POLITENESS STRATEGIES OF CRITICIZING A STUDY ON A MOVIE THE UGLY TRUTH (Pragmatics Study)

Transcription

1 POLITENESS STRATEGIES OF CRITICIZING A STUDY ON A MOVIE THE UGLY TRUTH (Pragmatics Study) THESIS Submitted As a Partial Fulfillment of Requirement For the Sarjana Sastra Degree of the English Department Faculty of Letters and Fine Arts Sebelas Maret University By: SUSI ANJARSARI C ENGLISH DEPARTMENT FACULTY OF LETTERS AND FINE ARTS SEBELAS MARET UNIVERSITY SURAKARTA 2011 i

2 POLITENESS STRATEGIES OF CRITICIZING A STUDY ON A MOVIE THE UGLY TRUTH (Pragmatics Study) By: SUSI ANJARSARI C Approved to be examined before the Board of Examiners Faculty of Letters and Fine Arts Sebelas Maret University Thesis Consultant Agus Dwi Priyanto, S.S., M.CALL NIP The Head of English Department Prof. Dr. Djatmika, M.A. NIP ii

3 POLITENESS STRATEGIES OF CRITICIZING A STUDY ON A MOVIE THE UGLY TRUTH (Pragmatics Study) By: SUSI ANJARSARI C Accepted and approved by the Board of Examiners Faculty of Letters and Fine Arts Sebelas Maret University On August 10, 2011 Chairman of Examiners: Dr. Sri Marmanto, M.Hum ( ) NIP Secretary : Drs. Agus Hari Wibowo, M.A. ( ) NIP First examiner : Agus Dwi Priyanto, S.S., M.CALL ( ) NIP Second examiner : Drs. Budi Waskito, M. Pd. ( ) NIP Dean of Faculty of Letters and Fine Arts Sebelas Maret University Drs. Riyadi Santosa, M. Ed., Ph.D NIP iii

4 PRONOUNCEMENT Name Number : Susi Anjarsari : C In the name of God, I certify that I myself write this thesis entitled Politeness Strategies of Criticizing a Study on a Movie The Ugly Truth. It is neither a plagiarism, nor made by others. The things related to other people s work are written in quotation and included within bibliography. If it is then proved that I cheat, I am ready to take the responsibility, including the withdrawal of my academic title. Surakarta, August 10, 2011 Susi Anjarsari iv

5 MOTTO But perhaps you hate a thing and it is good for you; and perhaps you love a thing and it is bad for you. And Allah Knows, while you know not. (QS: ) The best teachers do not give you the answers. They just point the way and let make your own choices; your own mistakes. That way, you get all the glory and you deserve it. (William Schuester in the TV serial Glee ) v

6 DEDICATION This thesis is dedicated to: My number one father in the world,, Mr. Rachmat Lugito, my lovely Mommy Ms. Darmi, my husband to be, and all people who want me to finish this research. vi

7 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Alhamdulillahirabbil'alamin All praise is due to Allah Azza Wa Jalla; Lord of the Lords, The Merciful, The Hearer of supplications, who guides every steps on my life that finally I can accomplish this thesis. Peace and blessings upon His messenger, the Prophet Muhammad Shalallahu Alaihi Wassalam who shows me the meaning of being patient while completing the thesis. Yet, there are many people who have helped me along the way in finishing the thesis. Therefore, I would like to extend a special note thanks to them. First of all, I owe a debt gratitude to Drs. Riyadi Santosa, M.Ed,, Ph.D, as the dean of Faculty of Letters and Fine Arts for guiding me to learn research method and letting me conduct this research. I also owe a debt gratitude to Prof. Djatmika, M.A as the head of English Department for the big concern on his students. Being lectured by him is a favorable thing I ever had. I wish particularly to thank all English Department s lectures for enjoyable five years studying. All knowledge and love that they have given me are so much worth. My best gratitude goes to my best supervisor, Agus Dwi Priyanto, S.S, M.CALL, who has shown me the authentic meaning of politeness strategy. He was like the reflection of Brown and Levinson in my real life when I could not understand their book. I am especially grateful for his perspective thinking in politeness strategy and his generous time for more than one year supervising me. I thank the board of examiners: Dr. Sri Marmanto, M.Hum, Drs. Agus Hari Wibowo, M.A., Agus Dwi Priyanto, S.S., M.CALL, Drs. Budi Waskito, M. Pd., for giving valuable comments and suggestions on my thesis. vii

8 I am very grateful for my beloved family; Mami and Babe for always believing on me and supporting every activity on my campus. Without their love and prayer, this work would have never been completed. I thank my little brother Viqi Vendi for always being patient to lend me laptop to finish this research. I specially thank to my little sister Chinan, whom loud chuckle become my best medicine to pump up my energy. I also thank to my grandma for every prayer she sends to me. During five years studying in Faculty of Letters and Fine Arts, I had mesmerizing friendship with great people. I am sincerely grateful for M. Rizqi, S.S, for always being my best-friend to share happiness and sadness in my life since the first we met. I also thank to Arifin, for 3 days joyful holiday in his hometown when I got stuck with the research. My gratitude is also to Itha Kunthi, for every single helps and being a nice place to share. I would also like to thank to all linguistic mates; Faridha, S.S, Ikha, S.S, Ima, Ata, S.S, Lala, S.S, Intan, S.S, Dila (boy), Dede, Yuli, Hendro, Hamid, S.S and Fajar, S.S, for the togetherness and the time to control each other in accomplishing thesis. I owe special thanks to Beckha, Fadhila and Hamsi, the students who own the same supervisor with me, for their prayer and support everytime I got problems. I owe a special debt of gratitude to my big family of English Department 2006; Hanif (for his generous time everytime I need him), Rini Setyarini, S.S, (for her love and support) doube W; Wulan & Wisnu, Pondra (for the wisdom of life and great friendship), Herman (for being a great friend to laugh), Aji (for the Haii Suz! ), Rena, Ucay, Asni, Bimo, Vika, Cindy, Letizia, Deka, Vendra, viii

9 Bowo, Arya, Hafidz, Anita, Chandra, Riska, Zo and many more. I hope we will maintain this intimate relationship forever. I do believe that doing a thesis is a psychological and spiritual process. My big thanks also go to Ummu Raidan Rasyida for showing me the meaning of faith. I also thank to Suci Aya Aryani. Nothing can describe her except two words; bestcompanion. Special thanks go to Ida Nana Yuliana, for courage to strengthen each other to complete this thesis. My best-chikuk, Imbun, Miss. Betty, Miss. Alia, Mrs. Iqbal and Miss. Reny who always remind me to be patient in accomplishing my thesis. The transformers girls: Mylo, Nurfa, Indras, Retno, and Dila. I do thanks for the nice ukhuwah they have given me that I can grow wisely. I thank to my small family in Al-Ashr: Koim, Chuwi, Ning, Vika, Yeni, Ani. I will miss the time when we did Sholat together in the path of Al-Ashr and argued who was going to be Imam. My endless thanks are also due to my special Deer for teaching me how to paint the sky. His presence is the best in my life. I also thank to all people who love and support me in finishing the thesis. Perhaps, I cannot mention their names here, but I do write their names in my heart. Surakarta, August 10, 2011 Susi Anjarsari ix

10 TABLE OF CONTENTS TITLE.. APPROVAL BY THESIS CONSULTANT... APPROVAL BY THESIS BOARD OF EXAMINERS. PRONOUNCEMENT... MOTTO... DEDICATION... ACKNOWLEDGMENT. TABLE OF CONTENTS... LIST OF TABLES... ABSTRACT... i ii iii iv v vi vii x xii xiii CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION A. Research Background.. 1 B. Research Question... 2 C. Research Objectives... 2 D. Research Benefits... 3 E. Scope of Research F. Research Method G. Thesis Organization... 5 CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW A. Pragmatics 6 B. Speech Acts.. 8 C. The Classification of Speech Acts D. Context E. The Act of Criticizing F. Politeness Strategy G. Response to Criticism H. The Factors Influencing the Choice of Strategy I. Politeness Strategy of Criticism J. The Synopsis of the Movie The Ugly Truth x

11 CHAPTER III: RESEARCH METHOD A. Type of Research B. Data and Source Data C. Technique of Collecting Data.. 40 D. Technique of Coding Data E. Technique of Analyzing Data.. 41 CHAPTER IV: ANALYSIS A. Introduction B. Data Analysis C. Discussion CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION A. Conclusion 116 B. Suggestion BIBLIOGRAPHY APPENDIX xi

12 LIST OF TABLES Table 4.1. The speakers strategies and the number of data Table 4.2. The hearers strategies to respond criticism Table 4.3. The factors influencing the choice of strategy to criticize Table 4.4. The factors influence the choice of strategy to respond the criticism 113 Table 5.1. The factors which influence the choice of strategy to criticize. 122 Table 5.2. The factors influencing the choice of strategy to respond 123 xii

13 ABSTRACT Susi Anjarsari. C Politeness Strategies of Criticizing, a Study on a Movie The Ugly Truth. Thesis: English Department of Faculty of Letters and Fine Arts. Sebelas Maret University. The research is conducted to analyze the politeness strategy of criticizing employed by the characters in the movie The Ugly Truth. The research explores the politeness strategy to extend criticism, the politeness strategy to respond the criticism and the factors which influence the choice of strategy. The research uses pragmatics study to analyze the speech act of criticism. The descriptive qualitative research is employed in this research. All of criticism utterances in the movie The Ugly Truth are taken as the data. There are 17 data which have been analyzed by Brown and Levinson theory of politeness strategy. The findings of the analysis can be seen as follows: First, there are three strategies employed by the characters in the movie The Ugly Truth to extend criticism. The strategies are bald on record, positive politeness and negative politeness strategy. Bald on record strategy is mostly used by the participants in the movie. There are 14 data which show that the speakers employ bald on record strategy to extend criticism to hearers. Positive politeness strategy is used twice by the speakers to send criticism. Then, there is one occurrence of negative politeness strategy used by the speaker to extend criticism. Second, there are three strategies used by the hearers to respond the criticism. They are bald on record strategy, positive politeness and off record strategy. Most hearers use bald on record strategy to refuse and to ignore the criticism. There are 15 data which show that the hearers use bald on record strategy to respond the criticism. Positive politeness strategy is chosen once by the hearers to accept speaker s criticism. Then, there is one occurrence of off record strategy used by the hearer to accept the criticism. Third, there are several factors which influence the speakers to the choice of strategy. In choosing strategies to extend criticism, the speakers are influenced by several factors. The use of bald on record strategy is influenced by the legitimate power, the expert power and the close relationship between the participants. The speakers who have two competing goals and big rank of imposition tend to choose positive politeness strategy to deliver criticism. Then, the use of negative politeness strategy is influenced by the social distance relationship between speaker and hearer. The choice of strategy to respond the criticism is also influenced by many factors. The choice of bald on record is influenced by the close relationship between the interlocutors, the legitimate power owned by the hearer and the situational context. The hearers who have two competing goals use positive politeness to respond the criticism. Then, the hearer who has subordinate status tends to choose off record strategy to respond speaker s criticism. This research is expected to be beneficial for the readers in studying politeness strategy of criticism. It is suggested that other researchers conduct other studies about criticism done by subordinate status to superior status in order to know the real description of politeness strategy in today s communication. xiii

14 1 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION A. Research Background People criticize others in order to give negative evaluation by virtue of various conditions. Speakers will try their best way to extend their criticisms. Hence, they use politeness strategy to extend criticism so that it does not sound rude. Dealing with that occurrence, this study analyzes the politeness strategies of extending and responding to criticism. This is a case study, taking a movie The Ugly Truth produced by Heigl and Luketic (2009) as the source of data. In this introduction part, I will begin with reason why politeness strategy of criticism is worth analyzing. Then I will continue with the reasons of choosing the movie The Ugly Truth as the source of data. A study on criticism is worth doing because this act is really sensitive since the speaker may burden the hearer. In other words, criticism is highly potential to threat the hearer s face. When a speaker is giving negative evaluation to the hearer, he or she may cost the hearer s face. Therefore, a speaker needs to use certain strategies when he is criticizing others in order to lessen the threat. The movie The Ugly Truth is selected as the source of data with some reasons. The first reason is because the language of this movie represents the ways people actually talk. The movie The Ugly Truth represents daily life conversation which tells about the life of a producer and her employee in one TV station. Hence, I use this movie as the source of data since its validity of using language. 1

15 2 In addition, the movie pictures the best way how two characters who have rocky relationship finally fall in love to each other. What then intrigue me to use this movie as the source of data is that the conversation uttered by the characters in the movie. I want to know the strategies used by the characters to deliver criticism, how they respond the criticism and what factors influence them to use the strategies. To analyze criticism, pragmatic approach is employed in this research. It is done because analyzing criticism shows the exploitation of character s pragmatics repertoire. Hence it cannot be separated from pragmatics study. B. Research Questions This study is guided by the following three questions: 1. What politeness strategies are used by the characters to extend criticism? 2. What politeness strategies are used by the characters to respond criticism? 3. What factors influence the choice of politeness strategies? C. Research Objectives 1. To find out the politeness strategies used by the characters to extend criticism. 2. To find out the politeness strategies used by the characters to respond the criticism. 3. To find out the factors that influence the choice of politeness strategy.

16 3 D. Research Benefits The research of politeness strategies of criticizing in the movie The Ugly Truth is expected to be beneficial for: 1. English Department students The research will deepen the understanding about speech act, specifically criticism and the way to extend it. By conducting this research, I expect that English Department students will be more aware about the speech act of criticism in everyday conversation so that the research will help them to study it more comprehensively. 2. Other researchers The research will be beneficial for other researchers to conduct a more comprehensive research of related study. By having this research, other researchers who want to conduct under the same topic of speech act can use this research as a reference. 3. The public The public will know how to extend criticism using proper politeness strategies. By doing this research, I expect that the public will have a comprehension about how to extend criticism using politeness strategies considering the context and situation.

17 4 E. Scope of the Research The research focuses on the utterance of politeness strategies of criticism and the non-verbal expressions of the characters. The research identifies the kinds of politeness strategies used by the characters to extend criticism, the kinds of politeness strategies used by the characters to respond criticism and the factors influence the characters to choose the kinds of politeness strategies. To analyze the data, the theory of politeness by Brown and Levinson is applied in this research. As the source of data, this research uses a movie entitled The Ugly Truth produced by Heigl and Luketic in F. Research Method This research employs a descriptive qualitative method. It aims to solve problems by collecting data, classifying data, analyzing data, and finally drawing the conclusion. The source of data of this research is the movie entitled The Ugly Truth produced by Heigl and Luketic in All criticism utterances and the non-verbal expressions of the characters are taken as the source of data. This is done to collect data containing politeness strategies of extending and responding criticism and also the factors that support the use of each politeness strategies. Further details of Research Method will be clarified in Chapter III.

18 5 G. Thesis Organization This thesis provides five chapters and bibliography. CHAPTER I presents INTRODUCTION which consists of Research Background, Research Question, Research Objective, Research Benefits, Scope of Research, Research Method and Thesis Organization. CHAPTER II provides LITERATURE REVIEW of the research. It stands of Pragmatics, Speech Act, Context, The Act of Criticizing, Politeness Strategy, Response to Criticism, Factors Influencing the Choice of Strategy, Review Related Study of Criticism and The Synopsis of the Movie The Ugly Truth. CHAPTER III describes the RESEARCH METHOD which is used in this study. It contains Type of Research, Data and Source of Data, Technique of Collecting Data, Technique of Coding Data and Technique of Analyzing Data. CHAPTER IV presents ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION. It reviews and discusses the result of the research findings. CHAPTER V gives CONCLUSION and SUGGESTION. It presents the conclusion of the research and recommends possible avenues for further research.

19 6 CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW A. Pragmatics In this section, I will provide some definitions of pragmatics taken from several linguists regarding its period. The first definition of pragmatics is quoted from Steven C. Levinson in 1983, followed by Geoffrey Leech, then Jenny Thomas and the last is George Yule. The term pragmatics covers both context-dependent aspects of language structure and principles of language usage. Hence it is difficult to forge a definition that covers both aspects (Levinson, 1983 p.9). For a thorough discussion of a number of definitions and the inherent difficulties, Levinson states that pragmatics is the study of the ability of language users to pair sentences with the contexts in which they would be appropriate (1983 p.24). Such definition leads to the interpretation that pragmatics cannot be separated from context and principles of language usage. Therefore, to understand pragmatics meaning of the speaker, one should consider the principles of language used by the speaker. With different term, Thomas (1995 p.22) defines pragmatics as meaning in interaction. He claims that to interpret speaker s meaning, it involves the negotiation of meaning between speaker and hearer, the context of utterance (physical, social and linguistic) and the meaning potential of an utterance. It is because meaning in interaction is not something which is inherent in the words alone, nor is produced by the speaker or the hearer alone, but it relates to context and meaning potential of an utterance. 6

20 7 Thomas s definition was later developed by Yule (1996 p.3) who divides the definition of pragmatics into four: a. Pragmatics is the study of speaker meaning People do not always say what they mean to say. They mean much more than their words actually say. Pragmatics deals with the study of meaning uttered by the speaker and interpreted by listener. Thus, it analyzes the meaning behind what people say rather than what the words might mean by themselves. b. Pragmatics is the study of contextual meaning In saying something, people also consider to whom they are talking to, where, when, and under what circumstances. It is because a particular context may influence what is said by the speaker. c. Pragmatics is the study of how more gets communicated than what is said In other words, pragmatics is the study of invisible meaning. It explores how a great deal of what is unsaid is recognized as part of what is communicated. d. Pragmatics is the study of the expression of relative distance People will not say anything to anyone whom they do not recognize well. Hence, closeness whether it is physical, social or conceptual, implies shared experience. From many definitions above, it is obvious that pragmatics is a significant field to study. To comprehend the meaning of a word like well, oh or anyway,

21 8 people cannot be explicated simply by statements of context-independent content, rather have to refer to pragmatics concept like context, implicature or speech acts (context-dependent content). Moreover, pragmatics provides part of the necessary input to a semantic theory. A sentence can only be assigned the right truth conditions if the context of a sentence is taken into an account. To sum up the explanation, it can be concluded that pragmatics is the study about language; that is always related to the context of the speaker and the hearer. Pragmatics is the perfect field which studies how a context might influence the interpretation of an utterance. It is because an utterance should be comprehended in relation to the context in which language is used. B. Speech acts 1. The Definition of Speech acts As Levinson (1983 p.27) suggests, one of the central topics of pragmatics is speech acts. Therefore, this section provides the definition and the classification of speech acts. For the discussion of the definition of speech acts, below is quotation from John R. Searle and George Yule about speech acts. Searle (1969 p. 16) states that the unit of linguistic communication is not the symbol, word or sentence, but rather the production or issuance of the symbol or word or sentence in the performance of the speech acts. Speech acts are the basic minimal units of linguistic communication. Meanwhile, Yule (1996 p.47) defines that speech acts is action performed via utterance. In English, speech acts are commonly given more specific labels,

22 9 such as apology, complaint, compliment, invitation, promise, request or any other acts. Based on the definitions above, it can be concluded that speech acts is the action people actually do through a language. It covers social acts, to promise, to request, to criticize, to offer and so on. The speaker normally expects that the hearer will recognize his or her communicative intention. Concerning this, both speaker and hearer are usually helped in this process by the context or circumstances, which surround the utterance. Yule (1996 p.48) states that speech acts relate to three acts: a. Locutionary act It is the basic of utterance or the literal meaning of the utterance. In other word, locutionary act is the utterance of a sentence which determines sense and reference. b. Illocutionary act The act is performed via the communicative force of an utterance. However, the illocutionary act can be uttered both directly and indirectly. There are two kinds of speech acts namely direct and indirect speech acts. 1) Direct speech A direct speech acts is performed when there is a direct relationship between the linguistic form of an utterance and its pragmatics function.

23 10 2) Indirect speech An indirect speech acts cannot be identified easily as the direct speech acts because the speaker does not deliver his intention explicitly. Indirect speech happens whenever there is an indirect relationship between a structure and its pragmatic function. c. Perlocutionary act It is the result or the effect produced by the utterance. A speaker may utter sentence on the assumption that the hearer will recognize the effect intended. In short, a locutionary act is the act of saying something. The illocutionary act is the act of doing something, while perlocutionary act is the act of affecting someone. 2. The Classification of Speech acts There are many different classifications of speech act which are conveyed by linguists. Here, I would like to provide the discussion of speech acts classification from John L. Austin, John R. Searle and Amy B. M. Tsui. The first classification of speech acts was introduced by John L. Austin in Austin in Mey (1993 p.151) classifies the speech acts into five categories. They are verdictive, expositive, exercitive, behabitive and commisive. Among other things, Searle in Mey (1993 p.151) criticizes Austin s classification of speech acts for operating with overlapping criteria, for having incompatible

24 11 elements within his categories and for including elements in his categories that do not satisfy the definition of the category. Then, Searle in Mey (1993 p.163) ends up by establishing the classification of speech acts into five categories. They are Representatives, Directives, Commissives, Expressives and Declarations. This classification seems undoubtedly right in criticizing Austin s theory. However Searle in Tsui (1994 p.51) points out that there is not an infinite or indefinite number of language games or uses of language. Rather, he adds that the illusion of limitless uses of language is engendered by an enormous unclarity about what constitutes the criteria for delimiting one language game or use of language from another. Hence Tsui (1994 p.51) claims that it is impossible to delimit a set of speech action categories. Considering this, Tsui (1994 p.52) presents a taxonomy of discourse acts. The primary class acts are divided into three head acts; Initiating acts, responding acts and follow-up acts. The Initiating acts covers the subclasses of Elicitation, Requestive, Directive, and Informative. The responding acts consists of positive, negative and temporization, while follow up acts stand for turn-passing. Due to the purpose of the discussion is to define the classification of speech acts, I would like to focus on the Initiating acts. Tsui (1994 p.95) classifies the subclasses of initiating acts into four categories. They are:

25 12 1. Elicitation The term elicitation is used to describe any utterance which functions to elicit an obligatory in the form of verbal or non-verbal response (Tsui, 1994 p.81). There are four types of elicitation: a. Elicit inform functions to invite the addressee to provide information. Example: What time you will be finished? b. Elicit confirm is a kind of elicitation which invites the addressee to confirm the speaker s assumption. Example: Is that you Henry? c. Elicit agree is a kind of elicitation which invites the addressee to agree with the speaker s assumption. Example: I suppose he s a bit senile now, isn t he? d. Elicit commit is a kind of elicitation which not only invites a verbal response but also action from the addressee. For example: X : Could you open the window, Son? Y : Yes, sure Mom. (open the window) 2. Requestives The requestives refers to the utterances which ask for non-verbal actions but give the addressee an option whether she/he wants to carry out the request or not (Tsui, 1994 p.90). The speech act of requestives is divided into five subclasses.

26 13 a. Request in the form of permission is characterized by the speaker who asks the addressee to do something which is beneficial for him. Example: Can I have a match please? b. Request in the form of invitation is an utterance which functions to invite the addressee. In this case the addressee s future action is beneficial for him. Example: It is my pleasure and privilege now to invite her Royal Highness to announce his name and to present the prizes. c. Request in the form of proposal is uttered by the speaker who convinces the addressee to do something benefit for him in the form of proposal. Example: We have to do a few things over. d. Invitation in the form of request is an utterance which functions to invite the addressee. If the invitation is obeyed by, it will benefit the speaker. Example: I d love you to join us to have a dinner tonight. Would you? e. An offer in the form of request is characterized by the speaker who offers something which is benefit for the addressee. Example: Can I help you to carry the bag? 3. Directives Tsui (1994 p.116) characterizes Directives as acts which try to get a non-verbal action from the addressee without giving him/her the option of refusal. There are two major subclasses of directives. a. Advisives are directives which direct the addressee to perform an action for the benefit of his own. There are two kinds of advisives:

27 14 i) Advice is directives which advocates a course of action for the benefit of the addressee, in which the consequence of compliance is desirable. Example: You had better do it by yourself. You will be very satisfied with your own result. ii) Warning is directives which advocates the addressee to do action for the benefit of himself which explicitly or impliedly specifies the undesirable of non-compliance. Example: Do not pick up this cattle. It s burning hot! b. Mandatives are directives by which the speaker attempts to get the addressee to do action for the benefit of the speaker himself. There are also two kinds of mandatives: i) Instruction. The speaker usually has the authority over the addressee to obey what is said. For example the customer says to the waitress: Black coffee! ii) Threats. It is a kind of directives to get the addressee to do action. Usually it is uttered by the speaker to talk about something wicked. Example: Put your gun or I ll shoot her! 4. Informatives Tsui (1994 p.135) characterizes the term of Informative as a more general category which covers not only utterances which provide information, but also those which report events or states of affair, recount personal experiences and express belief, evaluative judgment, feeling and thought. The subclasses of informatives are:

28 15 a. Report. It is a subclass of informatives which gives an account of certain event, states of affairs or personal experiences in the past, present or future. For example: She is the cleverest student in the class. b. Assessments. It is a subclass of informatives in which the speaker asserts his judgment or evaluation of certain people, object, event, states of affair and so on. There are five types of assessments: i) Compliment. It is the assessment in which the speaker evaluates the addressee positively. Example: You are very diligent student. ii) Criticism. It is labeled by the utterance which judges the addressee negatively. Example: You are ugly with that dress iii) Self-commendation. It is the assessment in which the speaker evaluates himself positively. Example: You have to learn from me. I can get my love in a month iv) Self-denigration. It is the name of assessment when the speaker judges himself negatively. Example: I forget about it. I think I m getting old v) Assessing. The evaluation is directed neither speaker nor addressee. Example: Suzan is a very sexy and smart girl c. Expressive are ritualistic acts in which a speaker expresses civility and goodwill toward each other. The subclasses are:

29 16 i) Emphaty. The speaker shows concern and empathies with the addressee. Example: I hope you will get better soon ii) Debt-incured. The speaker expresses his feelings toward debt, which he was incurred. Example: Sorry to trouble you C. Context Context plays crucial role in understanding pragmatics meaning. In this section, I provide some explanations about the importance of context in pragmatics. The explanation is started from Levinson, followed by Firth and then Huang. The importance of context in language can be seen from the opinion of Levinson (1983 p.21) who says that pragmatics is the study of relation between language and context. For being able to understand the meaning of an utterance, one cannot ignore the context surrounding since it is very important to define a meaning of a sentence. If the context surrounding is ignored, there might appear different interpretation from what is intended. Meanwhile, Firth in Halliday and Hasan (1985 p.8) gives a description of context called context of situation, which consist of: 1. The participant in the situation referring to persons and personalities or the status and roles of the participant.

30 17 2. The action of the participants referring to what they are doing, including their verbal action and non-verbal action. 3. Other relevant features of the situation referring to the surrounding objects and events. 4. The effect of the verbal action referring to the changes brought by what the participants in the situation have to say. Context has many contributions in spoken and written language. If one does not know the context of situation, he may interpret different thing from what is intended by the other one. Hence, context functions to help speaker in delivering and receiving meaning from hearer. In addition, Huang (2007 pp.13-14) refers context to any relevant features of dynamic setting or environment in which a linguistic unit is systematically used. Further, context can be seen as a composition of three different sources. First place is physical context which refers to physical setting of utterance. Second type is the linguistic context which refers to surrounding utterances in the same discourse. The last is general knowledge context. This involves a set of background and assumption shared by the speaker and the addressee. To sum up, it is important to know the context of situation in order to understand the meaning of a pragmatic utterance. The same sentence may refer to different meaning if it occurs in different context. Hence, recognizing the context of the situation is highly essential to understand the intended meaning of the speaker in a conversation.

31 18 D. The Act of Criticizing In this section, I first present the definition of the term criticism in linguistic field taken from the definition of some linguists. Secondly, I discuss the criticism rules in more detail based upon some theories of criticism. John L. Austin (1962 pp ) devides speech act into five categories. They are verdictive, expositive, exercitive, behabitive and commisive. He includes the act of criticism into behabitive category, since criticism is an act which functions to express the speaker s negative reaction of the addressee s bad habit. In this case, the speaker expresses negative thing to the addressee related to the bad behavior that the addressee has done. Searle in Martinich (1996 pp ) divides speech act into five groups. They are Assertive, Directives, Commisive, Expressives and Declaration. The act of criticism is included in the expressives act. This is because criticism is an act which tries to express negative evaluation of the hearer s condition. The speaker expects that the criticism utterance is able to evaluate the bad condition of the hearer. Leech (1993 pp ) classifies speech act into six categories. They are Assertive, Directive, Commissive, Expressives, Declarative and Rogative. In this classification, Leech includes criticism in Expressives, because the criticism utterance functions to express a psychological act toward negative condition of the hearer. This means the speaker expresses the negative condition of the hearer through the criticism act.

32 19 Tsui (1994 p.143) defines criticism as a kind of assessment which gives negative judgment or evaluation of certain people, events or objects toward the addressee. It is employed to make the addressee accept the negative evaluation informed by the speaker. Moreover, Riekkinen (2009 p.18) confirms that criticism is an act that may cause Face-Threatening Act (FTA) because it expresses negative evaluation to the hearer. When a speaker employs criticism, he may threat the positive self-image of the addressee. For that reason, a speaker cannot criticize directly to anyone because he must consider some basic rules of criticizing. Next discussion is about the crucial rules when a speaker criticizes hearer. The first point is the relationship between the speaker and the hearer. Tsui (1994 p.147) states that a speaker may not criticize others unless they know each other well. It implies a statement that a speaker may extend his criticism baldly if he has an intimate relationship with the hearer. This will be different when a speaker criticizes someone who has social distance with him. He may be more indirect since he considers about the distant relationship between him and the hearer. The second point is about the relative power of the speaker over the hearer. Jauhari (2010) argues that a speaker who has greater power tends to criticize the hearer directly. On the contrary, people having lower of power tend to use indirectness with people who have greater authority (Thomas, 1995 p.124).

33 20 E. Politeness Strategy Further, I provide the explanation of politeness strategy by Brown and Levinson. In the first point, I describe the classification of politeness strategy. Next I provide the summary of the factors influencing the speakers to choose each strategy. 1. The Classification of Politeness Strategy Brown and Levinson (1987 pp.68-71) have divided the politeness strategies according to how much the speakers and hearers minimize the threat when they are having conversation. The strategies range from doing the FTA directly without minimizing the threat at all to not doing the FTA. They are bald on-record, positive politeness, negative politeness and off record strategy. For more complete explanation, below is the classification of the theory of politeness strategy by Brown and Levinson. a) Bald on-record Bald on-record strategy does not attempt to minimize the threat to the hearer s face. The strategy is mostly used by the speakers having intimate relationship with the addressee. Brown and Levinson (1987 p.95) state that speaker mostly uses bald on-record strategy when he wants to do FTA with maximum efficiency toward the hearer s face. Still according to Brown and Levinson (1987 p.95), there are different kinds of bald-on record usage in different circumstances because speakers may have different motives for his want to do FTA with maximum efficiency. Hence, they divide bald on-record strategy into two classes:

34 21 1) Cases of non-minimization of the threat This strategy is applied by the speaker when maximum efficiency is more important and usually is known by both speaker and the hearer. For example: Watch out! 2) Cases of FTA-oriented bald on-record usage This class of bald on-record strategy is utilized when a speaker and hearer have orientation of face. Thus, each participant attempts to foresee what the other participant is attempting to foresee. For example: Come in, don t hesitate, I m not busy. b) Positive Politeness Strategy Brown and Levinson (1987 p.70) give definition that positive politeness is the strategy which is oriented by the speaker toward the positive face or the positive self image of the hearer that the speaker claims for himself. The speaker can satisfy the addressee's positive face wants by emphasizing that speaker wants what the hearer s wants. Positive politeness techniques are usable not only for FTA redress, but as a kind of social accelerator which indicates that speaker wants to come closer to hearer. Brown and Levinson (1987 pp ) divide positive politeness strategy into 15 strategies. They are: 1) Strategy 1: Notice, attend to H (his interests, wants, needs, goods) The strategy suggests that S should take notice of aspects of H s condition (anything which looks as though H would want S to notice and approve of it). Example: Goodness, you cut your hair! By the way, I came to borrow some flour.

35 22 2) Strategy 2: Exaggerate (interest, approval, sympathy with H) This strategy is often done with exaggerated intonation, stress, and other aspects of prosodic, as well as intensifying modifiers. Below is the example when a woman describes the disreputable appearance of her drunken husband. Example: He looked as if he was still drunk; he looked incredibly dirty, really uncombed hair, really crooked clothes, really his belt half-tied! 3) Strategy 3: Intensify interest to H Another way for S to communicate to H that he shares his wants is to intensify the interest of S s own contributions to the conversation, by making good story. Example: I came down the stairs, and what do you think I see? -- a huge mess all over the place, the phone s off the hook and clothes are scattered all over 4) Strategy 4; Use in-group identity marker This strategy is done by using innumerable address forms to indicate that S and H belong to some set of persons who share specific wants. Example: Help me with this bag here, will you darling? 5) Strategy 5; Seek agreement Another way to save positive face of H is to seek ways in which it is possible to agree with him. Seek agreement may be stressed by raising weather topics and repeating what the preceding speaker has said in a conversation. Example: A: John went to London this weekend! B: To London!

36 23 6) Strategy 6: Avoid disagreement The desire to agree or appear to agree with H leads to mechanisms for pretending to agree. Using this strategy, speakers may go in twisting their utterances to agree or to hide disagreement. Example: A: So, you hate your Mom and Dad. B: Oh, sometimes. 7) Strategy 7: Presuppose/raise/assert common ground The strategy is widely used by the speakers as a way to indicate that S knows H s wants, tastes, habits, etc. and thus partially to redress the imposition of FTAs. Example: Don t you think it s marvelous!? 8) Strategy 8; Joke Jokes are based on mutual shared background knowledge and values that they redefine the size of FTA. Example: when a speaker wants to borrow his friend s new Cadillac by saying, How about lending me this old heap of junk? 9) Strategy 9: Assert S s knowledge of and concern for H s wants This strategy is done by asserting knowledge of H s wants and willingness to fit one s own wants in with them. For example: I know you love roses but the florist didn t have any more, so I brought you geraniums instead.

37 24 10) Strategy 10; Offer, promise This strategy is done to redress the potential threat of some FTAs. Speaker may claim that whatever H wants, S wants for him and will help to obtain. Example: I ll drop by sometime next week 11) Strategy 11; Be optimistic This strategy assumes that H will cooperate with S because it will be in their mutual shared interest. For example, a wife said to her husband before appearing in public: Wait a minute, you haven t brushed your hair! 12) Strategy 12; Include both S and H in the activity This is done by using an inclusive we form, when S really means you or me. For example: when she is asked if she has any chocolate gingers, a sweet-shop lady said: Let s just go into the back room and see if we have any. Then she trundle back alone. 13) Strategy 13: Give (or ask for) reasons Another aspect of including H in the activity is demanding reasons why not and assuming that H has no good reasons why can t help. Example: Why didn t you do the dishes? 14) Strategy 14: Assume or assert reciprocity The strategy is done by giving evidence of reciprocal rights or obligations obtaining between S and H. Example: I washed the dishes yesterday so you do that for me today

38 25 15) Strategy 15: Give gifts to H (sympathy, understanding, cooperation) To satisfy H s positive face, S may do this classic strategy. That is to give gift not only tangible gifts but also human-relation wants such to be liked, to be admired. Example: You re such a good girl. Would you help me to move these books? c) Negative Politeness Strategy Brown and Levinson (1987 p.129) asserts that negative politeness strategy is redressive action addressed to the addressee s negative face: his want to have his freedom of action unhindered and his attention unimpeded. Unlike positive politeness which is free ranging, negative politeness is specific and focused; it performs the function of minimizing the particular imposition that the FTA unavoidably effects. Brown and Levinson (1987 pp ) also classify negative politeness strategy into 10 strategies: 1) Strategy 1: Be conventionally indirect The strategy is conducted by using phrases and sentences that have contextually unambiguous meanings that are different from their literal meaning. When a speaker is doing calculus homework and need a help for instance, he says to a friend Can you do advanced calculus? 2) Strategy 2: Question, hedge A hedge makes the membership of a noun phrase in a set that it is partial, or true only in certain respects and more complete than might be expected. Hedge may be functioned to soften command and turn it into a polite suggestion Example: Come (if you like) for a walk.

39 26 3) Strategy 3: Be pessimistic This strategy gives redress to H s negative face by explicitly expressing doubt that the conditions for the appropriateness of S s speech act obtain. For example: Perhaps you d care for a lift 4) Strategy 4: Minimize the imposition One way of defusing the FTA is to indicate that the intrinsic seriousness of the imposition is not great, though it is. For example if speaker wants to ask some papers he may say: I just want to ask you if you could lend me a single sheet of paper 5) Strategy 5: Give deference There are two sides of deference realization: one in which S humbles and abases himself and another where S raises H (pays him positive face/satisfies H s want to be treated as superior). For example: I don t think you ought to do that, Mr. President 6) Strategy 6: Apologize By apologizing for doing an FTA, the speaker can indicate his reluctance to impinge on H s negative face and thereby redress that impingement. For example: I hesitate to trouble you, but

40 27 7) Strategy 7: Impersonalize S and H Other way of indicating that S doesn t want to impinge on H is to phrase the FTA as if the agent were other than S, or not S alone at least, and the addressee were other than H, or only inclusive of H. For example: I got delayed. I m sorry 8) Strategy 8: State the FTA as a general rule One way of dissociating S and H from particular imposition in the FTA is to state the FTA as an instance of some general social rule, regulation, or obligation. Example: The United States expresses regrets over the occurrence of the incident. 9) Strategy 9; Nominalize The more nouns are used in an expression, the more removed an actor from doing or being something and the less dangerous an FTA seems to be. For example: An urgent request is made for your cooperation is better than We urgently request your cooperation. 10) Strategy 10: Go on record as incurring a debt, or as not indebting H The strategy is done by claiming S s indebtness to H or by disclaiming any indebtness of H, so that S can redress an FTA. Example: I could easily do it for you

41 28 d) Off Record Strategy The final politeness strategy outlined by Brown and Levinson is the indirect or off-record strategy. Brown and Levinson (1987 p.211) state that a communicative act is done off record if it is not possible to attribute only one clear intention act. Thus, when a speaker wants to do an FTA, but wants to avoid the responsibility for doing it, he uses off record strategy. By this way, he let the addressee decide how to interpret the FTA 1) Strategy 1: Give hints The strategy is done by giving hints; that S invites H to search for interpretation of the possible relevance. Generally, hints consist in raising issue of certain desired act by stating motives or reasons for doing that act. Example: This soup s a bit bland (c.i. Pass the salt) 2) Strategy 2: Give association clues The strategy is conducted by mentioning something associated with the act required of H either by precedent in S-H s experience or by mutual knowledge irrespective of their interaction experience. For example when someone needs a ride to a market, she says Are you going to market tomorrow? There s a market tomorrow, I suppose 3) Strategy 3: Presuppose This strategy is done through an utterance which relevant in context and invites H to search for an interpretation of the possible relevance just at the level of its presuppositions.

42 29 For example: when someone implicates a criticism on his friend responsibility to wash the car, he says I washed the car again today. 4) Strategy 4: Understate To express understatements, S says less than is required and as result generates implicatures. For example: when someone doesn t really like a friend s new haircut, she just says It s pretty nice. 5) Strategy 5: Overstate The strategy is done by saying more than is necessary, or by exaggerating or choosing a point on scale which is higher than the actual state of affair. For example: I tried to call a hundred times, but there was never any answer 6) Strategy 6: Use tautologies Using the strategy tautology means S encourages H to look for an informative interpretation of the non-informative utterance. For example: You re men, why don t you do something about it? 7) Strategy 7: Use contradictions The strategy is done by stating two contradict things. By doing so, S makes it appear that he cannot be telling the truth, thus encourage H to look for a interpretation that reconciles the two contradictory propositions. For example: A: Are you upset about that? B: Well, I am and I m not

43 30 8) Strategy 8: Be ironic To be ironic means by saying the opposite of what S means. Through that way, S can indirectly convey his intended meaning, if there are clues (prosodic, kinesics, or textual) which relevant to the context. For instance: when a man and his guest passing through a slum area for instance, he says Lovely neighborhood, eh? 9) Strategy 9: Use metaphor The use of metaphor is usually on record, but there is possibility that the connotations of the metaphor uttered by S may be off record. For example when someone says Harry s a real fish which means Harry drinks like a fish. 10) Strategy 10: Use rhetorical questions The use of this strategy is by raising questions that leave their answers hanging in the air or implicated to do FTAs. For example: How many times do I have to tell you? 11) Strategy 11: Be ambiguous The term ambiguity includes the ambiguity between the literal meaning of an utterance and any possible implicatures inside.