Understatement Linguistic strategies at work in specialised and non-specialised language
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1 Linguistic strategies at work in specialised and non-specialised language Elisa Mattiello University of Pisa
2 : Linguistic or cultural phenomenon? (1) How are you doing? I m really bad. I have been experiencing horrible head pain for the past 6 months and now I m also having a terrible backache and severe leg pains. Also, last weekend I had flulike symptoms, such as achy muscles, fever I m doing well, I m just a bit tired. What about you?
3 : Linguistic or cultural phenomenon? (2) How are your lessons going? I m soooo tired I have more than 250 students for both courses at Economics, so my classes are overcrowded. In the meantime, I m also having exams, office hours, regular meetings The first term is a real nightmare! Not bad. A bit crowded, but rather satisfying.
4 Outline Understatement - Definitions and features - Some examples - Some issues - Understatement and figurative language: Litotes, meiosis, irony, euphemism - The pragmatics of understatement: Functions/effects in specialised language - Understatement vs. overstatement - Practical activity
5 Data English political speeches British political speeches other online newspapers; American political speeches
6 Definitions and features Minus dicere et plus significare ( say less and mean more ) (Hoffmann 1987: 13) A statement which falls below the truth or fact (OED) Understating is a way to invite politeness inferences (Bertuccelli Papi 2000: 82) The understatement rule is one among the various reserve and modesty rules that govern [English] everyday social interactions (Fox 2004: 66)
7 Some examples a bit of a nuisance a chronic illness not bad absolutely brilliant Captain Moody s announcement to the BA passengers, in 1982, when volcanic ash caused all four engines of his aircraft to fail: Ladies and Gentlemen, this is your Captain speaking. We have a small problem. All four engines have stopped. I trust you are not in too much distress.
8 Some issues (1) 1. Is understatement a quantitative or a qualitative phenomenon? Hübler (1983: 23): In understatements [ ] the indetermination of what is said must produce a clear qualitative contrast to what is meant. Cf. Israel (2006: 143), who claims that a) understatement is conspicuously less informative than some other statement, and that b) Saying less means less work for a speaker.
9 Some issues (2) 2. Is understatement consistent with Grice s (1975) maxims? The speaker is not less informative than required, but he is rather deliberately untruthful, obscure, ambiguous and far from brief. Thus, understatements infringe not so much Grice s first sub-maxim of Quantity, as the Gricean Maxims of Quality ( Be truthful ) and Manner ( Be clear ). E.g. Well, not exactly what I would have chosen. a truly horrific experience
10 Some issues (3) 3. Is understatement the same as meiosis, litotes, etc.? Israel (2006: 143) stresses the connection between understatement and its figural cousins euphemism, allusion, meiosis, and irony. Understatement is a superordinate phenomenon, which exploits the stylistic means of rhetoric especially of meiosis, litotes, irony and euphemism but does not conflate with any of these notions.
11 and figurative language (1) Meiosis (Muecke 1980) is typically characterised by a semantic diminution or an indetermination of a concept obtained through detensifiers or hedges (Hübler 1983). Understatement tends to exploit the mechanisms of meiosis: (1) Those changes will make life a little bit harder in some areas, but we need to communicate them effectively. ( much harder ) (J. Paice) (2) She s pretty sure we ll win this election. ( very sure ) (B. Obama)
12 and figurative language (2) Litotes (Ravazzoli 1978; Hoffmann 1987; Caffi 1990) is typically characterised by a negation of the contrary (Lat. negatio contrarii). Understatement may be obtained through negation, especially through morphologically marked negative forms preceded by a negative free morpheme not: (3) Conflict is not inevitable. ( should absolutely be avoided ) (T. Blair) (4) They don t look very excited to see me. ( are bored ) (B. Obama)
13 and figurative language (3) Irony (Muecke 1980; Dressler & Merlini Barbaresi 1994) shows a contrast or a contradiction between what is said and what is meant (antiphrasis). There is no overt antiphrasis in understatement, but a covert type of irony (cf. tongue-in-cheek in Almansi 1984): (5) It was not our finest hour. (referred to a TB outbreak) ( a calamity ) (J. Paice)
14 and figurative language (4) Euphemism is the substitution of a harsh or offensive word with an expression having less unpleasant associations. Euphemistic periphrasis is often used to say less than one means: (6) You don t tell deliberate lies, but sometimes you have to be evasive. ( avoid telling the truth ) (M. Thatcher) (7) That boy was a nonstarter, and they threw him out. ( loser ) (B. Obama)
15 and context (1) He s a bit tanned, isn t he? Literal meaning
16 and context (2) He s a bit tanned, isn t he? Ironic understatement
17 and context (3) He s a bit tanned, isn t he? Italian Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi described the newly-elected US President Barack Obama as young, handsome and sun-tanned Ironic understatement? Sarcasm?
18 Functions and effects (1) Functions of understatement Self-serving/Egoistic: Protection of the speaker (cf. false modesty). (8) If you lead a country like Britain then you have to have a touch of iron about you. ( great strength ) (M. Thatcher) Other-serving/Altruistic: Protection of the hearer. (9) One of the things being in politics has taught me is that men are not a reasoned or reasonable sex. ( irrational ) (M. Thatcher)
19 Functions and effects (2) Effects of understatement Humour. Achievement of the speaker s goals. E.g. when Gordon Brown compares his two opponents to his two boys squabbling at bathtime, Nick Clegg comments: (10) It s a good line for rehearsal. ( Brown s speeches are preprepared ) (N. Clegg) (10) is a humorous understatement which helps Clegg achieve his goals.
20 Functions and effects (3) a bit of a nuisance a chronic illness not bad absolutely brilliant Ladies and Gentlemen, this is your Captain speaking. We have a small problem. All four engines have stopped. I trust you are not in too much distress. Protection of the speaker/hearer? Humour/Achievement of one s goals?
21 Under- vs. over-statement Definitions and features of overstatement An exaggeration, a tendency to increase the strength, importance, seriousness, etc. of a concept or thing (cf. hyperbole, Ravazzoli 1978) The opposite, or the complementary of understatement (Muecke 1980: 81) Wierzbicka (2003: 277) remarks that Italian speakers prefer emphatic overstatement to cautious understatement E.g. Ho un terribile raffreddore, Mi scoppia la testa, Ho la schiena a pezzi, etc.
22 Under- vs. over-statement Examples of overstatement (1) (11) Non possiamo rinviare ancora, l opposizione ci fucilerebbe. (R. Formigoni) (12) Se Berlusconi mi telefona gli faccio sentire il rumore del mio revolver. (U. Bossi) (13) Monti è l uomo simbolo del fallimento totale: oggi il signor Monti equivale al comandante Schettino che ha portato la nave sugli scogli. (R. Calderoli) Established metaphors of war, fight, disastrous events Hyperbole Similes
23 Under- vs. over-statement Examples of overstatement (2) (14) Malato? Basterebbe vedere le cose che ho fatto in questi 15 mesi di attività di governo per chiarire che non solo non sono malato, ma che sono Superman. Anzi a me Superman fa ridere. (S. Berlusconi) (15) Solo Napoleone aveva fatto di più. (S. Berlusconi) (16) A Veltroni ho detto: sono il tuo Messia, ti libero dall abbraccio mortale della sinistra. (S. Berlusconi) Identification with biblical/historical figures or superheroes
24 Under- vs. over-statement Functions/Effects Unlike understatement, overstatement is neither protective of the speaker nor protective of the hearer. Overstatement is used either to praise oneself or to criticise others. However, the effects obtained through the two phenomena are comparable, in that both facilitate the achievement of one s goals. As for humour, overstatement produces higher humorous effects due to its more evident contrast with the reality of facts.
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