Making sense of discourse

Transcription

1 Making sense of discourse

2 Discourse Cohesion and Coherence Cohesion hanging it all together Coherence getting the message across (including pragmatic function)

3 Discourse Cohesion and Coherence A: that s the telephone. B: I m in the bath. A: Ok

4 Discourse Cohesion and Coherence Psycholinguistics reading skills are not invariant. Reading skills are something that English teachers work hard to develop. Singapore's economy has developed rapidly in recent years. We shall need to economize if we are to save money.

5 Discourse Cohesion and Coherence Psycholinguistics reading skills are not invariant. Reading skills are something that English teachers work hard to develop. Singapore's economy has developed rapidly in recent years. We shall need to economize if we are to save money.

6 Discourse Cohesion and Coherence coherent texts are distinguished from random sentences by the existence of text-forming, cohesive devices. cohesion is neither necessary nor sufficient for the creation of coherent discourse

7 Discourse Cohesion and Coherence In some cases, it is possible to construct a context in which these pieces of language could conceivably have taken place. When an extended context is provided, they are readily seen as coherent.

8 construct a context A: Education, particularly literacy, is extremely important. B: True. Take our situation here in Singapore. Reading skills are something that English teachers work hard to develop. A. Singapore's economy has developed rapidly in recent years. Would you say this has been due to the educational system? B. I certainly would!

9 Discourse Cohesion and Coherence Cohesion is neither necessary nor sufficient for the establishment of coherence (Widdowson, 1978) We are able to recognize this text as coherent by creating a context and then identifying the functions that each utterance fulfils within that context.

10 Discourse Cohesion and Coherence Most native speakers would create a domestic, situational context in which the following functions arc assigned to each utterance: UTTERANCE FUNCTION A: That's the telephone. request B. I'm in the bath. excuse A. Ok acceptance of excuse

11 In creating a meaningful context and identifying the functions of each utterance, coherence is established. As a result, the missing bits of conversation, which would make it cohesive as well as coherent, could be restored. Such a cohesive conversation might run as follows: A: That is the telephone. Can you answer it, please? B: No. I m sorry, I can't answer it because I m in the bath A: OK, I'll answer it then.

12 In creating a meaningful context and identifying the functions of each utterance, coherence is established. As a result, the missing bits of conversation, which would make it cohesive as well as coherent, could be restored. Such a cohesive conversation might run as follows: A: That is the telephone. Can you answer it, please? B: No. I m sorry, I can't answer it because I m in the bath A: OK, I'll answer it then.

13 the interlocutor can always deliberately misinterpret the functional intention of the speaker for humorous, ironic or other effects, as the following example shows. (A is addressing her husband who is clearing out a garden shed.) A: Are you wearing gloves? B: No. A: What about the spiders? B: They're not wearing gloves either.

14 the interlocutor can always deliberately misinterpret the functional intention of the speaker for humorous, ironic or other effects, as the following example shows. (A is addressing her husband who is clearing out a garden shed.) A: Are you wearing gloves? B: No. A: What about the spiders? B: They're not wearing gloves either.

15 the interlocutor can always deliberately misinterpret the functional intention of the speaker for humorous, ironic or other effects, as the following example shows. (A is addressing her husband who is clearing out a garden shed.) A: Are you wearing gloves? B: No. A: What about the children? B: They're not wearing gloves either.

16 the interlocutor can always deliberately misinterpret the functional intention of the speaker for humorous, ironic or other effects, as the following example shows. (A is addressing her husband who is clearing out a garden shed.) A: Are you wearing gloves? B: No. A: What about the nails? B: They're not wearing gloves either.

17 Discourse Cohesion and Coherence it is difficult to create non-texts from random sentences because some sort of context can generally be created which will give coherence to any set of sentences.

18 Discourse Cohesion and Coherence Are these two sentences coherent or incoherent? We will have guests for lunch. Calderon was a great writer.

19 Discourse Cohesion and Coherence Are these two sentences coherent or incoherent? We will have guests for lunch. Calderon was a great writer. Can you find a causal link between them?

20 Discourse Cohesion and Coherence Edmonson et al. argues that the following context can lend coherence to these two sentences: A: Did you know Calderon died exactly one hundred years ago? B: Good heavens! I'd forgotten. The occasion shall not pass unnoticed. A: We will have guests for lunch. Calderon was a great Spanish writer. I shall invite Professor Wilson and Senor Castellano right away. (Edmonson 1981:13)

21 Discourse Cohesion and Coherence Cohesion does not create coherence. Perception of the propositions must either precede or occur simultaneously with the recognition of functions. Interpreting discourse, and thus establishing coherence, is a matter of readers/listeners using their linguistic knowledge to relate the discourse world to people, objects, events and states of affairs beyond the text itself.

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23 Speech Acts

24 Conventional Sentence Types Declarative. (Assertion) I seem to have forgotten my umbrella. Interrogative. (Question) Where did I leave it? Imperative. (Order/Request) Go find my umbrella! [ Optative. (Wish) ] If only I had my umbrella!

25 Speech Acts & Language Functions Pragmatics Not only language structure is rule governed language use is, too Rules of language use are social: Is saying this possible? / feasible? / appropriate? / done? (Dell Hymes)

26 Speech Acts & Language Functions There is a policeman at the corner. could be a warning, an assurance, a dare, a hint, a reminder to go and take your car out of the handicapped space you are parked in.

27 Speech Acts & Language Functions I promise I ll be there tomorrow. could be a promise, a threat depending on whether his presence tomorrow is a disadvantage or an advantage to the listener. Contrast with: If you don t behave yourself, I promise you there s going to be trouble. This sentence says it s a promise, but it s a threat. (Searle Speech Acts 58)

28 Speech Acts & Language Functions Language As Action Speech Act Theory was developed from the basic belief that language is used to perform actions. (meaning and action are related to language) Speech acts = actions performed via utterances (apology, complaint, compliment, etc.) They apply to the speaker s communicative intention in producing an utterance. The speaker expects that his/her communicative intention will be recognized by the hearer. Both speaker and hearer are usually helped in this process by the context = speech events.

29 Speech Acts & Language Functions Speech act theory proposed by John. L. Austin has been developed by J. R. Searle. They believe that language is not only used to inform or to describe things, it is often used to do things, to perform acts.

30 Speech Acts & Language Functions when using language, we not only make propositional statements about objects, entities, states of affairs and so on, but we also fulfil functions such as requesting, denying, introducing, apologizing etc.

31 Speech Acts Austin suggests three kinds of acts a. locutionary act b. illocutionary act c. perlocutinary act (illocutionary force )

32 Illocutionary Acts a. Locutionary act: the act of saying, the literal meaning of the utterance b. illocutionary act: the extra meaning of the utterance produced on the basis of its literal meaning c. perlocutionary act (illocutionary force ): the effect of the utterance on the hearer, depending on specific circumstances.

33 Illocutionary Acts The locutionary act is the saying of it with its literal meaning There isn t enough fresh air in here. The illocutionary act can be a request of the hearer to open the window. The perlocutinary act can be the hearer s opening the window or his refusal to do so. In fact, we might utter There isn t enough fresh air in here to make a statement, a request, an explanation, or for some other communicative purposes. This is also generally known as the illocutionary force of the utterance.

34 Speech Acts A: There's no answer at the front door. Shall I try the back? B: I shouldn't, if I were you. There's a Rhodesian ridgeback in the garden.

35 Speech Acts A: There's no answer at the front door. Shall I try the back? B: I shouldn't, if I were you. There's a Rhodesian ridgeback in the garden.

36 Study the following conversations, and identify the functions they are attempting to teach. 3j Liz: Do you like jazz, Tom? Tom: No, I don't like it very much. Do you? Liz: It's OK. What kind of music do you like? Tom: Well, I like rock a lot. Liz: U2. How about you? Do you like them? Tom: No, I don't. I can't stand them. (Richards et al. 1990: 23)

37 Study the following conversations, and identify the functions they are attempting to teach. 3k Dave: There's a jazz concert at the Blue Note on Friday. Would you like to go? Joan: Yeah, that sounds good! What time is the concert? Dave: It's at 10 o'clock. Joan: Great! Let's go. (Richards et al. 1990: 25)

38 Study the following conversations, and identify the functions they are attempting to teach. 3l Carolyn: Excuse me - are you Mrs. Baxter? Mrs. Baxter: Yes, I am. Carolyn: I'm Carolyn Duval. Mrs. Baxter: Nice to meet you, Ms. Duval. (Warshawsky 1992: A2)

39 Study the following conversations, and identify the functions they are attempting to teach. 3m A: (Dials number) Rrring, rrring. B: Directory Assistance. A: I'd like the number of Jane Schaefer. B: Could you spell the last name, please? A: S-C-H-A-E-F-E-R B: The number is A: Thank you. B: You're welcome. (Warshawsky 1992: A17)

40 Background knowledge

41 Background knowledge The things we know about the world assist us in the interpretation of discourse.

42 Background knowledge If the balloons popped, the sound wouldn't be able to carry since everything would be too far away from the correct floor. A closed window would prevent the sound from carrying, since most buildings tend to be well insulated. Since the whole operation depends on a steady flow of electricity, a break in the middle of the wire would also cause problems. Of course, the fellow could shout, but the human voice is not loud enough to carry that far. An additional problem is that a wire could break on the instrument. Then there could be no accompaniment to the message. It is clear that the best situation would involve less distance. Then there would be fewer potential problems. With face-to-face contact, the least number of things could go wrong.

43 Background knowledge If the balloons popped, the sound wouldn't be able to carry since everything would be too far away from the correct floor. A closed window would prevent the sound from carrying, since most buildings tend to be well insulated. Since the whole operation depends on a steady flow of electricity, a break in the middle of the wire would also cause problems. Of course, the fellow could shout, but the human voice is not loud enough to carry that far. An additional problem is that a wire could break on the instrument. Then there could be no accompaniment to the message. It is clear that the best situation would involve less distance. Then there would be fewer potential problems. With face-to-face contact, the least number of things could go wrong.

44 Background knowledge If the balloons popped, the sound wouldn't be able to carry since everything would be too far away from the correct floor. A closed window would prevent the sound from carrying, since most buildings tend to be well insulated. Since the whole operation depends on a steady flow of electricity, a break in the middle of the wire would also cause problems. Of course, the fellow could shout, but the human voice is not loud enough to carry that far. An additional problem is that a wire could break on the instrument. Then there could be no accompaniment to the message. It is clear that the best situation would involve less distance. Then there would be fewer potential problems. With face-toface contact, the least number of things could go wrong.

45 Background knowledge This interaction between the world of the text and the world outside the text is exploited by writers in many different ways. For example, some writers often create humorous or satirical effects by juxtaposing the real and imaginary worlds.

46 Background knowledge To someone unfamiliar with events in the former Soviet Union, the text would make as little sense as the 'serenade' text.

47 Background knowledge 3o The former Comrade Chairman of the former Communist Party, former president of the former empire and former photo opportunity, slogged up the last six flights of stairs to his office. The stairs were well worn, particularly in the centre of each step where two deep grooves commemorated the heel-marks of generations of politically incorrect thinkers who had been dragged to the basement by men with no necks. Later, they had been released as politically correct mulch. Somewhere in the basement was a room full of their hats, sorted and labelled. The former Comrade Chairman wondered what had happened to them. The former reeducation staff had probably opened a shop, he decided. There wasn't much call for trained interrogators who could correct political error while forcing the miscreants' kneecaps down their throats, outside the more progressive Western universities. He hoped the shop was doing well. Everyone needed a hat, if only to gather up stray potatoes down at the shunting yards, and it was just the kind of entrepreneurial spirit he knew lurked beneath the coarse woollen exterior of the former Soviet people, even the horrible ones. (Cook 1991; 194)

48 Background knowledge 3o The former Comrade Chairman of the former Communist Party, former president of the former empire and former photo opportunity, slogged up the last six flights of stairs to his office. The stairs were well worn, particularly in the centre of each step where two deep grooves commemorated the heel-marks of generations of politically incorrect thinkers who had been dragged to the basement by men with no necks. Later, they had been released as politically correct mulch. Somewhere in the basement was a room full of their hats, sorted and labelled. The former Comrade Chairman wondered what had happened to them. The former re-education staff had probably opened a shop, he decided. There wasn't much call for trained interrogators who could correct political error while forcing the miscreants' kneecaps down their throats, outside the more progressive Western universities. He hoped the shop was doing well. Everyone needed a hat, if only to gather up stray potatoes down at the shunting yards, and it was just the kind of entrepreneurial spirit he knew lurked beneath the coarse woollen exterior of the former Soviet people, even the horrible ones. (Cook 1991; 194)

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50 Using Background Knowledge; Propositional Level there is more to comprehending discourse than knowing the words on the page, attempts to provide theoretical models that can explain the ways in which our knowledge of the world guides our efforts to comprehend discourse.. work has been carried out by researchers in the field of artificial intelligence to develop programs that will enable computers to comprehend and produce natural discourse.

51 Frame theory Human memory consists of sets of stereotypical situations, or 'frames, which are constructed out of our past experiences. These provide a framework which we use to make sense of new experiences. e.g. _ going to the doctor _ buying a car _ planning a wedding party One major problem is that it provides no explanation of why one frame might be selected rather than another.

52 Frame theory 3p Recession or no recession, retailers were preparing yesterday for the expected onslaught of thousands of bargain hunters. Shops around the country were getting ready to open their doors for the first day of traditional after-christmas clearance sales, with one large retail chain already predicting record trading levels. (The Australian, Friday 27 December 1991) a 'recession' frame,? a 'Christmas' frame,? an 'economy' frame,? a 'shopping' frame,?

53 Frame theory the more text one has, the greater the chance of selecting the appropriate frame, and often, as listener or reader, we have to reserve judgement for some time until we have enough information to make a choice.

54 Schema theory the knowledge we carry around in our heads is organized into interrelated patterns. These interrelated patterns are constructed from all our previous experiences and they enable us to make predictions about future experience.

55 Schema theory meaning does not come neatly pre-packaged in aural and written texts. texts are little more than elaborate 'signposts' to the speaker or writer's original meanings, the reader or listener must use his or her linguistic and content knowledge to reconstruct the original meanings of the creator of the discourse.

56 Schema theory two dimensions or levels to any given discourse: 1. Systematic level: includes the reader or listener's linguistic knowledge 2. Schematic level: relates to background content knowledge In making sense of a given piece of discourse, we try and match our own schematic knowledge with that of the writer or speaker.

57 Schema theory the importance of interpretation to comprehension we use procedure of interpretation to supply meanings that do not actually appear in the discourse itself.

58 the importance of interpretation to comprehension we use procedure of interpretation to supply meanings that do not actually appear in the discourse itself. The case of cohesive devices references [antecedent] [reference] I saw John yesterday. He gave me his hat.

59 the importance of interpretation to comprehension 3q Statistical probability was discovered in a teapot. A postman saw it there and connected in to a petrol pump. He was wearing silk pyjamas at the time. They were old and dusty. it Statistical probability there teapot He postman NO DIFFICULTY

60 the importance of interpretation to comprehension 3r Statistical probability was discovered in a teapot. A postman saw it[1] and connected it[2] to a petrol pump. It[3] was old and dusty. MORE DIFFICULT 1. it Statistical probability, teapot 2. it teapot, Statistical probability, a petrol pump 3. it teapot, a petrol pump

61 the importance of interpretation to comprehension 3r Statistical probability was discovered in a teapot. A postman rinsed it[1] out. He has no idea what it[2] was of course. appeal to our knowledge of the world NO DIFFICULT 1. it teapot 2. It Statistical probability

62 Using background knowledge functional level

63 Using background knowledge functional level When studying functions, the question is not 'what is the speaker/writer trying to tell us about events and things in the world?' but' 'what is the speaker/ writer trying to achieve through language?'

64 Using background knowledge functional level 3u o A: I have two tickets to the theatre tonight. o B: My examination is tomorrow. o A: Pity. According to Widdowson, there are implicit assumptions on both sides that A s first statement is an invitation. B's response, which, on the surface, has little to do with A's statement, is taken as a refusal of the invitation. This is recognized in A's final remark.

65 Using background knowledge functional level Consider the following exchange, in which A's opening gambit is intended as an invitation.

66 o A: I have two tickets for the theatre tonight. o B: Good for you. What are you going to see? o A: Measure for Measure. o B: Interesting play. Hope you enjoy it. The negotiation is not going to plan, and A has to renegotiate to return to his original discourse strategy.

67 o A: I have two tickets for the theatre tonight. o B: Good for you. What are you going to see? o A: Measure for Measure. o B: Interesting play. Hope you enjoy it. The negotiation is not going to plan, and A has to renegotiate to return to his original discourse strategy. o A: Look, are you free tonight? o B: I'm not sure, why? The message is still not getting across, so he tries again.

68 o A: I have two tickets for the theatre tonight. o B: Good for you. What are you going to see? o A: Measure for Measure. o B: Interesting play. Hope you enjoy it. The negotiation is not going to plan, and A has to renegotiate to return to his original discourse strategy. o A: Look, are you free tonight? o B: I'm not sure, why? The message is still not getting across, so he tries again. o A: Well, I'd like to invite you to come to the theatre with me. o B: Well, actually my examination is tomorrow.

69 o A: I have two tickets for the theatre tonight. o B: Good for you. What are you going to see? o A: Measure for Measure. o B: Interesting play. Hope you enjoy it. The negotiation is not going to plan, and A has to renegotiate to return to his original discourse strategy. o A: Look, are you free tonight? o B: I'm not sure, why? The message is still not getting across, so he tries again. o A: Well, I'd like to invite you to come to the theatre with me. o B: Well, actually my examination is tomorrow. Now Widdowson allows A to be obtuse. o A: I know, so is mine. What's that got to do with it?

70 o A: I have two tickets for the theatre tonight. o B: Good for you. What are you going to see? o A: Measure for Measure. o B: Interesting play. Hope you enjoy it. o A: Look, are you free tonight? o B: I'm not sure, why? o A: Well, I'd like to invite you to come to the theatre with me. o B: Well, actually my examination is tomorrow. o A: I know, so is mine. What's that got to do with it? these negotiating procedures depend crucially on the participants knowing what each utterance stands for functionally (that is, 'invitation', 'polite refusal' etc.).

71 Using background knowledge functional level ACTIVITY Study the following text from Tok Pisin (from New Guinea) and answer these questions. As you do the task, make a mental note of the strategies you use to make sense of the text. How many words can you make out? What type of text do you think it is? What do you think the text is about? What do you think is the purpose of the text? What language is the text written in?

72 Using background knowledge functional level TOK BILOG GA VMAN Sipos yu painim sompela Japan i les long pait, yu gifim dispela pas. Sipos i savi wakabaut, i kan kam ontaim yupela nau painim soldia bilong yumi. Im i sik tumas, orait, yu brinim tok. Tok im gut, mipela nokan kilim ol, kalabus dasol, nau salim ol iko long Astralia, na weitim pait ipinis. WOK BILOG GA VMA N.I GAT PEL

73 Using background knowledge functional level TOK BILOG GA VMAN Sipos yu painim sompela Japan i les long pait, yu gifim dispela pas. Sipos i savi wakabaut, i kan kam ontaim yupela nau painim soldia bilong yumi. Im i sik tumas, orait, yu brinim tok. Tok im gut, mipela nokan kilim ol, kalabus dasol, nau salim ol iko long Astralia, na weitim pait ipinis. WOK BILOG GA VMA N.I GAT PEL

74 Using background knowledge functional level o The following extract (3w, page 75-76)is a conversation between two individuals who attempted to decode the Tok Pisin text. o In the extract they are discussing the strategies they used to make sense of the decontextualized text. o Make a list of these strategies. What are the similarities and differences between their strategies and the one which you used? o How reasonable do you find their interpretation?

75 Using background knowledge functional level

76 Using background knowledge functional level The context The original text is printed on a piece of paper which is accompanied by two illustrations. The first of these shows a New Guinea highlander in a jungle setting peering around a tree at a wounded Japanese soldier who is holding up a piece of paper. The second illustration shows the highlander, the piece of paper in his hand, leading three Australian soldiers, one of whom carries a first aid kit, through the jungle. On the reverse of the paper is a message in Japanese.

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78 Using background knowledge functional level The context the leaflet should be used by wounded Japanese soldiers to give to natives, who would lead Australian soldiers to the wounded Japanese soldier.

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