improving students academically. Body Paragraph 2 will focus on avoiding the summer slide. (This is why using two reasons in the claim is helpful!) The topic sentence, evidence, and bridges you provide will all focus on how students forget some of the information over the summer which they were taught the previous school year. Writing counter arguments (counterclaims) is a 7 th grade skill. We don t write them in 6 th grade, but it is helpful to know about them. Counter arguments are the other side of the arguments. Writers introduce the other side of the argument (they predict what the reader will think), and will then proceed to explain why that way of thinking is wrong. (Think: Introduce it, then crush it.) Look for these as you read argumentative pieces. Conclusion Restate Claim Example (it s not exactly the same as the claim you wrote before, but it is very similar): Year round school is the answer to the educational problems in America. Summarize the Evidence Example (re-read your evidence; write the gist of your evidence:) A year-round schedule will prevent students from loosing the hard earned knowledge gained throughout the year and will help students to preform better academically. Final Statement Example (Provide a benefit that will result from complying with or heeding the argument -or- provide a call to action to move the audience to want to make a change. This is your drop mic moment.): The nation s future depends upon having intelligent citizens. Schools must be year round in order to graduate such citizens. 34

37 Glossary Adjective: Words used to describe a noun. Ex: smart Adverb: Words used to modify a verb. Ex: quickly Account: A repot or description of an event or experience. Alliteration Alliteration is the repetition of similar sounds within a sentence or a phrase. It is sometimes more specifically defined as the repetition of sounds at the beginning of words, or in stressed syllables. Alliteration is used a lot in poetry, but in prose as well, and its purpose is usually to call attention to that particular set of words, or to contribute to the overall rhythm and flow of the writing. Ex. Sally sells seashells by the seashore. Allusion An allusion is a reference to a widely known person, place, or event. The subject of an allusion is referred to rather than explained in detail. The purpose of an allusion is often to clarify an idea or concept by referencing another idea that is universally recognized and understood. Ex: He thinks he s such an Einstein anytime he answers a question correctly. Anecdote: A short personal story. Argument: A logical way of presenting a belief, conclusion, or stance. Effective arguments are supported by reasoning and evidence. Audience: A writer s targeted reader or readers. Author s purpose: An author s main reason for writing. A writer s purpose may be to entertain, to inform, to persuade, to teach a moral lesson, or to reflect on an experience. An author may have more than one purpose for writing. Autobiography: A written account of an author s own life. Biography: An account of a person s life written by another person. Cause and effect: Text structure in which the author presents one or more causes and then describes the resulting effects. Central message (central idea): The main idea of a fictional text; the central message may be directly stated or implied. Chronology: Text structure in which the author uses numerical or chronological order to present items or events. Claim: An arguable statement that a writer asks a reader to accept. 35

38 Glossary Comparison and contrast: Text structure in which the author compares and contrasts two or more similar events, topics, or objects. Conflict: A struggle or clash between opposing characters, forces, or emotions. Conjunction: A word used to connect clauses or sentences or to coordinate words in the same clause. Coordinating conjunctions: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so Connotation: Implicit rather than explicit meaning of a word. It consists of the suggestions, associations, and emotional overtones attached to a word. Feeling associated with a word. Denotation: Exact, literal definition of a word independent of any emotional association or secondary meaning. Dialogue: Spoken exchanges between characters in a dramatic or literary work, usually between two or more speakers. Evaluate: Judge, assess, rate Evidence: Supporting information a writer or speaker uses to prove a claim. Excerpt: A portion of a larger text. Explicit textual evidence: Information that is directly stated in a text. Exposition: One of the classifications of discourse whose function is to inform, to instruct, or to present ideas and general truths. Exposition presents information, provides explanations and definitions, and compares and contrasts. Fable: Brief story that teaches a moral or practical lesson about life. Fantasy: Story employing imaginary characters living in fictional settings where the rules of the real world are altered for effect. Fiction: Imaginative literary works representing invented rather than actual persons, places, and/or events. Figurative language: An expression that departs from the accepted literal sense or from the normal order of words; an extension of this definition includes the use of sound for emphasis, including onomatopoeia, alliteration, assonance, and consonance. Firsthand account: An event or topic based on an author s personal experience. Examples include diaries, autobiographies, and letters. Flashback: Scene that interrupts the action of a work to show a previous event. Folktale: Short story from the oral tradition that reflects the mores and beliefs of a particular culture. 36

39 Glossary Genre: Category used to classify literary and other works by form, technique, or content. Grammar: The system and structure of a language. Hyperbole Hyperbole is the use of extreme exaggeration or extravagant statements, meant to create a strong impression, as well as to evoke or indicate strong feelings. Hyperbole is not meant or interpreted literally, but the exaggeration contributes to the true meaning of what is being said. Ex: I ve been waiting for this forever. Idiom An idiom is a phrase or group of words that have a figurative meaning that differs from their literal meanings, and are understood by many due to common usage and repetition. Idioms exist in all languages, but usually cannot be understood based on the literal definitions of the words involved. Idioms are used in writing to convey a particular meaning or sentiment in a unique way. Ex: Break a leg! I said to him before the show. Imagery Descriptive language used by an author to provide an image in the reader s mind, appealing to one of the five senses. Imagery is the use of any descriptive words or phrases that result in a clearer mental picture of the person, place, thing, or situation being described. Many other figurative language devices can qualify as imagery. Inference: Act or process of deriving logical conclusions from premises known or assumed to be true; the conclusions drawn from this process. Informational texts: Nonfiction texts that contain facts and information; also referred to as expository texts. Interjection: an abrupt remark, made especially as an aside or interruption; an exclamation, especially as a part of speech Ex: ah! or dear me! Main idea: The central thought of a nonfiction text. Memoir: Type of autobiography that usually focuses on a single time period or historical event. Metaphor: A thing, idea, or action referred to by a word or expression normally reserved for another thing, idea, or action to suggest a common quality shared between the two. Ex: All the world s a stage Mood: The form of a verb that indicates the writer s attitude toward a statement as it is made. Ex: I wish I could go. 37

40 Glossary Motivation: Circumstance or set of circumstances that prompt a character to act a certain way or that determine the outcome of a situation. Myth: Traditional story accepted as history, which serves to explain the worldview of a people, usually in supernatural or imaginative terms. Mythology: A body of related myths most often regarded as fictional stories containing deeper truths. Narration: The process of relating a sequence of events. Narrative: A story about fictional or real events. Narrator: One who tells, or is assumed to be telling, the story in a given narrative. Nonfiction (Literary Nonfiction): Text that conveys factual information. The text may or may not employ a narrative structure and characteristics such as dialogue. Additionally, literary nonfiction may also persuade, inform, explain, describe, or amuse. Noun: a person, place, thing, or idea. Ex: Sally, teacher, pencil, school, excitement. Onomatopoeia Onomatopoeia is defined as words whose spelling and pronunciation imitate natural sounds. Onomatopoeia is used to intensify a description of a sound, and make it more effective with a word that represents and resembles that sound. Ex. The party guests murmured softly throughout the room. Oxymoron: A figure of speech that combines two usually contradictory terms in a compressed paradox, as in the word bittersweet or the phrase living death. Paraphrase: A reader s own version of a writer s essential information. Preposition: Words that show position. Ex: on, near, below. Prepositional phrases include a preposition and its object. Ex: on the floor Personification: Metaphor that gives inanimate objects or abstract ideas human characteristics. Perspective: Position, stance, or viewpoint from which something is considered or evaluated. 38

41 Glossary Plot: Sequence of events or actions in a short story, novel, or narrative poem. Point of View: Perspective or vantage point from which a literary work is told or the way in which the author reveals characters, actions, and ideas. Problem/Solution: Text structure in which the main ideas are organized into two parts: a problem and a subsequent solution that responds to the problem, or a question and an answer that responds to the question. Pronoun- Pronouns take the place of nouns. Subject Pronouns come before the verb: I, he, she, we, they, you, it. Object Pronouns come after a verb: me, him, her, us, them, you it. Reflexive Pronouns reflect or refer back to a noun: itself, myself, himself, herself, ourselves, themselves. Intensive Pronouns intensify a noun and directly follow the noun: itself, myself, himself, herself, ourselves, themselves. Possessive pronouns show ownership: mine, our, theirs, his, her(s), yours Prose: A form of language that has no formal metrical structure. It applies a natural flow of speech rather than rhythmic structure. Pun A pun is a joke or phrase that takes advantage of words that have multiple definitions. Puns are almost always used for comic purposes. Ex: He was having trouble remembering how to fasten the seatbelt, but then it clicked. Purpose: Specific reason or reasons for writing. Purpose conveys what the readers have to gain by reading the selection; it is also the objective or the goal that the writer wishes to establish. Reason: The logical support behind an argument. Repetition: Deliberate use of any element of language more than once: sound, word, phrase, sentence, grammatical pattern, or rhythmical pattern. Rhyme: Repetition of sounds in two or more words or phrases that appear close to each other in a poem. End rhyme occurs at the end of lines; internal rhyme occurs within a line; Slant rhyme is approximate rhyme; a rhyme scheme is the pattern of end rhymes. Secondhand account: An event or topic based on an author s research rather than on personal experience. Sensory details: Words or phrases that can be recognized or described through sight, sound, touch, smell, or taste. Setting: The time and place in which events in a short story, novel, or narrative poem take place. 39

42 Glossary Sequence: Text structure in which ideas are grouped on the basis of order or time. Shades of meaning: Small differences in meaning between words that are similar. Simile A simile is a comparison of two things that are not necessarily alike, using connecting a word to link the comparison. The connecting word is most commonly like or as. Similes are usually used to make a description more vivid or memorable, or to establish a certain characteristic of the thing being described. Ex: He was as quiet as a mouse. Stage directions: Words in a dramatic script that define an actor s actions, movements, and attitudes. Summary: A condensed version of a larger reading in which a writer uses his or her own words to express the main idea and relevant details of the text. Symbol: Object, person, place, or action that has both a meaning in itself and that stands for something larger than itself, such as a quality, attitude, belief, or value. Tension: The feeling or experience of the reader or audience as a story unfolds, especially the closer the reader or audience approaches the climax of a story. The feelings and experience can include increased involvement or interest, dread, anticipation, thrill, or uncertainty. An author may create tension through pacing, foreshadowing, actions, word choice, sentence or text structure, dramatic irony, and other techniques and devices. Textual evidence: Support lifted directly from a text to support inferences, claims, and assertions. Using textual evidence demands that readers engage with the text and share the specific aspects of the text that influence their thinking. Theme: Central meaning of a literary work. A literary work can have more than one theme. Third person narration: Narration in which the narrator stands outside the events in a story. Tone: A writer s or speaker s attitude toward a subject, character, or audience conveyed through the author s choice of words and detail. Tone can be serious, humorous, sarcastic, objective, etc. Transitional words and phrases: Words and phrases used to create logical links between ideas expressed in writing. Trait: Distinguishing feature, as of a person s character. 40

43 Glossary Understatement: A kind of irony that deliberately represents something as being much less that it really is; the opposite of hyperbole or overstatement. Verb: Words that show action or being. Action verbs show action. Ex: jump. Linking verbs do not show action; they link the subject to a noun or adjective. Ex. is, was, were, am. Jane is happy. Verse: Any single, long line of a poetry composition. Verse can, however, also refer to a stanza or any other part of a poem. 40

44 Glossary 41