2 Plato, Apology, 38a. 3 Campbell in Pyke, Philosophers, p.22.

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1 Notes Introduction 1 John Campbell in Steve Pyke, Philosophers, Zelda Cheatle Press (1995) p.22. Section 1 Epistemology 1.1 What is knowledge? 1 Linda Zagzebski, What is knowledge? in John Greco and Ernest Sosa (eds) The Blackwell Guide to Epistemology, Blackwell (1999) pp Plato, Meno, Penguin (1956) 97a b (translation modified). 3 Ibid., 97e 98e. 4 Plato, Theaetetus, Penguin (1987) 201c d. 5 Ibid., 201d. 6 Plato, The Republic, Penguin (1955) Edmund Gettier, Is justified, true belief knowledge? in A. Philips Griffiths (ed.) 1 David Hume, An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, I, xii, 1, para. 117 (online version, com) p See Bertrand Russell, The Problems of Philosophy, ch. IX (online version, www. gutenberg.org). 3 Hume, An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, I, xii, 1, para George Berkeley, Three Dialogues between Hylas and Philonous in Opposition to Sceptics and Atheists: The Third Dialogue (1713) ed. Jonathan Bennett (2004) (online version, com) p Russell, The Problems of Philosophy, ch. i. 6 The table, which we see, seems to diminish, as we remove farther from it: but the real table, which exists independent of us, suffers no alteration: it was, therefore, nothing but its image, which was present to the mind. Ibid. 7 This example comes from René Descartes, Meditations (1641) Meditation 6 (online version, www. earlymoderntexts.com) p Plato, Apology, 38a. 3 Campbell in Pyke, Philosophers, p.22. Knowledge and Belief, Oxford University Press (1967) pp René Descartes, Meditations (1641) Meditation 1, p.1 (online version, www. 9 H.H. Price, Some considerations about belief in A. Philips Griffiths (ed.) Knowledge and Belief, Oxford University Press (1967) pp William Lycan, On the Gettier Problem problem, in S. Hetherington (ed.) Epistemology Futures, Oxford University Press (2006) pp Perception as a source of knowledge 8 Thomas Reid ( ): Men sometimes lead us into mistakes, when we perfectly understand their language, by speaking lies. But Nature never misleads us in this way: her language is always true; and it is only by misinterpreting it that we fall into error. (Reid, Inquiry into the Human Mind, 1764, sec. xxiv). 9 Ibid., para. 13, p.31: Let us suppose in the meantime that the different motions and shapes, sizes and number of such particles, affecting our various sense-organs, produce in us the different sensations that we have of the colours and smells of bodies It is no more impossible to conceive that God should attach such ideas to motions that in no way resemble them than it is that he should attach the idea [= feeling ] of pain to the motion of a piece of steel dividing our flesh, which in no way resembles the pain. 10 Ibid., para. 7, p Russell makes the same point in The Problems of Philosophy, ch. II, when he argues that we cannot hope to be acquainted directly with the quality 4 Ludwig Wittgenstein, Tractatus Logico- Philosophicus 4.112, Routledge (1978) p Alvin Goldman, A causal theory of knowing in The Journal of Philosophy 64(12) (1967) Alvin Goldman, Discrimination and perceptual knowledge in The Journal of Philosophy, 73(20) (1976) Robert Nozick, Philosophical Explanations, Harvard University Press (1981). 14 Ernest Sosa, A Virtue Epistemology: Apt Belief and Reflective Knowledge: Volume I, Oxford University Press (2009). in the physical object which makes it look blue or red. Science tells us that this quality is a certain sort of wavemotion. 12 Locke, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, II, viii, para. 10, p Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, New Essays on Human Understanding, II, viii, 13 (online version, com) p Locke, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, II, viii, para. 9, p This is unlike Descartes, who believed in a plenum that is, the idea that matter is infinitely divisible (so no atoms), and that all of space is occupied with matter (so no void or vacuum). 16 Locke, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, II, viii, para. 9, p Russell, The Problems of Philosophy, ch. III. 18 Descartes thinks that because we can describe primary qualities mathematically, and therefore that we can understand them clearly and distinctly, that God would not deceive 1Notes

2 us about their reality. This argument, however, ultimately relies on the existence of a benevolent, non-deceiving God, and so may not convince. 19 Locke makes an exception of our knowledge of the existence of God. 20 Locke, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, IV, xi, para. 1, p Ibid., para. 3, page Ibid. 23 Ibid. 24 All I was immediately aware of in each case were my ideas, but it was reasonable for me to think that what I was perceiving through the senses were external bodies that caused the ideas. For I found that these ideas came to me quite without my consent: I couldn t have that kind of idea of any object, even if I wanted to, if the object was not present to my sense organs; and I couldn t avoid having the idea when the object was present. (Descartes, Meditations, Meditation 6 (online version, p.28) 25 Locke, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, IV, xi, para. 8, pp Ibid., p Ibid. 28 Ibid., IV, xi, para. 3, p Ibid., II, ix, para. 8, p Ibid., II, v, p Ibid., IV, xi, para. 7, p The Works of George Berkeley, Bishop of Cloyne, Volume i: Essay Towards a New Theory of Vision (1732) ed. A.A. Luce and T.E. Jessop, Thomas Nelson (1948) sect Catherine Trotter Cockburn was a contemporary of Locke who published a detailed defence of Locke in A Defence of Mr. Locke s Essay of Human Understanding (1702). She is also thought to be the author of a short letter published in 1732 and addressed to Berkeley, which is one of the anthology texts. In the letter, she defends and develops Locke s argument that we can be sure of the existence of a world beyond sense experience against Berkeley s theory of vision. Berkeley responded to the letter in The Theory of Vision Vindicated and Explained (1733) and is dismissive of the points made, which seem to misunderstand Berkeley s position. 34 Catherine Trotter Cockburn, A letter from an anonymous writer to the author of The Minute Philosopher in George Berkeley, The Theory of Vision, or Visual Language, Shewing the Immediate Presence and Providence of a Deity, Vindicated and Explained. By the Author of Alicphron, or, The Minute Philosopher (1732) (available online, p Hume, An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, I, xii, 1, para. 118, p.79; Russell, The Problems of Philosophy, ch. ii. 36 The meaning of the term idea as used by the empiricists of the eighteenth century is notoriously difficult to pin down. Berkeley s use follows Locke s, for whom the term means whatever one is conscious of. So, while including what we are here calling sense data, it would also include beliefs and concepts. Note also that Berkeley s arguments discussed in Chapter 1.1, concerning the distinction between primary and secondary qualities, are in fact strategic ones, and his considered position actually denies that there is any such distinction. 37 This argument has much in common with those of Hume, who uses the empiricist claim that all genuine ideas must derive from experience to argue that we do not really have an idea of self, for example. 38 George Berkeley, Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge (1710) Arc Manor (2008) Part 1, section Berkeley, The First Dialogue, p Ibid. 41 Ibid. 42 Ibid. 43 Here we have drawn on the discussion of the likeness principle in R. Todd, A new account of Berkeley s likeness principle in British Journal for the History of Philosophy 14(4) (2006) Ibid. 45 Ronald Knox in The Complete Limerick Book, Langford Reed (1924). 46 Berkeley, The Third Dialogue, p Berkeley, The Third Dialogue, p.53. 2Notes 1.3 Reason as a source of knowledge 1 René Descartes, Meditations (1641) p. 10 (online version com). 2 Ibid., p René Descartes, Principles of philosophy (1644) Principle 49 in René Descartes et al., The Philosophical Writings of Descartes, Cambridge University Press (1985) p Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz, New Essays on Human Understanding (1765) Book 1, p.21 (online version, www. 5 Ibid., Preface, p.2. 6 Ibid., Book 1, p Ibid., Preface, p.4. 8 Ibid. 9 Ibid., Preface, p John Locke, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690) I, 2, para. 2 (online version, www. 11 Ibid. 12 Ibid., I, 2, para Ibid., I, 2, para Leibniz, New Essays on Human Understanding, Book 1, p Ibid. 16 Locke, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, I, 2, para Leibniz, New Essays on Human Understanding, Book 1, p David Hume, An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding (1748) Enquiry 1, section Ibid., Enquiry 2, p Ibid., Enquiry 1, section Immanuel Kant, Critique of Pure Reason (1781) p Adapted from J. Casey, First Six Book of the Elements of Euclid, Longman (1885) p.6 (available at

3 23 Ibid., p René Descartes, Discourse on Method (1637) Discourse 2, p.9 (online version, www. 25 Descartes, Meditations, Meditation 3, p Descartes, Principles of philosophy, Principle Descartes, Meditations, Meditation 3, p René Descartes, Rules for the Direction of the Mind (1684) Rule 3, in J. Cottingham et al., Descartes: Selected Philosophical Writings (1988) p Ibid. 30 Ibid. 31 Hume, An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, Enquiry 1, section 4, p Ibid. 33 Ibid., Enquiry 1, section 12, p The limits of knowledge 1 David Hume, Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding (1748) Enquiry 1, section 4 (online version, www. earlymoderntexts.com), particularly pp Compare A. Morton, Philosophy in Practice: An Introduction to the Main Questions, Blackwell (1996) p René Descartes, Discourse on Method (1637), trans. L.J. Lafleur in Philosophical Essays, Bobbs-Merrill (1964) p René Descartes, Rules for the Direction of the Mind (1684) in The Philosophical Works of Descartes, trans. E.S. Haldane and G.R.T. Ross, Cambridge University Press (1911) vol. I. 5 Hume, An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, Enquiry 1, section 12, p This simile is due to Otto Neurath. See Protocol statements in Otto Neurath, Philosophical Papers , ed. and trans. R.S. Cohen and M. Neurath, Dordrecht (1983). 34 Descartes, Meditations, Meditation 2, p René Descartes, Meditations: Second Objections and Replies to the Meditations (1641) p.25 (online version, www. 36 Descartes, Discourse on Method, Discourse 4, p Descartes, Meditations: Second Objections and Replies, p Descartes, Meditations, Meditation 2, p Bertrand Russell, The Problems of Philosophy, Oxford University Press (1912) p David Hume, Treatise on Human Nature (1739) 1, iv, 6, p.132 (online version, www. 41 Descartes, Meditations: Second Objections and Replies, p Descartes, Meditations, Meditation 3, p.9. 7 This analogy comes from B. Williams, Descartes, Penguin (1978). 8 I feel like someone who is suddenly dropped into a deep whirlpool that tumbles around him so that he can neither stand on the bottom nor swim to the top (Descartes, Meditation 2, p.3). 9 Descartes, Meditation 2, p René Descartes, Meditations (1641) Meditation 3 (online version, www. earlymoderntexts.com) p Ibid., para. 3, p Ibid., para. 5, p John Locke, Essay Concerning Human Understanding, I, i, para. 4, (online version, p Ibid., Introduction. 15 Ibid., para Ibid., para Ibid., II, 23, para. 2, p Ibid. 43 Ibid., p Ibid. 45 Ibid. 46 Ibid., p Ibid., p Ibid., p Ibid., p René Descartes, Meditations: Fifth Set of Objections and Replies to the Meditations (1641) p.133 (online version, www. 51 David Hume, Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion, part 9, p.39 (online version, www. 52 David Hume, An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding (1748) Enquiry 1, section 12, part 1, p.202. (For this quote, we have used the original version, as found in the Selby-Bigge Oxford University Press (1975) edition. The Early Modern Texts version changes the text for this quote quite drastically.) 19 Ibid. 20 Ibid., IV, xi, para. 8, pp Hume, Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, Enquiry 1, section 12, part Hume, Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, Enquiry 1, section 12, p For discussion on this point, see Belief and subjective certainty and Certainty as sufficient in Daniel Cardinal, Jeremy Hayward and Gerald Jones, Epistemology, John Murray (2004), pp G.E. Moore, A defence of common sense in G.E. Moore, Philosophical Papers, Allen and Unwin (1959). 25 Thomas Reid, An Inquiry into the Human Mind, on the Principles of Common Sense in The Works of Thomas Reid, Machlachlan and Stewart (1846) p Bertrand Russell, Lecture 9: Memory in Bertrand Russell, The Analysis of Mind, Unwin (1989). 3Notes

4 Section 2 Moral philosophy Introduction 1 Peter Singer, Philosophers are back on the job (1974) in Peter Singer (ed. H. Kuhse) Unsanctifying Human Life, Blackwell (2002) p Lawrence Kohlberg, Essays on Moral Development, Volume 1: The Philosophy of Moral Development, Harper & Row (1981). 2.1 Utilitarianism 1 Jeremy Bentham, Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation (1789) Clarendon Press (2nd edn 1823, repr. 1907) p.1. 2 Ibid., p.3. 3 Jeremy Bentham (1776) A fragment on government in J. Burns and H. Hart (eds) The Collected Works of Jeremy Bentham, Clarendon Press (1977) p.393. Bentham wrote the fragment in 1776, but it was not published until the twentieth century. 4 Jeremy Bentham, The Rationale of Reward, Robert Heward (1830) p John Stuart Mill, Utilitarianism (1863) (online version, Jonathan Bennett (2005) p.5. 6 Ibid., p.6. 7 G.E. Moore, Principia Ethica (1903) Cambridge University Press, rev. edn (1993) p Mary Warnock (ed.) in her introduction to Mill s Utilitarianism, Fontana (1985) p From the BBC broadcast debate between Father F.C. Copleston and Bertrand Russell (28 January 1948). 11 J.J.C. Smart and B. Williams, Utilitarianism For and Against, Cambridge University Press (1973) p Mill, Utilitarianism, p Ibid. 14 Smart and Williams, Utilitarianism For and Against, p Mill, Utilitarianism, p.6. (Note that the original version is quoted here, as Bennett s version changes the syntax a little.) 16 Ibid., p Ibid. 18 Ibid., pp John Stuart Mill, On Liberty (1859) (online version, Jonathan Bennett (2005) p Robert Nozick, Anarchy, State, and Utopia, Blackwell (1974). 21 Smart and Williams, Utilitarianism For and Against, p This example is taken from T.L.S. Sprigge, Utilitarianism in G.H.R. Parkinson (ed.) An Encyclopaedia of Philosophy, Routledge (1988). 23 Bentham, Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation, p Peter Singer, All animals are equal (1975) in Peter Singer (ed. H. Kuhse) Unsanctifying Human Life, Blackwell (2002) p Cora Diamond, Eating meat and eating people in Philosophy 53 (1978) pp , Jeremy Bentham, Rationale of Judicial Evidence, Specially Applied to English Practice (1827) Book VII in J. Bowring (ed.) The Works of Jeremy Bentham, W. Tait ( ) p Mill, Utilitarianism, p Peter Singer, Famine, affluence, and morality (1972) in Singer, Unsanctifying Human Life, p Peter Singer, William Godwin and the Defense of Impartialist Ethics (1972) in Singer, Unsanctifying Human Life, p Smart and Williams, Utilitarianism For and Against, p Mill, On Liberty, p Peter Singer, Great apes deserve life, liberty and the prohibition of torture (27 May 2006) (The Guardian online, accessed March 2015). 4Notes 10 Mill, Utilitarianism, p Kantian deontological ethics 1 Immanuel Kant, Critique of Practical Reason (1788) trans. T.K. Abbott, Longman (1873) p Immanuel Kant, Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals (1785) trans. T.K. Abbott (1895) (online version, www. gutenberg.org) p.8. 3 Ibid., p Ibid., p Immanuel Kant, Grounding for the Metaphysics of Morals (1785) trans. 24 Peter Singer, Animal Liberation, New York Review (1975) p.38. J.W. Ellington, Hackett, 3rd edn (1993) p.30. This is a clearer version of the first formulation than the Abbott translation, which is the one recommended by AQA. 6 Kant, Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals, Abbott, p Kant, Grounding for the Metaphysics of Morals, Ellington, p.41. This is a clearer version of the humanity formulation than the one offered in the Abbott translation (which is recommended by AQA). 8 Immanuel Kant, Metaphysics of Morals (1797) trans. M. Gregor, Cambridge University Press (1996) Section VI, Jean-Paul Sartre, Existentialism and Humanism, Methuen (1987) pp Kant, Metaphysics of Morals, Section VI Carol Gilligan, Different Voice, Harvard University Press (1982).

5 12 Bernard Williams, Ethics and the Limits of Philosophy, Fontana (1985) pp Philippa Foot, Morality as a system of hypothetical imperatives in Philosophical Review 81(3) (1972) pp Kant, Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals, Abbott, p Foot, Morality as a system of hypothetical imperatives, p Aristotelian virtue ethics 1 Julia Annas (2004), Ancient ethics and modern morality, in James Sterba (ed.), Ethics: The Big Questions, Blackwell, pp Throughout this chapter we follow the convention here of using the figures and numbers (e.g. 1094a1) corresponding to the relevant pages, columns and lines of Bekker s Greek text. 3 See Jeremy Hayward, Gerald Jones and Daniel Cardinal, Plato: The Republic, Hodder Murray 2007, p.68 ff. 4 For example, Michael Pakaluk (2005), Aristotle s Nicomachean Ethics: An introduction, Cambridge University Press, pp If Aristotle were offering a proof that all acts are aimed at some good, therefore there is some good all acts are aimed at, it would be guilty of the Quantifier Shift Fallacy. 5 There are daemons attached to all the characters in Philip Pullman s trilogy His Dark Materials, and in Plato s dialogue, Phaedrus 242b, Socrates reveals that his daemon reprimands him about the speech on Love he has just given and advises him to give another, more honest one. 6 Although we refer throughout this section to human beings, Aristotle in the Ethics talks only of men, and it is probably the case that he is not including women, or barbarians or slaves when analysing the concept of eudaimonia. 7 Alasdair MacIntyre (1971), A Short History of Ethics, Routledge, pp Although, for Aristotle, plants cannot really be eudaimon only humans can truly flourish in this sense. 9 Kathleen Wilkes (1980), The Good Man and the Good for Man in Aristotle s Ethics, in Amelie Oksenberg Rorty 16 Ibid., p Ibid. 18 Ibid. 19 Kant, Metaphysics of Morals, Section VI Immanuel Kant, Lectures on Ethics, trans. and ed. P. Heath and J. Scheewind, Cambridge University Press (1997) p.240. (ed.), Essays on Aristotle s Ethics, University of California Press, pp See Jeremy Hayward, Daniel Cardinal and Gerald Jones, AQA A Level Philosophy Year 2, Hodder (2018), chapter on the Design Argument. 11 Alasdair MacIntyre (1981), After Virtue, Duckworth, p. 174ff. 12 Malcolm Gladwell, Outliers, Penguin (2009) Chapter Julia Annas, Virtue ethics in David Copp (ed.) The Oxford Handbook of Ethical Theory, Oxford University Press (2007) p Ibid. 15 Ibid., p For example, see Daniel Goleman, Emotional Intelligence: Why it Can Matter More than IQ, Bloomsbury (1995) pp. ix xiv. 17 Rosalind Hursthouse, Environmental Ethics in R.L. Walker and P.J. Ivanhoe (eds) Working Virtue: Virtue Ethics and Contemporary Moral Problems, Clarendon Press (2007) p Alasdair MacIntyre, A Short History of Ethics, Routledge (1971) p Compare this with the American writer Augusten Burroughs view of happiness, as interpreted by a comic artist here at comics/unhappy (accessed January 2017). 20 Gerald Jones, Daniel Cardinal and Jeremy Hayward, Moral Philosophy: A Guide to Ethical Theory, Hodder Murray (2006) pp Rosalind Hursthouse, On Virtue Ethics, Open University Press (1999) pp Kant, Metaphysics of Morals, Section VI Ibid. 23 Jeremy Bentham, Introduction to the Principles of Moral and Legislation (1789) Clarendon Press (2nd edn 1823, repr. 1907) p James Rachels, The Elements of Moral Philosophy, McGraw-Hill (2003) pp See Plato, The Republic, 331c, Penguin (1987), p. 66; and Immanuel Kant s essay, On a supposed right to lie from altruistic motives, quoted in Christine Korsgaard, Kant on dealing with evil in James Sterba (ed.), Ethics: The Big Questions, Blackwell (2004) p Hursthouse, On Virtue Ethics, pp J.L. Mackie, Ethics: Inventing Right and Wrong, Penguin (1977) p St Thomas Aquinas, Commentary on the Nicomachean Ethics, trans. C.I. Litzinger, Regnery (1964) pp David Hume, An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals (1752) ed. Tom Beauchamp, Oxford University Press (1998) p Julia Annas, Virtue ethics and the charge of egoism in Paul Bloomfield (ed.) Morality and Self-Interest, Oxford University Press (2007) pp Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan, Cambridge University Press (1991) Chapter 13, p Bertrand Russell, A History of Western Philosophy, Unwin (1987) p Rosalind Hursthouse, Humans and Other Animals, Open University Press (1999) p Rachels, The Elements of Moral Philosophy, pp Aristotle, Rhetoric 1.13, 1375a Matt McCormick, Is it wrong to play violent video games in Ethics and Information Technology 3 (2001) p Christopher Vogler, The Writer s Journey: Mythic Structure for Storytellers and Screenwriters, Michael Weise Productions (2007). 5Notes

6 36 Martha Nussbaum (1986), The Fragility of Goodness: Luck and Ethics in Greek Tragedy and Philosophy, University of Chicago, ch Rosalind Hursthouse, Applying virtue ethics to our treatment of the other animals in J. Welchmen (ed.), The Practice of Virtue, Hackett (2006) p Ibid., pp Hursthouse, Humans and Other Animals, p Gail Eisnitz, Slaughterhouse: The Shocking Story of Greed, Neglect and Inhumane Treatment in the US Meat Industry, Prometheus Books (2007) p Peter Geach, The Virtues, Cambridge University Press (1979) p Meta-ethics 1 Primo Levi, If This Is A Man, Abacus (1987) p Ibid., p In philosophy, the prefix meta has come to mean something like beyond or at a more abstract level. This is quite odd because meta in ancient Greek in fact means after. The story goes that in the first century bc, Andronicus of Rhodes was wondering what to name a work by Aristotle in his catalogue. This unnamed work dealt with certain theoretical issues about the fundamental nature of the universe, and it was placed in the catalogue after Aristotle s work on physics. Hence it was called Metaphysics (that is, after physics ). 4 Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan, Section 1, Chapter 13, Dent Everyman (1979) p Jeremy Bentham, An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation in Mill, Utilitarianism, p Quoted by Mill in Utilitarianism, p Henry Sidgwick, Methods of Ethics (1874) Cambridge University Press (2012) Book 3, ch. 3, section G.E. Moore, Principia Ethica (1903), Cambridge University Press (1986) Preface, p.x. 16 Ibid., p Well, maybe not that absurd. Some philosophers, possibly ones with a lot of time on their hands, have doubted whether all unmarried men are in fact bachelors. See Terry Winograd s article, Moving the semantic fulcrum in Linguistics and Philosophy 8(1) (1985) pp from an is in W.D. Hudson (ed.), The Is/Ought Question, Macmillan (1969) pp Jared Diamond, The Rise and Fall of the Third Chimpanzee, Vintage (2002) p Diamond gives a brilliantly lucid account of which cultures these were, and how they happened to become world cultures, in his book Guns, Germs and Steel, Vintage (1997). 31 J.L. Mackie, Ethics: Inventing Right and Wrong, Penguin (1977) p Ibid. 33 Ibid., p Hayward, Jones and Cardinal, AQA AS Philosophy, pp.167 9, William Golding, Lord of the Flies, Faber and Faber (1958) pp Notes 5 Immanuel Kant, Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals 36, in H.J. Paton (trans.) The Moral Law, Hutchinson (1972) p David Hume, Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals, ed. Tom Beauchamp, Oxford University Press (1998) pp Karl Marx, Critique of the Gotha Program in L.H. Simon (ed.) Marx: Selected Writings, Hackett (1994) p Daniel Cardinal, Gerald Jones and Jeremy Hayward, AQA AS Philosophy, Hodder Education (2014) pp Jonathan Swift, Gulliver s Travels, Penguin (1985) pp Another particularly brilliant invention is a huge machine, manually operated, which could write philosophy books by printing out every combination of word that there is. Ibid., pp John Stuart Mill, Utilitarianism (1863) ed. Mary Warnock, Fontana (1985) p Moore, Principia Ethica, p Mary Warnock in her introduction to Mill, Utilitarianism, p Moore, Principia Ethica, p These are the words of the economist J.M. Keynes, as quoted in Alasdair MacIntyre, After Virtue, Duckworth (1981) p The Vienna Circle, Wissenschaftliche Weltauffassung, A. Wolf (1929) (available online: manifest.pdf accessed January 2017). 23 David Hume, A Treatise of Human Nature (1738) with analytical index by L.A. Selby-Bigge, Oxford University Press (1978) Ibid., Ibid., Ibid., Ibid., J.R. Searle, How to derive an ought 36 Mackie, Ethics: Inventing Right and Wrong, p Ibid., pp A.J. Ayer, Language, Truth and Logic, Dover (1936) p MacIntyre, After Virtue, p Ayer, Language, Truth and Logic, p Ibid., p Ibid. 43 C.K. Ogden and I.A. Richards, The Meaning of Meaning, Kegan Paul (1923) p MacIntyre, After Virtue, p R.M. Hare, The Language of Morals, Oxford University Press (1952) p Sample quote: Ethics, as I conceive it, is the logical study of the language of morals ; ibid., p.iii. 47 Although we have not mentioned him, the shadow of Wittgenstein is present throughout this chapter,

7 as it is throughout the twentiethcentury philosophy of language. It was Wittgenstein who urged philosophers to turn their attention to the meaning of terms in ordinary language usage. It is only by looking at how terms are used that we will understand their meaning, and Wittgenstein says terms are used in very many different ways. So any theory, such as emotivism, which claims to have found the single meaning is bound to be oversimplifying the case. 48 Hare, The Language of Morals, p G.J. Warnock, Contemporary Moral Philosophy, p.30. Section 3 Preparing for the exam 3.1 How to approach the exam 1 Evelyn Waugh, Decline and Fall, Penguin (2003) p How to read philosophy 1 Brand Blanshard, On Philosophical Style, Manchester University Press (1954) p Jared Diamond lists dozens of twentieth-century genocides in The Rise and Fall of the Third Chimpanzee, pp G.J. Warnock, Contemporary Moral Philosophy, p Solomon Northup, 12 Years A Slave, Wordsworth Classics (2005) ch The philosopher Kwame Appiah (1954 ) identifies at least four moral blind spots, including industrial meat production, our treatment of the elderly and of prisoners, and our destruction of the environment, in What will future generations condemn us for? in The Washington Post, September Bret Easton Ellis, Less Than Zero, Picador (1985) pp Mackie, Ethics: Inventing Right and Wrong, p Jean-Paul Sartre, Existentialism and Humanism, Methuen (1987) p.33. This quote is actually a conflation of two quotes from Fyodor Dostoyevsky s novel The Brothers Karamazov, Bantam (1970) pp.80 and Notes