AP Language and Composition Terms

Transcription

1 AP Language and Composition Terms abstract ad hominem argument ad populum argument ad verecundiam argument allegory alliteration allusion ambiguity analogy anaphora antecedent antiphrasis antithesis aphorism appeal to false authority Words or phrases denoting ideas, qualities, and conditions that exist but cannot be perceived by the senses. Some abstract terms are: love, happiness, beauty, and patriotism. The opposite of abstract terms are concrete ones words that refer to things that are tangible, visible, or otherwise physically evident. Hunger is abstract, but hamburger is concrete. An argument that attacks the integrity or character of an opponent rather than the merits on an issue. It is also informally known as mudslinging. A fallacious argument that appeals to the passions and prejudices of a group rather than to its reason. An appeal, for instance, to support an issue because it s the American way is an ad populem argument. This is appeal to authority. While sometimes it may be appropriate to cite an authority to support a point, but when the authority is not an expert in the field, then that person s opinion is not valid. When a basketball star promotes soup, we must ask why we should believe him or her. The device of using character and/or story elements symbolically to represent an abstraction in addition to the literal meaning. The allegorical meaning usually deals with moral truth or a generalization about human existence. The repetition of initial consonant sounds in two or more neighboring words. The repetition can reinforce meaning, unify ideas and/or supply a musical sound. For example: Even though large traces of Europe have fallen or may fall into the grip of the Gestapo, we shall not flag or fail. A reference to some famous literary work, historical event or figure, mythology, the Bible, or popular culture. Doubtfulness or uncertainty of meaning or intention; an unclear, indefinite, or equivocal word, expression, meaning, etc. A comparison that attempts to explain one idea or thing by likening it to another. An analogy can explain something unfamiliar by associating it with or pointing out its similarity to something more familiar. Analogies can also make writing more vivid, imaginative, or intellectually engaging. (Also called duality) Repetition of the same word or group of words at the beginning of successive clauses. For example: We shall fight on the beaches. We shall fight on the landing grounds. We shall fight in the fields and in the streets. The word, phrase, or clause referred to by a noun. A figure of speech in which a single word issued in a sense directly opposite to its usual meaning, such as naming a giant Tiny. It is the briefest form of irony. A contrast of or opposition, either rhetorical or philosophical. In rhetoric, any disposition of words that serves to emphasize a contrast or opposition of ideas, usually by the balancing of connected clauses with parallel grammatical constructions. Our knowledge separates as well as unites; our orders disintegrate as well as bind; our art brings us together and sets us apart. A concise statement or precept given in pointed words, An author who composes aphorisms is an aphorist. ( Three can keep a secret if two of them are dead. Ben Franklin) To draw on the authority of widely respected people, institutions, and texts. False authority occurs chiefly when writers offer themselves, or other

2 authorities they cite, as sufficient warrant for believing a claim. appositive apostrophe argumentation assonance asyndeton atmosphere attitude audience balance bandwagon appeals begging the question causal analysis chiasmus claims climax cliché coherence colloquialism The placing of a noun next to noun or phrase that renames it. A figure of speech in which the speaker addresses a dead or absent person, or an abstraction, or inanimate object. ( Death, where is thy victory? ) G. Shaw Argumentation is the writer s attempt to convince his reader to agree with him. It is based upon appeals to reason, evidence proving the argument, and sometimes emotion to persuade. Some arguments attempt merely to prove a point, but others go beyond proving to incite the reader to action. At the heart of all arguments lies a debatable issue. Involves the repetition of sounds within words. From nose to toes, the body is beginning to sag. No pain, no gain. Conjunctions are omitted, producing a fast-paced and rapid prose. The emotional mood created by the entirety of a literary work, established partly by the setting and partly by the author s choice of objects that are described. A writer s intellectual position or emotion regarding the subject of the wording. See tone. The group for whom a work is intended. Common sense tells us that a writer should always write to the level and needs of the particular audience for whom the writing is meant. In a sentence, a characteristic of symmetry between phrases, clauses, and other grammatical parts. For example, the sentence I love Jamaica for its weather, its lovely scenery, and its people is balanced. I love Jamaica for its weather, its lovely scenery, and because its people are friendly is not balanced. (See also parallelism.) Arguments that urge people to follow the same path everyone else is taking. Assuming as true the very claim that is disputed a form of circular argument, divorced from reality. An example: You can t give me a C in this course; I m an A student. A mode of developing an essay in which the writer s chief aim is to analyze a cause or predict an effect. Grammatical structure of the first clause or phrase is reversed in the second, sometimes repeating the same words. And so, my fellow Americans, ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country. -John F. Kennedy In the Toulmin model, arguments begin with claims, which are debatable and controversial statements or assertions you hope to prove. (See warrants.) Writer arranges ideas in order of importance. A stale, trite image or expression; a hackneyed phrase. The principle of clarity and logical adherence to a topic that binds together all all parts of a composition. A word or expression acceptable in informal usage but inappropriate in formal discourse. Colloquialisms give a work a conversational, familiar tone. Colloquial

3 expressions in writing include local or regional dialects. comparison conceit conclusion concrete concrete detail connotation consonance cumulative sentence deduction denotation description descriptive detail devices diction didactic division and classification dogmatism A rhetorical mode used to develop essays that symmetrically match two items for similarities and differences. An unusually far-fetched or elaborate or fanciful metaphor or simile presenting a surprisingly apt parallel between two apparently dissimilar things or feelings: Grief is a puddle, and reflect not clear/your beauty s rays. The final paragraphs that sum up an essay and bring it to a close. End an essay artfully and quietly without staging a grand show for the reader s benefit. Said of words or terms denoting objects or conditions that are palpable, visible, or otherwise evident to the senses. In the essay section of the exam, details and evidence that relate to the topic. The implication or emotional overtones of a word rather than its literal meaning. Repetition of the same consonant sound within words. A quietness distilled, As twilight long begun. Also called a loose or running sentence. Sentence which achieves grammatical completeness at the start, then lets details accumulate afterwards, after the basic sentence has already closed. This kind of sentence tends to create the illusion of utter spontaneity, as though the mind were spinning itself out naturally, portraying itself in the very process of thinking. Here is an example: At any rate, I d like to stroll about the countryside in Thoreau s company for a day, observing the modern scene, inspecting today s snowstorm, pointing out the sights, and offering belated apologies for my sins. Something inferred or concluded. Deductive reasoning moves from the general to the specific. The specific and literal meaning of a word, as found in the dictionary. A rhetorical mode used to develop an essay whose primary aim is to depict a scene, person, thing, or idea. Descriptive writing evokes the look, feel, sound and sense of events, people, or things. When an essay question uses this phrase, look for the writer s sensory details. Descriptive detail that appeals to the visual sense is usually most predominant, but don t overlook other sensory detail. As usual, after you identify a passage s descriptive detail, analyze its effect. The figures of speech, syntax, diction, and other stylistic elements that collectively produce a particular artistic effect. Word choice. One of the components that make up a writer s style. From the Greek, didactic literally means teaching. Didactic works have the primary aim of teaching or instructing, especially the teaching of moral or ethical principles. A rhetorical mode for developing an essay whose chief aim is to identify the parts of a whole. This tactic undermines the trust that must exist between those who make arguments and those to whom they make them. The writer assumes that a particular position is the only one conceivably acceptable within a community.

4 dominant impression dual narrator emphasis equivocation essay ethos (ethical appeal) euphemism evidence example exposition extended metaphor faulty analogy faulty causality The central theme around which a descriptive passage is organized. For example, a description of an airport lobby would most likely use the dominant impression of rush and bustle, which it would support with specific detail, even though the lobby may contain pockets of peace and tranquility. A description of Cyrano would focus on his nose rather than on an inconspicuous part of his face. Often used in autobiography the narrator exists as both a child and as an adult. The information may be the same, but the perspective often changes. A rhetorical principle that requires stress to be given to important elements in an essay at the expense of less important elements. Emphasis may be given to an idea in various parts of a composition. In a sentence, words may be emphasized by placing them at the beginning or end or by judiciously italicizing them. In a paragraph, ideas may be emphasized by repetition or by the accumulation of specific detail. An argument that gives a lie an honest appearance, a half-truth. From the French word essai, or attempt, the essay is short prose discussion of a single topic. Essays are sometimes classified as formal or informal. A formal essay is aphoristic, structured, and serious. An informal essay is personal, revelatory, humorous, and somewhat loosely constructed. Appeal based on the writer s authority and creditability or presentation of self. From the Greek for good speech, euphemisms are a more agreeable or less offensive substitute for a generally unpleasant word or concept. The euphemism may be used to adhere to standards of social or political correctness or to add humor or ironic understatement. An example: The schoolmaster corrected the slightest fault with his birch reminder. The logical bases or supports for an assertion or idea. Logical argument consists of at least three elements: propositions, reasoning, and evidence. An instance that is representative of an idea or claim or that otherwise illustrates it. The example mode of development is used in essays that make a claim and then prove it by citing similar and supporting cases. Writing whose chief aim is to explain. A metaphor developed at great length, occurring frequently in or throughout a work. Comparisons that are pushed too far or taken too seriously and become objects or concepts. The universe is like an intricate watch. A watch must have been designed by a watchmaker. Therefore, the universe must have been designed by some kind of creator. Translated from Latin, this means after this, therefore because of this. It is the fallacious assumption that because one event or action follows another, the first necessarily causes the second. figurative Said of a word or expression used in a non-literal way. For example, the expression to go the last mile may have nothing at all to do with geographical distance but may mean to complete an unfinished task or job.

5 figurative language figure of speech focus generic conventions genre hasty generalization homily hyperbole image inductive infer interparagraph intraparagraph invective inversion irony jargon Writing a speech that is not intended to carry literal meaning and is usually meant to be imaginative and vivid. A device used to produce figurative language. May compare dissimilar things. Figures of speech include, for example, apostrophe, hyperbole, irony, metaphor, metonymy, oxymoron, paradox, personification, simile, synecdoche, and understatement. In an essay, the concentration or emphasis upon a certain subject or topic. This term describes traditions for each genre. These conventions help to define each genre; for example, they differentiate between an essay and journalistic writing or an autobiography and political writing. Try to distinguish the unique features of a writer s work from those dictated by convention. The major category into which a literary work fits. The basic divisions of literature are prose, poetry, and drama. However, genre is a flexible term; within these broad boundaries exist many subdivisions that are often called genres themselves. For example, prose can be divided into fiction (novels and short stories) or nonfiction (essays, biographies, autobiographies, etc.) Poetry can be divided into tragedy, comedy, melodrama, farce, etc. On the AP exam, expect the majority of the passages to be from the following genres: autobiography, biography, diaries, letters, criticism, essays, journalistic, political, scientific, and nature writing. An inference drawn from insufficient evidence. An example: Because my Honda broke down, all Hondas must be junk. This term literally means sermon, but more informally, it can include any serious talk, speech, or lecture involving moral or spiritual advice. A figure of speech using deliberate exaggeration or overstatement. Hyperboles often have a comic effect although a serious effect is also possible. Often, hyperbole produces irony at the same time. A phrase or expression that evokes a picture or describes a scene. An image may be either literal or figurative. Inductive reasoning moves from the specific to the general. To draw a reasonable conclusion from the information presented. Between paragraphs. A comparison/contrast, for example, may be drawn between several paragraphs rather than within a single paragraph. Within a single paragraph An emotionally violent, verbal denunciation or attack using strong, abusive language. The reversal of the normal order of words in a sentence to achieve some desired effect, usually emphasis. The contrast between what is stated explicitly and what is really meant. The difference between what appears to be and what actually is true. The writer takes on another voice or role that states the opposite of what is expressed. For example: War is kind. The specialized or technical language of a specific trade, profession, class, or other group of people. Jargon is sometimes useful, but when used thoughtlessly, it can become a meaningless expression bordering on gibberish.

6 juxtaposition language literal litotes logos (logical appeal) logical fallacies loose sentence metaphor metonymy mood of a story mood of verbs moral equivalence narration narrative devices narrative techniques Non-sequitur Juxtaposition is the act or instance of placing close together or side by side, especially for comparison or contrast. When you re asked to analyze the language, concentrate on how the elements of language combine to form a whole how diction, syntax, figurative language, and sentence structure create a cumulative effect. Literal and figurative are two opposing characteristics of language. The literal meaning is a statement about something rendered in common, factual terms: A good writer must be aggressive and daring. The figurative meaning is couched in an image: A good writer must stick out his neck. Opposite of hyperbole, litotes (lit-o-tees) intensifies an idea by understatement. It wasn t my best moment. Appeals to reason. These appeals are often given most prominence and authority in U. S. culture. Errors in reasoning used by speakers or writers, sometimes in order to dupe their audiences. Most logical fallacies are based on insufficient evidence, irrelevant information, or on faulty logic. A type of sentence is which the main idea (independent clause) comes first, followed by dependent, grammatical units such as phrases and clauses. A work containing many loose sentence structures often seems informal, relaxed, and conversational. For example: I was surprised to see smoke coming from the chimney because I had passed his house every day and knew that it had been empty for years. A figurative image that implies the similarity between things otherwise dissimilar. A term from the Greek meaning changed label or substitute name, metonymy is a figure of speech in which the name of one object is substituted for that of another closely associated with it. A news release that claims the White House declared rather than the President declared is using metonymy. The pervading impression made on the feelings of the reader. A verb form expressing the manner or condition of the action. The mood of verbs are indicative (statements or questions Joe eats too quickly. ; imperative (requests or commands Shut the door.); and subjunctive (expressions of doubt, wishes, probabilities, and conditions contrary to fact If I were you, I d get another job. Suggesting that serious wrong-doings don t differ in kind from minor offenses. An example: But everyone else does it, too. An account of events as they happen. A narrative organizes material on the basis of chronological order or pattern, stressing the sequence of events and pacing these events according to the emphasis desired. This term describes the tools of the story tell (also used in nonfiction), such as ordering events so that they build to a climactic moment or withholding information until a crucial or appropriate moment when revealing it creates a desired effect. On the essay exam, this term may also apply to biographical and autobiographical writing. The style of telling the story, even if the passage is nonfiction. Concentration on the order of events and on their detail in evaluating the writer s technique. An argument in which claims, reasons, or warrants fail to connect logically; one point does not follow from another.

7 objective & subjective onomatopoeia oxymoron pacing paradox parallelism paraphrase parenthesis parody pathos (appeal to emotion) pedantic periodic sentence personification persuasive devices Two different attitudes towards description. In objective writing, the author tries to present the material fairly and without bias; in subjective writing, the author stresses personal responses and interpretations. News reporting can be objective whereas poetry can be subjective. A figure of speech in which natural sounds are imitated in the sounds of words. (buzz, snap, bang, zip, etc.) From the Greek for pointedly foolish, an oxymoron is a figure of speech wherein the author groups apparently contradictory terms to suggest a paradox. Parting is such sweet sorrow. The speed at which a piece of writing moves along. Pacing depends on the balance between summarizing action and representing the action in detail. A statement that appears to be self-contradictory or opposed to common sense but upon closer inspection contains some degree of truth or validity. He worked hard at being lazy. Absolute seriousness is never without a dash of humor. The principle of coherent writing requiring that coordinate elements be given the same grammatical form, as in Webster s dictum, I was born an American, I will live an American; I will die an American. The effects of parallelism are numerous, but frequently, they act as an organizing force to attract the reader s attention, add emphasis and organization, or simply provide a musical rhythm. A restatement of a text or passage in another form or other words, often to clarify the meaning. The insertion of words, phrases, or a sentence that is not syntactically related to the rest of the sentence. Such material is set off from the rest of the sentence in one of two ways. Either is acceptable. A work that closely imitates the style or content of another with the specific aim of comic effect and/or ridicule. As comedy, parody distorts or exaggerates distinctive features of the original. As ridicule, it mimics the work by repeating and borrowing words, phrases, or characteristics in order to illuminate weaknesses in the original. An appeal to feelings rather than to strict reason; a legitimate ploy in an argument as long as it is not excessively and exclusively used. An adjective that describes words, phrases, or general tone that is overly scholarly, academic, or bookish. A sentence withholding its main idea until the end: Just as he bent over to tie his shoelace, a car hit him. Here is the main idea. A CAR HIT HIM is at the end of the sentence. Having passed his house every day and knowing that it had been unoccupied for years, I was surprised to see smoke coming from the chimney. The independent clause is preceded by phrases or clauses that cannot stand alone. The effect of a periodic sentence is to add emphasis on the power spot. Periodic sentences build suspense to gain emphasis for the main idea. Examples: As confetti showered her head, the old woman fainted. As the laughing crowd swirled around her and as confetti showered her head, the old woman fainted. As the band blared louder, as they laughing crowd swirled around her, and as confetti showered her head, the old woman fainted. Attributing human qualities to objects, abstractions, or animals. When asked to analyze an author s persuasive devices, look for the words in the passage that have strong connotations, words that intensify the emotional

8 effect. In addition, analyze how these words complement the writer s argument as it builds logically. Speeches are often used in this context since they are generally designed to persuade. persuasive essay point of view premise process prose pun purpose red herring repetition repetition resources of language rhetoric rhetorical modes When asked to write a persuasive essay, you should present a coherent argument in which the evidence builds to a logical and relevant conclusion. Strong persuasive essays often appeal to the audience s emotions or ethical standards. The perspective from which a piece of writing is developed. In nonfiction, the point of view is usually the author s. When you are asked to analyze the author s point of view, the appropriate point for you to address is the author s attitude. (In literature, the perspective from which the story is told: first person, third person omniscient, third person limited omniscient). An assertion or statement that is the basis for an argument. A type of development in writing that stresses how a sequence of steps produces a certain effect. For instance, explaining to the reader all the steps involved in balancing a checkbook would be a process essay. One of the major divisions of genre, prose refers to fiction and nonfiction, including all its forms because they are written in ordinary language and most closely resemble everyday speech. Technically, anything that isn t poetry or drama is prose. A play on the meaning of words. Repetition of a single word in two different senses. example: But if we don t hang together, we will hang separately. The commitment on the part of authors to explain what they plan to write about. A side issue introduced into an argument in order to distract from the main argument. 1. The duplication, either exact or approximate, of any element of language, such as a sound, phrase, clause, sentence, or grammatical pattern, when repetition is poorly done, it bores, but when it s well done, it links and emphasizes ideas while allowing the reader the comfort of recognizing something familiar. 2. A final review of all the main points in a piece of writing; also known as recapitulation, its purpose is to accumulate a climactic impact or to cast new light upon the material being presented. This phrase refers to all the devices of composition available to a writer such as diction, syntax, sentence structure, and figures of speech. The cumulative effect of a work is produced by the sources of language a writer chooses. From the Greek for orator, this term describes the principles governing the art of writing effectively, eloquently, and persuasively. This flexible term describes the variety, the conventions, and the purposes of the major kinds of writing. The four most common rhetorical modes and their purposes are as follows: 1. The purpose of exposition is to explain and analyze information by presenting an idea, relevant evidence, and appropriate discussion. 2. the purpose of argumentation is to prove the validity of an idea, or point of view, by presenting sound reasoning, discussion, and argument that thoroughly convince the reader. Persuasive writing is a type of argumentation having an additional aim or urging some form of action. 3. The purpose of description is to recreate, invent, or visually present a person, place, event, or action so that the reader can picture that being described. Descriptive writing can be straightforward and objective or highly emotional and subjective. 4. The purpose of narration is to tell a story or narrate an event or series of events. These four

9 modes are sometimes referred to as modes of discourse. rhetorical question sarcasm satire scare tactics semantics sentence structure sentimental appeal simile slanting slippery slope specific standard English statement of purpose A question posed with no expectation of receiving an answer. For example: to reader: What would you have done? To writer: Was it really what I wanted? Criticizing: How can citizens fail to vote? Asking and answering: Why has apathy increased? Studies show... From the Greek meaning to tear flesh, sarcasm involves bitter, caustic language that is meant to hurt or ridicule someone or something. It may use irony as a device, but not all ironic statements are sarcastic, that is, intending to ridicule. When well done, sarcasm can be witty and insightful; when poorly done, it s simply cruel. The use of wit and humor in order to ridicule society s weaknesses so as to correct them. Satire is often an attack on a person. In literature, two types of satire have been recognized: Horatian satire, which is gentle and smiling; Juvenalian satire, which is sharp and biting. Exaggerating possible dangers well beyond their statistical likelihood. They can also be used to stampede legitimate fears into panic or prejudice. The branch of linguistics that studies the meaning of words, their historical and psychological development, connotations, and relation to one another. When an essay question asks you to analyze sentence structure, look at the type of sentences the author uses. Remember that the basic sentence structures are simple, compound, and complex, and variations created with sentence combining. Also consider variation in sentence length, any unusual devices in sentence construction, such as repetition or inverted word order, and any unusual word or phrase placement. As with all devices, be prepared to discuss the effect of the sentence structure. Argument that uses tender emotions excessively to distract readers from facts. Quite often, such appeals are highly personal and individual focusing attention on heart-warming or heart-wrenching situations that make readers feel guilty if they challenge an idea, policy, or proposal. They keep people from thinking clearly. A figure of speech which, like the metaphor, implies a similarity between things otherwise dissimilar. The simile always uses the words like, as, or so to introduce the comparison. The characteristic of selecting facts, words, or emphasis to achieve a preconceived intent. Favorable intent: Although the Senator looks bored, when it comes time to vote, he is on the right side of the issue. Unfavorable intent: The Senator may vote on the right side of issues, but he always looks bored. This describes an argument that casts today s tiny misstep as tomorrow s slide into disaster. The writer exaggerates the likely consequences of an action, usually to frighten readers. This is a scare tactic. A way of referring to the level of abstraction in words; the opposite of general. The English of educated speakers and writers. What is usually meant by the term is what one s grammar book dictates. On the other hand, nonstandard English refers to terms or practices that are not recognized as standard English. What an author is trying to tell his audience; the main idea that he claims to support in his essay. Traditionally, what distinguishes a statement of purpose from a thesis is wording, not content.

10 straw man style stylistic devices subordination syllogism symbol synecdoche syntax thesis tone understatement voice warrants wit zeugma An opposing view, set up so that it can easily be refuted. The expression of an author s individuality through the use of diction, syntax, tone attitude, figures of speech, connotations, and repetition. An essay question that mentions stylistic devices is asking you to note and analyze all of the elements in language that contribute to style, such as diction, syntax, tone, attitude, figures of speech, connotations, and repetition. Expressing in a dependent clause, phrase, or single word any idea that is not significant enough to be expressed in a main clause or an independent sentence. In formal logic, the pattern by which a deductive argument is expressed. An object or action that in its particular context represents something else. Understanding one thing for another, thus a part is substituted for the whole. Bread stands for food, hands refers to helpers, and wheels means a car. The way an author chooses to join words together into phrases, clauses, and sentences. Good syntax requires correct grammar as well as effective sentence patterns, including unity, coherence, and emphasis. Syntax is similar to diction, but differentiate them by thinking of syntax as a group of words, while diction refers to the individual words. In expository writing, the thesis statement is the sentence or group of sentences that directly expresses the author s opinion, purpose, meaning, or proposition. expository writing is usually judged by analyzing how accurately, effectively, and thoroughly a writer has proven the thesis. See attitude. The ironic minimalizing of fact, understatement presents something as less significant than it is. The effect can frequently be humorous and emphatic. Understatement is the opposite of hyperbole. 1. The form that a verb takes to indicate whether its subject acts or is acted upon. 2. A function of three things: the person in which the piece is written (first, second, third), the tone, and the audience the piece is meant for. Voice also entails what some who write about language and writing call tone. The author s tone is a reflection of author s personality, mood, attitude toward his/her subject, the author s intention or point of writing (whether to amuse, inform, persuade, etc.) and of the author s intended audience. Tone is conveyed mainly through the writer s vocabulary (from colloquial to technical) and through sentence length. 3. active voice or passive voice active: The subject performs the action expressed in the verb. The dog bit the boy. passive: The subject receives the action expressed in the verb. The boy was bitten by the dog. Crucial to Toulmin argument is appreciating that there must be a logical and persuasive connection between a claim and reasons and data supporting it. Toulmin calls this connection the warrant. (See claims. In modern usage, intellectually amusing language that surprises and delights. When two different words that sound exactly alike are yoked together, as in He bolted the door and his dinner. : bolted is actually two different concrete verbs yoking a literal and a figurative idea.

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