VITALITY OF LANGUAGE AND MUSIC AMONG THE LEMI PEOPLE IN SOUTHERN CHIN STATE OF MYANMAR

Transcription

1 VITALITY OF LANGUAGE AND MUSIC AMONG THE LEMI PEOPLE IN SOUTHERN CHIN STATE OF MYANMAR K NU SAN LUNG Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of MASTER OF ARTS IN LINGUISTICS Payap University March 2017

2 Title: Researcher: Degree: Advisor: Vitality of Language and Music among the Lemi People in Southern Chin State of Myanmar K Nu San Lung Master of Arts in Linguistics Douglas M. Fraiser, Ph.D. Approval Date: 28 March 2017 Institution: Payap University, Chiang Mai, Thailand The members of the thesis examination committee: 1. Committee Chair (Professor Somsonge Burusphat, Ph.D.) 2. Committee Member (Todd W. Saurman, Ph.D.) 3. Committee Member (Douglas M. Fraiser, Ph.D.) 4. Committee Member (David M. Eberhard, Ph.D.)

3 Copyright K Nu San Lung Payap University 2017

4 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS My thanks firstly goes to Almighty God for giving me opportunity to study in the Linguistics MA program at Payap University. This study has taught me to realize that all ethnic groups languages, music and cultures are unique and equally valued in the eyes of God. These beautiful creations of languages and music make it possible to express our thoughts, to communicate with each other and with God to build meaningful relationships. Secondly, I would like to thank my first teacher in Linguistics Saya Oliver James Gamache, and my first teachers in Ethnomusicology and EthnoArts Aj. Todd and Aj. Mary Beth Saurmans who guided me to continue further study at Payap so that I can be more equipped for a teaching ministry. My thanks also go to Aj. Art Cooper (former head of the Linguistics department) and Aj. Debbie Hosken who designed a study program that allowed me to study both Applied Linguistics and Applied Ethnomusicology at Payap University. I would also like to thank all of the instructors and professors in the Linguistics Department, not only for their commitment to minister through teaching, but also for listening well and having an attitude of wanting to learn from each of their students. I would like to thank four persons who worked behind the scene, my supervisors, Saya Nathan Statezni and Aj. Mark Wannemacher; Aj. Christopher Wilde (head of the Linguistics Department) and Khun ish in completing the study. I am so greatly indebted to supporters from SIL International and The Seed Company Internship. I do not know their names, but I ask that God may bless each one for investing so much in the lives of others. Special thanks go to Saya Paing Nan and to the Language and Social Development Organization (LSDO) team in Yangon for their advice, guidance, and support during my data collection. I am grateful to co-workers Saya Khiang Maung, Sayama Thandar, and Saya Siang who accompanied and assisted me selflessly during data collection. My deepest thanks goes to members of the Lemi language community in i

5 the seven villages where I conducted research, to members of the Lemi literacy and culture committee, and to the Lemi Bible translators, Rev. Sang Khaw and Pastor Reng Sung, for their contributions in this study, not only for sharing data about their language and music which are close to their hearts, but also for sharing their culture and cooking meals for us every day during data collection. Thanks to them, my participatory research trip with Lemi community was less of a burden and, indeed, enjoyable. Among the many wonderful experiences I had with the villagers and musical experts were: learning to sing in the Lemi s soft, deep, and gentle style, with its beautiful glides; getting to see and hear performances of several musical performance, especially to the courting music played on the bamboo tube zither with its extended listening tube; and tasting wonderful homemade dishes, found nowhere but among the Lemi. Ash curry with pork became my favourite. I am thankful to the many people who were instrumental in the final stages of my thesis program. Among these are my thesis committee members, who invested the time to examine my work and provide helpful suggestions for improving it: Dr. Somsonge Burusphat, Dr. Todd Saurman, Dr. Dave Eberhard, and Dr. Doug Fraiser. Aj. Dave provided many helpful insights, including suggestions on data collection design. I would also like to thank Aj. Wayne Lundsford for his helpful suggestions. I am grateful to Aj. Phinnarat Akharawatthanakun for translation, and to Aj. Terry Gibbs, Aj. Linda Markowski, Aj. Caryn Benitez, Sayama Christina Horney, and Mirna Thijssen for their editorial help and assistance with computer issues. Finally, I would like to thank Payap University s librarians for their help with the details of thesis formatting. To my advisor, Aj. Doug Fraiser, my gratitude is beyond words. Listening to what I say and write, and figuring out what I am truly trying to communicate, takes great patience. I finished this thesis only because Ajarn never gave up on me. Thank you for everything. May God bless you, your family and the Fraiser clan. I am deeply thankful to my parents and siblings, who love me unconditionally and have always supported me and believed in my dream and work, even though they have no idea about ethnomusicology and linguistics. I am thankful to my alma mater, the Liberal Arts Program of Myanmar Institute of Theology for enabling me to ii

6 continue with my further study. To my home church of Tatkone Kachin Baptist Church in Kachin State, to U Ye Ge Karen Baptist Church in Yangon, and to Wunpawng Christian Church, Thailand thank you for your prayers and encouragements. This work is dedicated to my beloved sister in exile, Dee Dee, who is the best musician in our family, and to my best friend and co-worker Siang, who loves doing research and speaks for the least. You two are my inspirations! K Nu San Lung iii

7 Title: Researcher: Degree: Advisor: Vitality of Language and Music among the Lemi People in Southern Chin State of Myanmar Kumshin Nu San Lung MA Linguistics Douglas M. Fraiser, Ph.D. Approval Date: 28 March 2017 Institution: Payap University, Chiang Mai, Thailand Number of Pages: 104 Keywords: Lemi, Sociolinguistics, Culture Change, Language Vitality, Music Vitality, EGIDS, FAMED conditions ABSTRACT Change is inevitable. Minority language communities struggle to maintain their cultural heritage while living in harmony with the nation state. This research assesses language and music vitality among the Lemi in Southern Chin State, Myanmar, using data collected in seven villages between December 2015 and January Language vitality was determined using the Sustainable Use Model Assessment Grid, which incorporates five dimensions of language use (the five FAMED conditions), and music vitality using an adaptation of the Grid. In both cases, vitality was expressed using the Expanded Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale (EGIDS). This study demonstrates that a language community s use of its music is a factor supporting active language use, and suggests that paying attention to the vitality of both language and music can increase the ability of identity-based development projects to foster literacy and to strengthen community. iv

8 ช อเร อง: พล งช ว ตของภาษาและดนตร ของชาวเลม ในร ฐฉ นตอนใต - ในประเทศเม ยนมาร ผ ว จ ย: เค น ซาน ล ง ปร ญญา: ศ ลปศาสตรมหาบ ณฑ ต (ภาษาศาสตร ) อาจารย ท ปร กษาว ทยาน พนธ : ดร. ด กล ส เอ ม เฟรเซอร ว นท อน ม ต ผลงาน: 28 ม นาคม 2560 สถาบ นการศ กษา: มหาว ทยาล ยพาย พ จ งหว ดเช ยงใหม ประเทศไทย จานวนหน า: 104 คาสาค ญ: เลม ภาษาศาสตร ส งคม การเปล ยนแปลงทางว ฒนธรรม พล งช ว ตภาษา พล งช ว ตดนตร EGIDS เง อนไข FAMED บทค ดย อ ความเปล ยนแปลงเป นส งท หล กเล ยงไม ได ช มชนชาต พ นธ ม ความยากล าบากในการร กษามรดกทาง ว ฒนธรรม ขณะท อาศ ยอย ร วมก นในประเทศชาต ของตนอย างสาม คค การว จ ยคร งน เป นการประเม น พล งภาษาและพล งดนตร ของกล มชนเลม ซ งอย ทางตอนใต ของร ฐฉ น ประเทศเม ยนมา โดยใช ข อม ลท บ นท กจากหม บ าน 7 แห งในช วงเด อนธ นวาคม 2558 ถ งเด อนมกราคม 2559 พล งช ว ตภาษาถ ก ก าหนดโดยใช เคร องม อท ช อว า Sustainable Use Model Assessment Grid ซ งประกอบด วยการ ใช ภาษา 5 ม ต (เง อนไข FAMED 5 ประการ) และพล งช ว ตดนตร ถ กก าหนดโดยใช เคร องม อด งกล าวท ม การปร บเปล ยนให เหมาะสม การแสดงผลการศ กษาพล งช ว ตภาษาและดนตร จะแสดงผลโดยใช เคร องม อท ช อว า Expanded Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale (EGIDS) การว จ ยคร ง น แสดงให เห นว า การใช เพลงในกล มชนเลม ม ส วนสน บสน นการใช ภาษาของพวกเขาด วย ด งน นการให ความสนใจในพล งช ว ตภาษาและดนตร ควบค ก น จ งสามารถเพ มประส ทธ ภาพของโครงการการพ ฒนา แบบเอกล กษณ (identity-based development projects) เพ อส งเสร มให เก ดความร และสร าง ความเข มแข งของช มชนได v

9 TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgements... i Abstract... iv บทค ดย อ... v List of Tables... ix List of Figures... xi List of Abbreviations and Symbols... xiii Glossary... xiv Chapter 1 Introduction Background Lemi people and language Lemi culture Language development status Objectives of the thesis research Research questions and hypotheses Scope of the thesis research Contributions of the research Outline of thesis Chapter 2 Theoretical foundations and literature review Sociolinguistics Language shift Language vitality Music vitality Methods of assessing language and music vitality Assessing language vitality Assessing music vitality Multiple abilities: multilingualism and multimusicality Multilingualism Multimusicality vi

10 2.4 Multiple faces: identity, language, and music Identity Collective identity The interaction of language, music, and identity Culture change Mechanisms of culture change Obstacles to culture change: cost vs. benefit Culture change within language: language shift vs. language change Culture change within music Music shift vs. music change Description of music systems Pattern of relationships: social capital and social network analysis Social capital Social network analysis Specifics: the Lemi people, language, and culture Chapter 3 Methodology Data collection tools Research tools used to assess language vitality Research tools used to assess music vitality Calculation of language and music vitality (EGIDS) from FAMED conditions Site selection Participant selection Screening criteria Life stage groups and sampling plan Data collection Chapter 4 Assessing Lemi language vitality Language contact and multilingualism Overview of language use Factors in language use SUM Assessment Grid Chapter 5 Assessing Lemi music vitality Introduction vii

11 5.2 Multimusicality The Lemi music system and its interaction with other musicalities Hybridity Application of the SUM Assessment Grid to Lemi hymns and praise-andworship songs Application of the SUM Assessment Grid to folk songs Application of the SUM Assessment Grid to locally composed songs Connections between the vitality of language and music Summary Chapter 6 Conclusions and Recommendations Conclusions Objectives 1 and 2 for language Objectives 1 and 2 for music Objective Methodology Implications for the Lemi community Recommendations To the village elders To the churches To the Literacy Committee To researchers Bibliography Appendix A SUM Assessment grid for language Appendix B Clans in the research sites Appendix C Lemi Kinship terms Appendix D Lemi Traditional musical instruments Resume viii

12 LIST OF TABLES Table 1 The Expanded Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale (EGIDS) for language and music Table 2 Sustainable levels of language use and music use Table 3 The five FAMED conditions (Lewis & Simons 2015:159) Table 4 Lemi Chin Consonant Phonemes (Herr 2011:41) Table 5 Lemi Chin Vowels (Herr 2011:41) Table 6 Participatory research tools used to assess language and music vitality Table 7 Example of the Language Repertoire tool List of languages used in the community, showing original data and translation Table 8 Population, Fluency and Changes in population Table 9 Example of FAMED conditions showing original data and translation Table 10 Example of Domains-of-Use activity (music genres), showing original data and translation Table 11 Example of relative number of speakers, fluency, and growing and diminishing population by age group for song genres (original data on top, translation below) Table 12 Example of FAMED conditions showing original data and translation Table 13 The five FAMED conditions for language Table 14 The five FAMED conditions for music Table 15 SUM Assessment Grid for EGIDS levels 4-8, for language and music Table 16 Villages in the study Table 17 Study groups Table 18 Number of participants for data collection workshop in each village Table 19 Languages used in each community, with the percentage of the population speaking each language Table 20 Languages most used, by age group and location Table 21 Church history Table 22 Population of speakers by age group and location Table 23 Fluency in languages by age group and location Table 24 Change in language use by age group and location Table 25 FAMED scores and EGIDS levels by location type: Lemi Language Table 26 Song genres used in the communities Table 27 Instrumental music genres used in the communities Table 28 Hybridity in Lemi music Table 29 FAMED and EGIDS scores by location type: Lemi hymns Table 30 FAMED and EGIDS scores by location type: Praise-and-worship songs Table 31 FAMED and EGIDS scores by location type: Folk songs Table 32 FAMED and EGIDS scores by location type: Locally composed songs ix

13 Table 33 FAMED and EGIDS scores by location type for the four genre of music Table 34 Sustainable levels of language use and music use x

14 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1 General location for Eastern Khumi villages (LSDO Survey 2010:iv)... 3 Figure 2 The Southern Chin family tree (So-Hartmann 2008:25)... 4 Figure 3 Lemi women in traditional costume, Lemi New Year festival... 7 Figure 4 Lemi women s traditional costume, seen from the back... 7 Figure 5 Lemi earrings and patterned shawls... 8 Figure 6 Woman in everyday clothing... 8 Figure 7 Woman in everyday clothing... 9 Figure 8 A mother carrying her children with a traditional patterned shawl... 9 Figure 9 Elder Pau Pe in everyday clothing, with traditional turban and earrings, T-shirt, pasoe (sarong) and jacket Figure 10 Musicians and dancers in traditional clothing Figure 11 Rice and traditional ash curry served in traditional wooden tray and eathern bowl Figure 12 Drying wah-u (elephant foot yam tuber) Figure 13 Sustainable levels of language use (Lewis & Simons 2015) Figure 14 the Lord s Prayer from different periods of English Figure 15 Diatonic scale Figure 16 Chromatic scale Figure 17 Example of the Domains-of-Use map Figure 18 Labels for subgroups (age groups) in the speech community Figure 19 Example of the Multilingualism tool Figure 20 Example of the Music Repertoire tool (song genres), showing original data and translation Figure 21 Example of FAMED conditions scoring Figure 22 Percentage of language use by location Figure 23 Unforgettable Lemi New Year celebration incised letter carving on stone tablet (Kayet Village, January 10, 2016) Figure 24 Banner welcoming people to the New Year celebration Figure 25 Banner for the 2016 New Year celebration Figure 26 Multilingualism across Lemi villages Figure 27 Multilingualism across location types Figure 28 Population of speakers by age group and location Figure 29 Fluency in languages by age group and location Figure 30 Change in language use by age group and location Figure 31 FAMED scores by location Figure 32 Ditonic scale in minor third and major third Figure 33 Tritonic scale xi

15 Figure 34 Excerpt from Lemi Children song Figure 35 Tetratonic scale Figure 36 Excerpt from Field Ceremony Song Figure 37 First Lemi hymnal (1987 version) Figure 38 Lemi pre jawng hawi brai (Beautiful Lemi land), Figure 39 Congregational hymn singing during Lemi New Year worship service Figure 40 Lullaby song Figure 41 Paimö song composed by Mr. Ang Tai Figure 42 Paimö, herbs and aromatic tubers Figure 43 Mr. Ang Tai and singers practicing songs for recording Figure 44 Relationship between language and music Figure 45 Relationship between language (Orality) and music (Performance) Figure 46 Relationship between language (literacy) & music (textual transmission). 93 Figure 47 Comparison Chart Figure 48 Sustainable levels of language use (Lewis & Simons 2015:148) xii

16 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS CBLD CCOC EGIDS EVD FAMED GIDS GMSS L1 L2 LSDO LVE LWC MVEF SIL SNA SUM UNESCO VCD Community Based Language Development Chins for Christ in One Century Expanded Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale Enhanced Video Disc Function, Acquisition, Motivation, Environment, Differentiation Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale Graded Music Shift Scale First language Second language Language and Social Development Organization Language Vitality and Endangerment (Framework) Language of Wider Communication Music Vitality and Endangerment Framework Formerly Summer Institute of Linguistics, SIL International is a faith-based nonprofit organization serving language communities worldwide as they build capacity for sustainable language development. SIL ( does this primarily through research, translation, training, and materials development. Social Network Analysis Sustainable Use Model United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization Video Compact Disk xiii

17 GLOSSARY Expanded Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale (EGIDS) FAMED Conditions L1 L2 Language community Speech community Sustainable Use Model (SUM) EGIDS provides a scale for measuring language vitality for any language whether it is used as an international trade language with hundreds of millions of speakers or a language with no remaining speakers. For more detail, see original Lewis and Simons (2015). FAMED describes five aspects of (Function, Acquisition, Motivation, Environment, and Differentiation) which are important in determining the sustainability of a language s level of vitality. The FAMED conditions provide a more detailed framework than EGIDS for assessing the vitality level in the community with a view to identifying activities that the community can do to move their language toward one of the sustainable levels of language use. For more detail, see Lewis and Simons (2015). A person s first language The language that is used as a second language (not a native language) for those who speak more than one language. Language community refers to speakers of language X. Speech community refers to a group of people who have a shared language repertoire, shared norms of using their repertoire and have regular social interaction with each other. The sustainable Use Model is a framework that can help to describe the level of language vitality and identity if it is sustainable or not. For more detail, see Lewis and Simons (2015). xiv

18 Chapter 1 Introduction 1.1 Background Lemi people and language The Lemi people-group, also known as Akelong, belongs to the Easter Khumi Chin group (Simons & Fennig, 2017). The word Lemi [le.mi ˀ] refers to both the speakers of the language and the language itself. Lemi means people and Akelong means wandering. The Lemi people migrated from the Lungke Kayawk mountain area in Southern Chin State and have lived in the current location for over 100 years. The Lemi, who number about 1,750, identify as Christians. There are about 13 villages; 295 Lemi households live in 11 of these villages 1 around Sami Township (previously Paletwa Township) of Southern Chin Hills in Myanmar, near the India-Myanmar-Bangladesh border. The map of the Lemi home area is shown in Figure 1; the region where the population is predominantly Lemi is highlighted in peach color (LSDO Survey, 2010). Lemi is a Tibeto-Burman language and belongs to the Kuki-Chin language group. The Southern Chin language family tree is shown in Figure 2. The Lemi language is related to Likhy, Kaladan Khumi, Khongtu, Nangbawi, Nideun, Nise, Mro-Khimi and other Eastern Khumi varieties. Lexical similarity between Lemi and Likhy is 89%, and between Lemi and Mro-Khimi is 80%. Lemi shares 92% to 93% lexical similarity with Nideun and Khongtu. Lemi is spoken as L1, while Rakhine (a regional trade language) and Burmese 2 (the official national language) are used as LWCs (LSDO Survey, 2010; Herr, 2011; So-Hartmann, 2014). 1 Sonikanong, Kyat Chaung, Sikhawk, Leik Tong, Kayet, Ha Htung, Watay (mixed with Likhy), Song Wa (mixed with Likhy), Wading, Wakyat Chaung and Sinkah Kung (LSDO Survey 2010:9,33). 2 In 1989, the country of Burma officially changed its name to Myanmar. In the national language, the word Myanmar refers to the nation, the language, and the inhabitants of the country. However, in this thesis, Myanmar is used to refer solely to the country, while Burmese refers to the language. 1

19 The geographical situation has provided the Lemi language a degree of isolation. Chin State is a mountainous region with few transportation links, which has limited interaction with other languages. Unfortunately, the region s low population and distance from outside markets has also resulted in the State being one of the least developed areas of the country. In 2013, it had the highest poverty rate among all the country s States and Regions (Maierbrugger, 2013) 3. 3 The Republic of the Union of Myanmar consists of seven States and seven Regions. The term State is used to refer to areas that have a predominantly ethnic Burmese population, while Regions are inhabited by minority peoples. 2

20 Figure 1 General location for Eastern Khumi villages (LSDO Survey 2010:iv) 3

21 Khumi Lemi Mro T aw Paletwa Group Anu-Khaungsho Southern Chin Chinpon Cho Group Matu Ngmüün Daai Mkaang Figure 2 The Southern Chin family tree (So-Hartmann 2008:25) Lemi culture Just as the Lemi language is related to its neighbors in the Eastern Khumi language group, the culture also shares many elements (including cuisine, farming practices, costume, kinship system, festivals and ceremonies, dance forms, melodies, weaving patterns, and tools) with neighbouring language groups. Within the seven villages investigated, the Likhy share the greatest similarities with the Lemi. The Lemi typically marry other Lemi, though marriage to those from other language groups is neither forbidden nor uncommon. They usually prefer to marry someone 4

22 from a different village. In contrast to these loose preferences, there are strong sanctions against marriage to a person in the same clan or in a cousin clan. Clans are defined by patrilineal descent and marked by a common surname. The cousin clan relationship is between two or more clans in a given village; it is not the product of known or assumed kinship, but rather is established by a ritual that defines the clans as siblings. If a person wishes to marry someone from a cousin clan, the couple must first pay a fine to their home village. Young men, therefore, find it wise to ask clan names before courting a woman. The Lemi possess traditional clothing, but it is now worn only for special occasions such as welcoming officials and visitors, Christmas and New Year celebrations, and weddings. The women traditionally wear strings of colourful beads on their hair; a shawl covered with patterns (each with its own name) in dark pink; a colourfully woven cloth over the torso; and a long skirt of black fabric wrapped around the hips and legs, held in place by a broad waistband made of strings of small yellow beads (see Figures 3-7). For everyday use, women wear a shawl of much lower quality, which they also use for carrying children (see Figure 8). The men s traditional attire is a white or pink turban, a regular shirt, and a longgyi; the dance leaders, and a few of the musicians, wear a loincloth and shawl (see Figure 10). In the past, both men and women wore pierced earrings to serve as a mark of recognition for their ancestors when they greeted them after death. Ear piercing took place one to four months after birth. The men s earrings were flat and round (see Figures 9 and 12). Presently, only a few of the old men wear earrings. Most women had their ears pierced as children, and have continued to wear earrings to the present day, though they usually wear smaller earrings than the traditional style. A few of the older women still wear the loop earrings which hold a large, doubleflared silver cylinder from which hang additional ornaments. Traditionally, both men and women wore their hair long, knotted at the head. The men s hairknot was at the top of head, while the women s was low on the back of the head. The men also covered their hair with turbans. Women still follow the traditional style, but few men do so anymore. 5

23 There has also been partial culture change in the matter of ritual and ceremony. The Lemi no longer practice the ceremony they once used to prepare slash-and-burn fields. However, they continue to practice their most well-known ritual, the Coweating Festival, though less often than in the past. For that festival, cattle are slaughtered, accompanied by music, dancing, and a big feast. Ash curry, made with pork or chicken, is a traditional specialty (see Figure 11). Rice is served on large trays, from which participants all eat together. Some villages still use the traditional large wooden trays. While the Lemi have abandoned the Lailang Field Ceremony associated with it, they continue to practice slash-and-burn agriculture to produce rice and other crops. Among these other crops are paimö (the Lemi word for various herbs and aromatic tubers in the genus Kaempefria) and wah-u (the Burmese word, also used by the Lemi, for elephant foot yam tuber) (see Figure 12), which they grow as cash crops. The Lemi also raise domestic animals, with chickens, goats, and pigs being kept in most of their villages. Mythuns (Bos frontalis) and cattle were also raised in the past, but since the development of roads in 2013 and 2014, they are no longer permitted inside villages. A few of the animals are still raised in fields outside the villages. Other aspects of the Lemi culture and situation that are not directly related to the research question appear in Appendices C and D. 6

24 Figure 3 Lemi women in traditional costume, Lemi New Year festival (Kayet Village, January 9, 2016) Figure 4 Lemi women s traditional costume, seen from the back 7

25 Figure 5 Lemi earrings and patterned shawls (Wading Village, January 11, 2016) Figure 6 Woman in everyday clothing (Wading Village, January 9, 2016) 8

26 Figure 7 Woman in everyday clothing (Wading Village, January 9, 2016) Figure 8 A mother carrying her children with a traditional patterned shawl (Hatung Village, January 6, 2016) 9

27 Figure 9 Elder Pau Pe in everyday clothing, with traditional turban and earrings, T-shirt, pasoe (sarong) and jacket (Hatung Village, January 4, 2016) Figure 10 Musicians and dancers in traditional clothing (Wading Village, January 11, 2016) 10

28 Figure 11 Rice and traditional ash curry served in traditional wooden tray and eathern bowl Figure 12 Drying wah-u (elephant foot yam tuber) (Songwa Village, January 1, 2016) 11

29 1.2 Language development status The Lemi have an active literacy program, which has included literacy training in 2002, and training adult literacy teachers in 2005, 2006, and 2009 in various locations within the Lemi area. The committee directing the work has seven members, one from each of the villages involved, and is based in Sami town. The current Lemi orthography, developed by Rev. Sang Khaw and Dr. Helga So- Hartmann in 2000, was adapted from a Roman-based orthography developed in A substantial quantity of material written in Lemi is available. There are several versions of common Lemi hymns and worship songbooks used by the different denominations, printed in 1987, 2010, and Translation of the Lemi New Testament was completed in 2015, and it is expected to be published in In the meantime, trial versions of the New Testament are available in many of the communities and villages (Sang Khaw, personal communication, January 21, 2016). The literacy program has also published a primer and storybooks. In addition, the literacy program has begun producing literacy materials for use in government schools. The new government s education policy allows L1 languages to be included in the subjects taught in public schools, so the literacy committee, in conjunction with retired government school teachers who live in Sami town, is working on Lemi curriculum and textbooks for use in government primary schools in the Lemispeaking areas of Sami Township (Reng Sung, personal communication, December 8, 2015). 1.3 Objectives of the thesis research The objectives of this study were: 1) to determine the current vitality levels of Lemi language and music; 2) to determine whether the current vitality levels of Lemi language and music are sustainable; and 3) to determine the relationship between Lemi language vitality and music vitality. 12

30 1.4 Research questions and hypotheses This study was designed to test three hypotheses suggested by the author s previous interaction with the Lemi: 1) The current level of Lemi language vitality is EGIDS Level 5 (Developing). (EGIDS stands for Expanded Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale). 2) The current level of Lemi music vitality is EGIDS Level 6b (Threatened) or EGIDS Level 7 (Shifting). 3) Lemi language vitality and music vitality are related by community members active use of both for communication. 1.5 Scope of the thesis research While most of the Lemi people live in Myanmar s Southern Chin State and Yangon, a small percentage live in Malaysia and the United States (data from interviews, December 2015 January 2016). This research is limited in part by restricting investigation to seven locations in the Southern Chin Hills, the native area of Lemi speakers. Interviews were conducted with four study groups (unmarried women, married women, unmarried men, and married men) in each location, making for a total of twenty-eight group interviews. Additional data come from individual interviews with key community and church leaders and with musicians, and from on-site personal observations. The scope of research is further limited by the selection of methods of assessing language and music vitality that share a common theoretical foundation. Language vitality was assessed using the SUM (Sustainable Use Model) Assessment Grid; music vitality, using an adaptation of the Grid. Both methods are based on the GIDS (Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale) and its later derivative, the EGIDS (Expanded Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale). While the Lemi possess many different kinds of music, this study focuses on two types of communal singing that are prominent in church and secular settings (namely, hymns translated into Lemi and praise and worship songs), plus two emerging forms of locally crafted song. 13

31 1.6 Contributions of the research The focus of this thesis is to assess the vitality of language and music among the Lemi in Southern Chin State of Myanmar. My purpose in determining the current levels of Lemi language and music vitality is to aid the Lemi people in developing a deeper understanding for their current situation, with the hope that this will lead to the implementation of identity-based development projects and, ultimately, to widespread literacy and a strengthened community. This study will also contribute a new methodology for accessing music vitality that can be applied to both traditional forms and hybridized forms of music, based on the EGIDS and FAMED conditions tools, methods that have been widely used to assess language vitality. It is hoped that this new methodology will not only produce a more valid assessment than previous methods, but because of deliberately paralleling methods already used in linguistics, will also make it easier to compare the vitality of a culture s language and music system. 1.7 Outline of thesis Chapter 2 presents the theoretical foundations for this research, as well as a brief review of the literature related to the topic. Chapter 3 describes the research methodology. Chapter 4 presents and analyzes the data on language vitality, while Chapter 5 presents and analyzes the data on music vitality. Chapter 6 presents the conclusions and gives recommendations for further research. 14

32 Chapter 2 Theoretical foundations and literature review 2.1 Sociolinguistics Sociolinguistics, a branch of linguistics, is the study of all aspects of the relationship between language and society, including the linguistic identities of the social groups, social attitudes to language, standard and non-standard forms of language, the patterns and needs of national language use, social varieties and levels of language, and the social basis of multilingualism (Crystal, 1980). As Eberhard (personal communication, August 15, 2014) clarifies, linguistics attempts to explain language by referring to language, while sociolinguistics attempts to explain language by referring to culture Language shift Uriel Weinreich first used the term language shift in Language shift indicates the replacement of one language by another as the primary means of communication and socialization within a community (Mesthrie et al., 2000:245). Malone (2004) listed socio-political factors, cultural factors, and linguistics factors, adapted from Fasold (1984), Paulston (1986), and Baker (1996) as contributing to shift from the L1 to the dominant language. Holmes (2008:52-63) stated that a language shift mostly towards the language of the dominant language group, sometimes causing the local language to face or be replaced gradually by LWC for communicative needs. A demographic factor is that intermarriage between groups can accelerate language shift. Attitude and values toward language is also another important factor since language shift is slower among the communities where the minority vernacular language is highly valued. 15

33 2.1.2 Language vitality The concept of ethnolinguistic vitality was first introduced by Giles et al. (1977) and defined as a factor that makes a group likely to behave as a distinctive and collective entity within the intergroup setting. Later researchers focused more particularly on the vitality of languages per se. SIL International s (2017) definition of language vitality emphasizes usage, a language with high vitality being one that is used extensively both inside and outside the home, by all generations, and for most, if not all, topics. UNESCO allows somewhat more latitude in how the language is used; speaking for the agency, Brenzinger et al. (2003:16) state merely that speakers strongly value their language and know in which social domains their language is to be supported. However, they also stress [a] positive attitude is critical for the long-term stability of a language. The concept of language vitality is important because of its relationship to language maintenance, language shift, and language death, and therefore to efforts to reverse language shift and achieve language revitalization (Fishman, 1991; Malone, 1997; Lewis & Simons, 2010) Music vitality The natures of language and music have important similarities: both are acoustically transmitted forms of meaningful communication; both are structured; and both have structural complexity and diversity which vary from system to system (Chenoweth & Bee, 1968:205). Moreover, each one conveys cultural patterns through creative forms of communication and is used as meaningful communication among the users (Taylor, 1998; Saurman & Saurman, 2004). Since language and music share similar systems, linguistics has profoundly influenced ethnomusicology through the borrowing of concepts and adaptation of theories (Titon, 1997). This influence is not just between disciplines; language has a direct influence on music per se. As Coulter (2007) points out, when language disappears, related cultural elements often disappear as well. 16

34 2.2 Methods of assessing language and music vitality Assessing language vitality A number of scales have been developed to evaluate language vitality, namely, the Schlie-Landweer Indicators of Ethnolinguistic Vitality (IEV) (Landweer, 1991, 1998), Fishman s (1991) Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale (GIDS), UNESCO s Language Vitality and Endangerment (LEV) Framework (Brenzinger et al., 2003), Grenoble and Whaley s (2006) Levels of Vitality, and Lewis and Simons (2010, 2015) Expanded Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale (EGIDS) Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale (GIDS) The first major attempt to measure the level of vitality of languages was the Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale (GIDS), devised by Joshua Fishman (1991). The GIDS measures disruption to intergenerational transmission of a language by considering two factors: users (the community as a whole, and demographic groups within it) and uses (the functions for which the language is used). As Fishman focused on larger languages, it was found that the GIDS is limited in its ability to assess weaker languages, particularly it was lacking intermediate levels between fluent orality and moribundity Expanded Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale (EGIDS) In order to better assess the vitality of smaller as well as larger languages, Lewis and Simons (2010, 2015) modified Fishman s scale to produce the Expanded Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale (EGIDS; see Table 1). 17

35 Table 1 The Expanded Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale (EGIDS) for language and music (adapted from Lewis & Simons, 2015: , used both for language and music*) Level Label Description 0 International The language (or music genre) is widely used between nations in trade, knowledge exchange, and international policy. 1 National The language (or music genre) is used in education, work, mass media, and government at the national level. 2 Provincial The language (or music genre) is used in education, work, mass media and government within major administrative subdivisions of a nation. 3 Wider Communication The language (or music genre) is used in work and mass media without official status to transcend language (or music) differences across a region. 4 Educational The language (or music genre) is in vigorous use, with standardization and literature being sustained through a widespread system of institutionally supported education. 5 Developing The language (or music genre) is in vigorous use, with literature in a standardized form being used by some though this is not yet widespread or sustainable. 6a Vigorous The language (or music genre) is used for face-to-face communication by all generations and the situation is sustainable. 6b Threatened The language (or music genre) is used for face-to-face communication within all generations, but it is losing users. 7 Shifting The childbearing generation can use the language (or music genre) among themselves, but it is not being transmitted to children. 18

36 Level Label Description 8a Moribund The only remaining active users of the language (or music genre) are members of the grandparent generation and older. 8b Nearly Extinct The only remaining users of the language (or music genre) are members of the grandparent generation or older who have little opportunity to use the language (or music). 9 Dormant The language (or music genre) serves as a reminder of heritage identity for an ethnic community, but no one has more than symbolic proficiency. 10 Extinct The language (or music genre) is no longer used and no one retains a sense of ethnic identity associated with the language (or music). *For application to music, substitute music system or music genre for language Sustainable Use Model (SUM) Lewis and Simons (2015) subsequently used the EGIDS to develop the Sustainable Use Model (SUM), a theory that conceptualizes language use in a community not by focusing on a given language in isolation from others, but by considering the community s entire language repertoire. The model makes an important contribution to the understanding of language shift in its acknowledgement that of the thirteen EGIDs levels, only four are sustainable: Sustainable History (EGIDS 10), Sustainable Identity (EGIDS 9), Sustainable Orality (EGIDS 6a), and Sustainable Literacy (EGIDS 4). While each of these levels is sustainable, they differ as to how much the language is used and in what ways. The EGIDS number is a measure of disruption. A lower number indicates less disruption and, therefore, greater vitality. Figure 13 illustrates this graphically, while Table 2 gives parallel labels for musicality. In addition to this theoretical contribution, the model is also noteworthy in that it was developed to help communities take control over language vitality by providing concrete and practical steps, namely: 1) observing language use to understand their current 19

37 language ecology, 2) assessing the sustainability of their language(s) with the EGIDS and FAMED conditions and 3) planning future community-based language development for sustainable use. Sustainable Literacy- 4 Sustainable Orality 6a Sustainable Identity- 9 Sustainable History- 10 Figure 13 Sustainable levels of language use (Lewis & Simons 2015) Table 2 Sustainable levels of language use and music use (adapted from Lewis & Simons 2015) EGIDS Sustainable levels Sustainable levels of Overall vitality of the level of language use music use language or music system 10 Sustainable History Sustainable History Least 9 Sustainable Identity Sustainable Identity 6a Sustainable Orality Sustainable Performance 4 Sustainable Literacy Sustainable Textual Transmission Greatest SUM Assessment Grid (and FAMED Conditions) The SUM Assessment Grid (Simons & Lewis, 2014) is used to determine the overall status of a language (i.e., determine the EGIDS level) from scores for five dimensions of language use: Functions, Acquisition, Motivation, Environment, and Differentiation. These five conditions, which Lewis and Simons called the FAMED conditions, provide a detailed diagnostic evaluation of the status of a language s vitality, giving information as to the causes of the current situation and further steps for taking action (see Table 3). 20

38 A score from one to four is assigned to each condition for both orality and literacy (Level-0 Absent, Level-1 Uncommon, Level-2 Common, and Level-3 Sustainable.). The scores are totaled to derive an overall score for orality and likewise for literacy. These are then used in the SUM Assessment Grid to determine the EGIDS level (See Chapter 3, Table 4). Table 3 The five FAMED conditions (Lewis & Simons 2015:159) Functions Acquisition Motivation Environment Differentiation Functions (uses, bodies of knowledge) associated with the language must exist and be recognized by the community. A means of acquiring the needed proficiency to use the language for those functions must be in place and accessible to community members. Community members must be motivated to use the language for those functions. They must perceive that the use of the language for those functions is beneficial in some way. The policy environment (including at national, regional, and local levels) must not be hostile to the use of the language for those functions. Societal norms must clearly delineate the functions assigned to the local language marking them as distinct from the functions for other languages in the speech community s repertoire Assessing music vitality A few musicologists have adapted widely used language vitality scales to assess music vitality. Coulter s Graded Music Shift Scale (GMSS) (adapted from Fishman s GIDS and from Lewis and Simons successor to it, the EGIDS) evaluates music shift among the Alamblak of Papua New Guinea by assessing four different music genres (Coulter, 2007, 2012). Similarly, Grant (2014) adapted UNESCO s Language Vitality and Endangerment (LVE) framework to produce the Music Vitality and Endangerment Framework (MVEF), which she used to assess the north-vietnamese vocal genre of ca tru. Unfortunately, both scales focus on preservation to such an extent that they do not allow for adaptation or innovation. 21

39 Ethnomusicologists Harris (2012) and Saurman (2013) employed the GMSS in their studies of indigenous music, but found they could not agree with it completely. During the course of Saurman s study of three different song genres of the Tampuan people of Cambodia, he realized that Coulter s GMSS was designed to assess instrumental music, while he was focusing on song with text. He also concluded that the GMSS and MVEF are tools for evaluating each music genre separately and suggested that both scales are more appropriate for evaluating situations before revitalization. Since this study focuses on communities active use of their music for communication, it likewise appeared more useful to adapt the language-focused Sustainable Use Model to music. 2.3 Multiple abilities: multilingualism and multimusicality Multilingualism Bilingualism or multilingualism is defined as the ability to speak more than one language as an individual trait (Fishman, 1967; Lewis, 2001), whereas the term diglossia, coined by Ferguson (1959), means the use of two or more languages within a society. Fishman further differentiates bilingualism as an individual phenomenon and diglossia as a societal phenomenon (Lewis, 2001) when a community is bilingual and then separates their various speech varieties into separate functions and uses them in different domains of use. Each speech variety is compartmentalized so that they do not ever overlap. One variety is usually used for high functions and the rest for low functions, as a result of community norms, which is a community trait, not an individual trait. Diglossia promotes a stable situation, as the various languages are not in competition in the same environments. This status leads to language sustainability or maintenance. Narrow diglossia refers to the original definition of diglossia by Ferguson, which assumed the different diglossic varieties were dialects of the same language. Fishman s extension of Ferguson s idea, using diglossia to refer to completely different languages used by the same community in a diglossic fashion, can be addressed as broad diglossia (Fasold, 1984; Lewis, 2001). 22

40 2.3.2 Multimusicality Bimusicality is another concept that is useful for understanding the relationships between language, music, identity, and culture change. Hood developed the concept in the process of his fieldwork. He first used it in his article, The Challenge of Bimusicality (Hood, 1960), in which he defined bimusicality as the ability to master and understand two different musical systems at a professional level. He argued that Western music should not displace indigenous music, but should instead recognize indigenous music as an alternative musicality. As examples, he pointed out that some students who were capably trained in Western music had also learned to play music from East Asia and South Asia (for instance, the Javanese and Balinese gamelan, the Japanese gagaku and nagauta, Persian music, and South Indian music) along with native experts, even though they found it challenging in terms of the techniques, scales, and musical language involved. He also gave the example of the bimusical Japanese musicians of the Imperial Household in Tokyo, who had mastered the gagaku dances and instrumental techniques, as well as Western classical music. Titon (1995), another advocate of bimusicality, defines bimusicality as fluency in two or more musics. In doing so, he makes clear the analogy between bilingualism and bimusicality. His background as a folklorist and ethnomusicologist led him to focus on the people making music, instead of considering music an impersonal repertoire to be acquired. He noted that some scholars regarded themselves as complete outsiders to the indigenous music they studied, and stressed that bimusicality is not a matter of acquiring musical technique, but rather is a bridge to understanding a culture through musical experience and through social relations. Nettl (2005) observed that bimusicality is parallel to bilingualism in the matter of developing competence through active participation in different musical systems. He promoted the concept of bimusicality and multimusicality among multicultural societies and multi-ethnic nations, where people grow up in multimusical settings as well. For instance, some musicians in India master both classical and folk music as separate genres and respect the rules of each. Bimusicality can describe bicultural societies such as the Blackfoot people of North America, who master but keep 23

41 separate Amerindian and Western music. It can also describe new hybrid forms, such as African-American music, which incorporates both West African and European elements. As contact between different cultures increases during the twenty-first century, we can expect multimusicality to increase and lead to the emergence of new music styles. Joen (2014) echoes Titon s definition of bimusicality, calling it fluency for two distinct musical systems. She expands on his work in her discussion of the extent and limits of bimusicality and intermusability, the acquisition of two or more musics. Soto (2012) applied the concept of bimusicality to identity in her study of Mexican-American children in a Mexican-American bilingual-bicultural school. 2.4 Multiple faces: identity, language, and music Identity While the fundamental purposes of language are communication with others and the representation of the world to ourselves (Joseph, 2004:15), language is also one of the factors used to identify persons and ethnic groups. People often assume that each person has a single identity, but a number of writers have brought out the complex nature of identity. Hecht and coworkers (Hecht, 1993; Hetch et al., 2005) distinguish three types of identity: personal (an individual s view of himself), relational (his roles in reference to others), and collective (his identities as a member of various groups). Joseph (2004) also recognizes more than one type of identity, though he has more categories: communal vs. personal; real vs. fictional; enacted vs. perceived; and assumed vs. imposed. Rynkiewich (2011) provides a helpful illustration of the multiple facets of identity with a fictional story about a highlander of Papua New Guinea named Mr. Lakan a rising leader of his clan who travels from place to place until he finds a stable job in an urban area to support his family back home. Along his journey, he uses different languages to communicate with others; in the process identifying himself differently to the various people he meets. 24

42 Joseph (2004) brings out that there are at least two reasons that each of us has multiple identities. Firstly, each individual has various roles in society and his or her identity shifts according to the social context. Secondly, in a complex society, where a person meets different people in various circumstances, no one knows everything about other individuals Collective identity Lamont and Malnar (2002:170) refer to Jenkins (1996) collective identity as constituted by a dialectic interplay of processes of internal and external definition. On the one hand, individuals must be able to differentiate themselves from others by drawing on criteria of community and a sense of shared belonging within their subgroup. On the other hand, this internal identification process must be recognized by outsiders for an objectified collective identity to emerge. For instance, Terada (2012) found that Filipino-American identity was being strengthened by Kulintang music, not only their outward identity, but also their inner sense of being Filipino-American, through the process of learning, musicking (creating), and performing in a new context The interaction of language, music, and identity Diehl (2002) wrote about how the Tibetan community-in-exile in Dharamsala (in north India) reflect their life and adaptation of culture through making modern Tibetan music. The author noted the interesting relationship between the different song traditions and the indication of the relationship with the places and people associated with those songs. Though there were tensions on different musical tastes and cultural boundaries among different generations, the younger generation was able to mark their new identity and history in new musical forms and new contexts while still keeping the poetic form in song lyrics. In 1988, the band Rangzen Shonu, comprised of three young refugees living in Dharamsala, released their first cassette, entitled Modern Tibetan Folk Songs, which echoed their life with songs covering topics from political independence to the eating habits of the Tibetan nomads. The Yak band, who performed for a local celebration of the Dalai Lama s Nobel Peace 25

43 Prize in 1989, were encouraged by the Dalai Lama to make new modernized Tibetan songs, which stayed grounded in their roots and at the same time moving into the world community. Davis (2005:53-90) describes a similar phenomenon in her book, Song in Silence, about the Tai Lüe people of Yunnan, China. There, she describes how Tai Lüe artists composed songs using both their language and traditional music to promote a growing sense of identity among their people. 2.5 Culture change Any culture that has vitality that is, life will also possess an attribute common to all living things: it will change over time. This does not mean, though, that change inevitably leads to life. Healthy change brings development and growth that is, sustainability; unhealthy change brings deterioration, disintegration, and death (Fraiser, personal communication, October 5, 2016). It is here that theories of culture change can be helpful, in allowing us to recognize processes of culture change and the likely outcome of different kinds of culture change. Hargrave (1993) describes the four mechanisms of culture change: innovation, diffusion, acculturation and directed change. Wallace (1956) describes the process involved in each case. It begins with an initial status quo. Some difficulty then arises which the established mazeway (the society s way of understanding and dealing with the world) cannot meet. When the established mazeway s inability to meet the society s needs becomes sufficiently troublesome, a few members of the society develop a new way of understanding the world. If enough members become interested in the new mazeway and it spreads through the society, the new mazeway becomes the new status quo. Adams (1977) also presented a model of culture change through culture from another society Mechanisms of culture change Scholars of evolutionary anthropology have studied innovation in cultural systems. Henrich (2010:116) stated that innovation is fundamentally a social and cultural process. Kroeber (as cited in Goldstein et al., n.d.) differentiated two processes of 26

44 culture change, diffusion as a matter of what happens to the elements of a culture and acculturation as a process of what happens to a whole culture. Goldstein et al. (n.d.) also mentioned various definitions on diffusion and acculturation by different scholars and several academic disciplines. However, some writers have considered diffusion to be the driving force behind culture change. Eller (1997) highlighted the past as a connection to ethnicity and identified four kinds of connections: the past as traditional or cultural past, the past as history, the past as myth, and the past as resource. Storey and Jones (n.d.) noted that diffusion may manifest itself differently in two interacting cultures depending on a myriad of factors, including the nature of interaction, the purpose of the trip, and the wants and needs of each group of people. They also suggested that the modern diffusionist paradigm must not only focus on scientifically acceptable evidence for contact, but also examine more challenging evidence, such as oral traditions, which are part of complex human behaviors. Moone (1981) discusses persistence with change, where the process is regarded as just as important as the end result change, since maintenance shapes change. She proposed an analysis of persistence in both its dimensions of form, function, and meaning and in its processes of addition, compartmentalization, fusion, and replacement. Later, McGrath (1984), based on Moone s approach, wrote about the process of change and persistence with some modifications, among the people of Guam, namely, the Indios, the Chamorros, and the Guamanians due to the outside pressure from dominant powers Obstacles to culture change: cost vs. benefit Culture change takes place to meet the needs of a community; however, every change has more or less its own cost in the process. Halmo (2001) describes how, in one particular place, three native North American Indian ethnic groups came together to become the Consolidated Group of Tribes and Organizations (CGTO), defended their common interest, and claimed their land through an evolved collective action. 27

45 Kammerer (1990) discussed why many Akha have not adopted Christianity, and explained that their rejection of Christianity has more to do with Akha tradition than with Christianity. She suggests that a recent increase in conversions might be due to the present generation not learning Akha traditions or to not being able to afford to continue with their ritual sacrifices. These dynamics between conversion and retention of identity reflect the choices they are making in response to their situation Culture change within language: language shift vs. language change When evaluating language vitality, it is important to distinguish between language shift and language change. Language shift refers to the situation in which a community moves away from its traditional language, while language change refers to the situation where a community keeps its language but makes changes within it. Language shift occurs when the language s speakers choose to use another language in at least some situations, resulting in bilingualism, multilingualism, or language death. The choice is not a mere whim, but is motivated by necessity: if the social, political, or economic needs of a community depend on interaction with another language community, the community may decide that their L1 is inadequate for meeting their survival needs. If that occurs, the L2 will be adopted as the lingua franca for interaction with the wider world, and may replace the L1 in some domains of use even within the language community itself. History provides ample examples of language communities adopting the language of the dominant society as a lingua franca: English became the lingua franca among the Native Americans peoples of the USA, and among the Aboriginal groups of Australia living on reservations (Mesthrie et al., 2009:252). When language groups under the same dominant society do not share a common language and need to communicate with each other (e.g., because of trading, or war, or migration to urban centers to seek employment), they may adopt the L2 as their lingua franca, blending it with words and structures from their own languages to produce a pidgin. A pidgin may in turn develop into a full language, at which point it has become a creole. Examples 28

46 include Cameroon Pidgin English, Naga Pidgin in North East India, and Tok Pisin (Pidgin English) in Papua New Guinea (Mesthrie et al., 2009: ). Language shift, as noted above, is the replacement of one language by another in some or all domains of communication by a given language community. Language change, in contrast, is simply modification in various aspects of the language. These may include the lexicon, grammatical features, and discourse structures. For instance, the Lord s Prayer has been used in English since at least the tenth century. However, while English has continued as a language since that time, the form of the language has changed substantially, from Old English to Middle English to Early Modern English to Modern English, as seen in Figure 14 (Mesthrie et al., 2009:109). Figure 14 the Lord s Prayer from different periods of English (Mesthrie et al. 2009:109) Culture change within music Pugh-Kitingan s (2004:45-124) volume on music in Sabah provides an in-depth look at cultural change and resilience in one part of the world. In Chapter 3, she gives a general description and background of instrumental and vocal music genres of the Kadazandusun of Tambunan, examining changes in music function through changes 29

47 in the social and political environments over the past thirty-five years. In Chapter 4, on musical tradition and change on the Sampoton, she looks at how the mouth organ s enculturation and performance context had expanded over the previous 20 years, from solo instrument for personal expression and entertainment to instrument for group performance for welcoming guests and for stage performances in festivals and concerts. Grant (2014) points out that the study of musical transculturation may help us better understand music endangerment and vitality. At the same time, the literature brings out the importance of studying the synergetic oppositions between tradition and innovation, purism and syncretism, and continuity and change. As Grant writes: If cultural traditions should and do naturally change, approaches to supporting music genres need not only to take into account what are often referred to as authentic and traditional musical practices, but also how those practices are situated within changing, contemporary contexts. (Grant, 2014:22) Unfortunately, it seems that Grant neglected to apply this insight in her use of the MVEF to measure the vitality of the Vietnamese ca tru vocal genre. Titon (2009) echoes Grant s observation, suggesting that the most practical approach to achieving for musical sustainability is stewardship, which incorporates the best of the principles from the new conservation ecology. Other writers have made similar observations. Harris (2012:188) noted transmission and innovation were important factors music vitality for the Sakha Olonkho epic tradition. Coulter (2007) suggested hybridization could serve as a way to maintain music vitality for some music genres among the Alamblak. Similarly, Saurman (2013) sees the creation of new songs that communicate intergenerationally as a practical way to promote music sustainability and revitalize music transmission among the Tampuan. Eberhard (2016), who worked as a linguist among the Mamaindê community of west-central Brazil, provides a striking illustration of the role of hybridity as a factor in culture change and cultural sustainability. In his article, When Music Trumps Translation, he mentions the impact of music preference among the younger 30

48 generation due to shifting from monolingualism to bilingualism in the Mamaindê community. Though the older generation liked Scripture songs composed by a pioneer ethnomusicologist using traditional Mamaindê tunes, the younger generation preferred Western tunes with Portuguese words that came from another ethnic group, even though they did not understand some keywords. Later, the Mamaindê asked Eberhard to translate 16 Portuguese Christian choruses into their language; the Mamaindê learned to sing them by heart, and they have remained popular among the community until the present day. Eberhard realized from this event that hybridity serves as a bridge to keep the past alive among the younger generation, and that music can be more effective than translation: one night of translating songs had more impact on that community than three decades of Scripture translation and literacy work Music shift vs. music change The concept of music shift parallels that of language shift: music shift refers to the replacement of one musicality (music system) by another. The replacement may be in all areas in which the society uses music, or in particular domains or genres. For instance, L2 Burmese love songs are being used by young people in their attempts to win the affection of the opposite sex, rather than the traditional Lemi courting songs. The Burmese songs are readily available and popular, while the traditional songs use archaic language that makes the lyrics unintelligible to the youth. In contrast, music change consists of making essentially evolutionary changes to existing music genres, or adapting foreign music genres for use in the local music context in such a way that they fit the local musicality, thereby forming a new hybrid music form. For instance, people of many different cultures have adopted rap music, but with the local language and with modifications in scale or timing that accord with the local musicality. 2.6 Description of music systems Primary musical features are pitch (the highness and lowness of the notes), duration (how long the notes last), timbre (overall type of sound such as flute and oboe), and dynamics (loudness), and texture (Feezell, 2011). Western music is transcribed using 31

49 a staff with five lines and seven notes (C-D-E-F-G-A-B, from low to high). There are five whole tones and two semitones in diatonic scales and there are 12 tones in chromatic scales (see Figure 15 and 16). Time signature indicates how many beats are in a measure and what rhythmic value receives one beat. Figure 15 Diatonic scale Figure 16 Chromatic scale 2.7 Pattern of relationships: social capital and social network analysis Social capital Relationship-based capital, social capital, is the main source of economic and social welfare for its members. Four dimensions of social capital sources are family, community, firms, and civil society. Family is the first source for generation of social capital (World Bank, 2011a). In social capital and community, the historical context plays a crucial role in application (World Bank, 2011b). The distribution pattern in social capital is more important than how many relationships the community members have Social network analysis Social network analysis (SNA) concerns itself with the structure of the relationships within and between social groups. Graham (2000:131) defines a social network as a web of cultivated and maintained relationship ties that spread through society, serving to link individuals to one another, forming a meaningful, purposeful 32

50 community for these linked individuals. It is based first on the recognition that a social group is not merely a set of people who share some particular trait, or who happen to be in the same location; it is a set of individuals who interact with each other on a regular basis (Christakis & Fowler, 2009:9). SNA further recognizes that groups may be comprised of subgroups or network communities, which Christakis and Flower (2009:12-13) defined as a group of people who are much more connected to one another than they are to other groups of connected people found in other parts of the network. The communities are defined by structural connections, not necessarily by any particular shared traits. They distinguished four primary arrangements: unconnected groups (composed of isolated individuals), bucket brigade, telephone tree, and military squad. The arrangement had important consequences, including the speed at which the group can accomplish a task, the rapidity with which information or influence spreads within the network, and the network s ability to survive a member s removal. Network structure is significant not only for the groups, but also for individuals within it. Contrary to popular thought, Kitsak et al. (2011) found that the people who are the most influential in spreading ideas within a social network are not those with higher position or considered the most important (its leaders), but rather those who are located within the core of the network. Eberhard (personal communication, September 20, 2014) has brought out the impact of social networks on bilingualism and monolingualism: the stronger a social network, the greater the influence of the local vernacular. Hence, the vernacular is often maintained longer in strong networks. Conversely, the weaker the network, the greater the influence of outside factors and languages, especially among the middle classes where social mobility is possible. The vernacular is usually lost more rapidly in such networks. 2.8 Specifics: the Lemi people, language, and culture There is relatively little written on the Lemi people, their language, and or their culture. A few linguists have done research on the phonology and grammar. Herr (2011) determined that there are 22 consonants, 21 vowels and 3 tones (low tone / /, mid tone / / and high tone / /) in the Lemi phonological inventory (see Table 4 33

51 and 5). She concluded that the consonant inventory is limited, the vowels are nondistinctive, and there is no contrastive tone marking. So-Hartman (2010, 2014, 2015), a linguist, wrote a series of articles on Lemi grammar. Table 4 Lemi Chin Consonant Phonemes (Herr 2011:41) Table 5 Lemi Chin Vowels (Herr 2011:41) The Lemi literacy committee has published a primer, several story-books, a health book, a book of poems for adult literacy, and an Anglican prayer book. They also published a Lemi hymn book in 2010 and 2015, which consists of several hymns translated from Western hymnals, regional worship songs translated into Lemi and locally composed songs using Lemi tunes. 34

52 Chapter 3 Methodology The main research tool for this study is the EGIDS (Expanded Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale) developed by Lewis and Simons (2010, 2014). The vitality level of language (the EGIDS level) is calculated using the SUM Assessment Grid from the scores for five dimensions of language use (the FAMED conditions of Function, Acquisition, Motivation, Environment and Differentiation). Following the procedures laid out in the SUM Assessment Grid, it is the communities who determined the FAMED conditions scores. However, in order to prepare a foundation, this was preceded by additional assessment activities. The activities will be discussed below in the order in which they were administered. The EGIDS is based on the transmission of language between generations, by two means: through speech and through text. To adapt the EGIDS for use with music, transmission is based on two parallel means: audio transmission (music performance) and textual transmission (through handwritten and printed song texts). The calculations of EGIDS for language and music are shown in section In fact, the means of transmission are not merely parallel; they are essentially identical. Transmission through speech is auditory transmission, and transmission through text is visual transmission. Auditory transmission of language has been labeled orality, and visual transmission of language, literacy. Auditory transmission of music (labeled performance in this thesis) is any transmission through sound, including live performance, playing of recordings, radio broadcasts, etc. Visual transmission of music (labeled textual in this thesis) is the transmission of music through images, including machine-printed or handwritten lyrics (songbooks, personal notebooks, etc.) and machine-printed or handwritten musical notation (sheet music, etc.). 35

53 3.1 Data collection tools The data were collected using participatory research tools originally designed by Simons and Lewis (2014) and subsequently modified by Lewis (n.d.) and Eberhard (n.d.). Minor modifications to their procedures were made to adapt them to the Lemi community. See Table 6 for a list of the tools and their purposes; the remainder of this section provides a brief description of each. Note that, as a direct consequence of using participatory research tools, the data are self-reported by the informants involved. Table 6 Participatory research tools used to assess language and music vitality (adapted from Simons & Lewis (2014), Lewis (n.d.), and Eberhard (n.d.)) FOR LANGUAGE Language Repertoire Domains-of-Use Multilingualism FAMED Conditions Elicits a list of all the languages spoken in the community. Elicits the domains in which each language is used, and detects the presence of diglossia. Elicits the age levels using each language. Derived from the above data; used to determine EGIDS levels for orality and literacy. FOR MUSIC Music Repertoire Domains-of-Use Multimusicality FAMED Conditions Elicits a list of all the music genres (vocal, instrumental, and combined) used by the community. Elicits the domains in which each music genre is used, and detects whether the genre is used diglossically. Elicits the age levels using each genre in the repertoire. Derived from the above data, and used to determine EGIDS levels for music vitality, using two dimensions. The dimension of live music performance parallels that of orality in language vitality, while the dimension of transmission through text parallels that of literacy. 36

54 3.1.1 Research tools used to assess language vitality Language repertoire In the Language Repertoire (Eberhard, n.d.) activity, the participants are asked to list all the languages spoken in their community, beginning with the language that is used most and finishing with the language that is used least. ( Speech community indicates a group of people who have a shared language repertoire, shared norms of using their repertoire, and regular social interaction with each other. Language community refers to speakers of a given language.) Domains-of-Use After listing languages spoken by community, the participants discussed where and when those languages were used (see Table 7). They then drew a visual representation of a Domains-of-Use map (Lewis, n.d. a). The Domains-of-Use map activity indicates domains in which each language is used, and the presence of diglossia, using the following steps: 1) draw a village map of the language community, using one house to represent one family and marking all the major public places; 2) on each location on the map, tape a colored sticker to represent the language or languages used in that domain; and 3) discuss language use in the community (see Figure 17). 37

55 Table 7 Example of the Language Repertoire tool List of languages used in the community, showing original data and translation. (Kayet Village, Study Group 2, January 4, 2016) No. Name of Percentage of Domains-of-Use language population 1 Lemi 100% At home, at church, at cultural festivals and ceremonies, at markets, at village meetings, at work (slash-and-burn agriculture) 2 Likhy 20% At home, at church, at cultural festivals and ceremonies, at markets, at village meetings, at work (slash-and-burn agriculture) 3 Rakhine 75% For trading (selling paimö, wah-u), at markets, to make friends 4 Burmese 75% At school, reading the Bible (Old Testament), to communicate with civil servants (such as teachers, and health workers) 5 Khongtu 10% At home, at church, at cultural festivals and ceremonies, at market, at village meetings, at work (slash-and-burn agriculture) 6 Kaladan 10% During gospel sharing Khumi 7 Mara 1% Trading (when selling cows) 8 Matu 1% When Matu visit the village 9 Khawng 1% When Khawng Cawi visit the village Cawi 10 Nangbawi 20% At home, at work (slash-and-burn agriculture) 11 Nise 20% At home, at work (slash-and-burn agriculture) 38

56 Figure 17 Example of the Domains-of-Use map (Songwa Village, Study Group 1, January 8, 2016) Multilingualism After the domains of language use activity, the Multilingualism tool activity (adapted from Lewis, n.d. b), which focuses on the speakers, was used. Subgroups (according to different age groups) within the speech community were divided as follows: A) Children (age 1-5); B) Children (age 6-11); C) Children (age 12-15); D) Youth (age 16-27); E) Young adults (age 25-45); F) Adults (age 46-65). Subgroup names were labeled on colored paper slips (see Figure 18). The two languages most used in the community were labeled on paper and each language was assigned a different color string. Two large overlapping circles are made with the different colored strings. Subgroup labels were placed within the appropriate circle. For each 39

57 additional language, another string circle was overlaid and the process repeated (see Figure 19). In this research project, the study groups stopped after naming the three languages most used in their location. Finally, participants discussed which language was spoken by the most people. Participants also marked the relative numbers of speakers for each of the languages, their fluency, and the population s growing trends by age group in a table (see Table 8 for an example). Age 1-5 Age 6-11 Age Age Age Age Figure 18 Labels for subgroups (age groups) in the speech community Figure 19 Example of the Multilingualism tool (Kayet Village, Study Group 3, December 29, 2015) Green string=lemi, Orange string= Likhy, Blue string= Rakhine 40

58 In Table 8 below, it shows the relative number of speakers for each language, their fluency, and the population s growth trend by age group showing original data and translation using an example from Wading Village, Study Group 4, January 11, 2016 Number of marks Population Fluency Changes in population 1 Many people Fluent Growing 2 Some Somewhat fluent No changing in size 3 A few Little fluency diminishing 4 None N/A N/A Table 8 Population, Fluency and Changes in population 41

59 FAMED conditions (language) SUM Assessment Grid (adapted from Simons & Lewis, 2014) provides measurements for determining EGIDS levels for Orality and Literacy (see Chapter 4). An example of FAMED conditions scoring for orality and literacy is shown in Table 9. Table 9 Example of FAMED conditions showing original data and translation (Sadi Village, Study Group 1, January 2, 2016) Orality Literacy Function 2 1 Acquisition 3 3 Motivation 3 1 Environment-1 (Governmental) 3 0 Environment-2 (Non-governmental) 3 1 Differentiation Research tools used to assess music vitality Music repertoire Using the music repertoire tool, the participants list all the songs and instrumental music genres used in their community and the names for the musical instruments they employ (see Figure 20). They also draw the instruments if they have enough time (see Figure 21). 42

60 Song genres 1. Lemi hymns (Khumi tune) 11. Burmese gospel songs (Western tune) 2. Lemi hymns (Western tune) 12. English love songs (locally composed) 3. Lemi songs (locally composed) 13. English gospel songs (locally composed) 4. Psalm songs (Western tune) 14. Mizo gospel songs (locally composed) 5. Lemi folk songs (locally composed) 15. Mizo love songs (locally composed) 6. Old Burmese love songs (eg. Sai Htee 16. Hakha gospel songs and love songs Sai s songs) (Western tune, locally composed) 7. Khumi love songs (Western tune, locally 17. Matu gospel songs and love songs (locally composed) composed, Western tune) 8. Folktale songs (locally composed) 18. Ta-aw gospel songs (Western tune, locally 9. Lullaby (locally composed) composed) 10. Burmese modern love songs (Western tune) Figure 20 Example of the Music Repertoire tool (song genres), showing original data and translation (Kayet Village, Study Group 3, December 28, 2015) 43

61 Figure 21 Example of FAMED conditions scoring (Sadi Village, Study Group 1, January 2, 2016) Domains-of-use In the domains-of-use activity (where and when the song and music genres are used), participants list in which domain each song and music genre was used and discussed whether each genre was diglossic or not (see Table 10). Table 10 Example of Domains-of-Use activity (music genres), showing original data and translation (Kayet Village, Study Group 2, December 28, 2015) 44

62 No. Song/music genre Domains of use function 1 Lemi hymns At church, at home, during celebrations 2 praise-and-worship songs At church, at home, during celebrations, at the village center 3 Lullaby At home, outdoors 4 Funeral songs At the funeral house, at the cemetery 5 Field songs While cleaning slash-and-burn areas, at the field tent 6 Sad songs On the way to working fields, in the evening 7 Love songs At home, outdoors 8 Folk/legendary songs Chicken-giving ceremony (during the wedding) 9 Story songs At home, before bedtime 10 Lemi Christmas songs At church, during the Christmas celebration, at the village center (festival area) Multimusicality The Multimusicality activity indicates which age levels are using which songs and music genres in the repertoire. The participants need to grade each subgroup s relative number of speakers, fluency and growing or diminishing population for different music genres (see Table 11). The overlapping circle for the multimusicality activity was omitted due to time constraints. Table 11 Example of relative number of speakers, fluency, and growing and diminishing population by age group for song genres (original data on top, translation below) (Wading Village, Study Group 4, January 11, 2016) Number of marks Population Fluency Change in population 1 Many people Fluent Growing 2 Some Somewhat fluent No changing in size 3 A few Little fluency diminishing 4 None N/A N/A 45

63 FAMED conditions (music) The FAMED conditions provide a measurement for determining EGIDS levels for music performance and music song books (print transmission handwritten text and printed song-books). In this activity, music performance, written music, songbooks and locally produced media are scored (see Table 12). (See Appendix A, sections 3-5, for details of how the FAMED conditions for music are evaluated and scored.) 46

64 Table 12 Example of FAMED conditions showing original data and translation (Kayet Village, Study Group 4, December 28, 2015) 47

65 3.1.3 Calculation of language and music vitality (EGIDS) from FAMED conditions Orality and literacy scoring on the FAMED conditions for language are given in Table 13. Performance and textual transmission scoring for music on the FAMED conditions are given in Table 14. The calculations for EGIDS language and music vitality scores are shown in Table 15. Table 13 The five FAMED conditions for language Condition Orality Literacy Function Acquisition Motivation Environment 0-3 (averaged) 0-3 (averaged) Governmental Non-governmental Differentiation Total Absent =0 Uncommon =1 Common =2 Sustainable =3 Table 14 The five FAMED conditions for music Condition Performance Textual transmission Function Acquisition Motivation Environment 0-3 (averaged) 0-3 (averaged) Governmental Non-governmental Differentiation Total Absent =0 Uncommon =1 Common =2 Sustainable =3 48

66 Table 15 SUM Assessment Grid for EGIDS levels 4-8, for language and music (adapted from Simons & Lewis, 2014) EGIDS 4 (Educational) EGIDS 5 (Developing) The Orality/Performance score is at least 12 and the Literacy/Textual transmission score is at least 12. The Orality/Performance score is at least 12 and the Literacy/Textual transmission score is at least 3. EGIDS 6a (Vigorous) The Orality/Performance score is at least 12. EGIDS 6b (Threatened) The scores for both Orality/Performance Functions and Orality/Performance Acquisition are at least 1. EGIDS 7, 8a, 8b If Orality/Performance Functions or Acquisition is 0, then the determination of EGIDS level is based on the youngest generation of fluent speakers (7 if parents, 8a of grandparents, 8b if greatgrandparents) 3.2 Site selection The research was conducted at seven sites located in Sami Township, Southern Chin State. These were selected to represent four distinct situations: mountain villages with a newly built road (Soni Kanaung, Kayet), a mountain village that can be reached by walking only (Sadi), riverside villages (Hatung, Songwa and Wading), and the township capital, Sami town (see Table 16). Sami town was chosen because it has a significantly higher rate of multilingualism than other Lemi population centers, and because numerous Lemi families have left their villages and moved to Sami town over the last two decades. 49

67 Table 16 Villages in the study Location type Relative Village House- Population Distance isolation holds between villages Remote (accessible only by foot) Roadside (accessible by road year-round) Riverside (accessible by boat, rainy season only) 1 - greatest Sadi Sadi to Hatung: 3.5 miles 2 Soni Soni Kanaung to Kanaung Kayet 2: 4 miles Kayet Kayet to Sadi: 2 miles 3 Hatung Hatung to Songwa: 5 miles Songwa Songwa to Wading: 4 miles Wading Wading to Sami: 7 miles Town 4 - least Sami Sami to Soni Kanaung: 12 miles The data were collected from December 26, 2015 to January 15, This time of the year was chosen (suggested by Pastor Reng Sung) because it is after the harvest. Most villagers are not very busy and are available for a one day workshop. (In fact, they were generous enough to stop going to work in the fields to attend the data collection workshop). It is Christmas and New Year time and the whole community celebrates this special time of the year with singing hymns, dancing and having meals together. 50

68 3.3 Participant selection Screening criteria Potential participants were screened to meet the following criteria: i. The person currently lives in the village studied. ii. He/she grew up in the Lemi area. iii. He/she speaks Lemi as his/her mother tongue. iv. He/she speaks Lemi better than any other language. v. At least one of his/her parents is a native speaker of Lemi Life stage groups and sampling plan The sampling plan was designed to account for three factors: gender, age and marital status. Outside contact and educational opportunities differ for men and women in Lemi society. Marital status strongly affects people s interactions with others, and therefore the languages and music forms they employ in various situations. In addition, marriage is also likely to increase a woman s ability to transmit the L1 to the younger generation, as married women spend a high percentage of their time with their children, to whom they impart their language. Age is likewise important: the younger age group has had greater exposure to the national language and to non-lemi popular music genres, due to ongoing Burmesemedium education, and to making greater use of electronic media. While age and marital status are theoretically independent, they are in fact closely linked in Lemi culture: few young people are married, and few middle-aged or elderly people are single. There are, in effect, two life stages: single and married. Therefore, four groups were sampled in each village: married males 30 or more years old, married females 30 or more years old, single males under 20 years old, and single females under 20 years old (see Table 17). Each group had five to ten or more participants (see Table 18). 51

69 Table 17 Study groups Group Criteria 1 Married males, age 30 or more. 2 Married females, age 30 or more. 3 Single males, under age Single females, under age 20. Table 18 Number of participants for data collection workshop in each village Location Village Participants Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Group 4 Roadside Soni Kanaung Kayet Remote Sadi Riverside Hatung Songwa Wading Town Sami Data collection Data were collected using semi-structured group interviews during data collection workshop; unstructured group interviews when arriving at a research site (typically with village leaders, pastors, teachers, and other prominent local residents); and individual interviews with local leaders and musicians. The questionnaires for language and music were crafted in English and translated into Burmese. They were then tested with one of the Lemi translators. Group interview sessions were conducted in Burmese, sometimes with an interpreter; group discussions were in Lemi. Responses were usually written in Burmese; those given in Lemi were later translated into Burmese. The entire corpus of responses was then translated into English. Three staff from LSDO (Language and Social Development Organization) in Yangon helped as facilitators for data collection: two of these could communicate in Lemi or closely related language. The questionnaires and workshop activities were tested and 52

70 discussed with them on December 24, 2015, with the chairperson of the Lemi Literacy and Culture Committee in Sami. After participating in the data collection workshop, two participants, who are high school students from Kayet Village, became facilitators for the other three workshops. Audio recordings of songs and interviews were made using an H2-Zoom recorder, and those wave files were converted using Audacity 4. Photos and video of community events, present-day lifestyle, and instrumental music and songs were taken. Field notes, interviews and personal observations on language and culture were written down in Word files. Music transcription was carried out with the Sibelius 7.5 computer program. After completion of the field research, Lemi informants in Yangon checked the spelling of Lemi words and translated the collected Lemi songs

71 Chapter 4 Assessing Lemi language vitality 4.1 Language contact and multilingualism Monolingual communities are becoming less common in the twenty-first century. Even though an ethnolinguistic group is generally defined by its own language, group members no longer speak only their language exclusively. Thus, multilingualism is becoming a common phenomenon. As minority language communities seek to maintain their cultural heritage and identity while living in harmony with the nation-state, increased contact with the outside world due to government-mandated changes in the political structure 5, new technology, and roadbuilding makes their task even harder (Saurman, 2014; Lewis & Simons, 2015). Demographic, political, and social-economic factors all shape Lemi language ecology as multilingual, as the Lemi people are in the process of change that persists in shaping their identity, while at the same time struggling to keep their language vital (Moone, 1981; Malone, 2004; Holmes, 2008; Lewis & Simons, 2015). In such conditions, though LWCs or languages of higher prestige are used for communicative needs, it is crucial to manage their linguistics ecology in ways that are healthy for the ethnolinguistic community; if not, these conditions can cause language shift and consequently lead to language death (Fishman, 1991; Mesthrie et al., 2000; Holmes 2008; Lewis & Simons, 2015). 5 Change in the organization of the social structure in order to be more aligned with the national standard. For instance, a village-head was traditionally assigned according to clan or age, but now the role of the village-head has shifted to the village administrator, who is elected and needs to have a formal education that follows the national standard, etc. 54

72 Lemi Likhy Rakhine Burmese Khongtu Baro Nangbawi Kaladan Khumi Kheila Matu Ta-aw Nise Mara Mro Khongsu Mizo Overview of language use Several languages are used in the Lemi area: Lemi, Burmese, Rakhine, Likhy, Kaladan Khumi, and other neighboring languages. Figure 22 and Table 19 show the languages used in each community with the percentage of the population speaking each language, while Table 20 shows the languages most used by age group and location. The data indicates that Lemi is the most-used language by every age group in every research site. It is clearly the primary language, the L1. Burmese, Rakhine, and Likhy serve as languages of wider communication (LWC) or L2: some villages use Burmese and Rakhine; some, Burmese and Likhy; and some, Rakhine and Likhy. Burmese is the national language and official language of education, while Rakhine is a regional trade language. Likhy is a neighboring and related language Percentage of language use Language 10 0 Location Sadi Soni Kanaung Kayet Hatung Songwa Wading Sami Figure 22 Percentage of language use by location 55

73 Table 19 Languages used in each community, with the percentage of the population speaking each language. Remote Roadside Riverside Town Soni Language Sadi Kanaung Kayet Hatung Songwa Wading Sami Lemi Likhy Rakhine Burmese Khongtu Baro Nangbawi Kaladan Khumi Kheila Matu Ta-aw Nise Mara Mro Khongsu Mizo Note: cells filled with 0 indicate situations where there are no speakers of the language in question. Cells highlighted in yellow indicate languages spoken by at least 45% of the local population. 56

74 Table 20 Languages most used, by age group and location Location Village Frequency of use Group 1 (Married males) Group 2 (Married females) Group 3 (Single males) Group 4 (Single females) 1 st Lemi Lemi Lemi Lemi Remote Roadside Riverside Town Sadi Soni Kanaung Kayet Hatung Songwa Wading Sami 2 nd Burmese Burmese Burmese Burmese 3 rd Likhy Likhy Likhy Likhy 1 st Lemi Lemi Lemi Lemi 2 nd Burmese Rakhine Burmese Burmese 3 rd Rakhine Burmese Likhy Rakhine 1 st Lemi Lemi Lemi Lemi 2 nd Likhy Rakhine Likhy Likhy 3 rd Burmese Burmese Rakhine Burmese 1 st Lemi Lemi Lemi Lemi 2 nd Burmese Rakhine Burmese Burmese 3 rd Rakhine Burmese Rakhine Rakhine 1 st Lemi Lemi Lemi Lemi 2 nd Likhy Likhy Likhy Likhy 3 rd Burmese Burmese Burmese Burmese 1 st Lemi Lemi Lemi Lemi 2 nd Likhy Likhy Likhy Burmese 3 rd Rakhine Rakhine Burmese Rakhine 1 st Lemi Lemi Lemi Lemi 2 nd Rakhine Rakhine Rakhine Rakhine 3 rd Burmese Burmese Burmese Burmese Factors in language use Data were collected on a variety of factors with the potential to influence language use. Some of these were economic, including the use of trade languages, the growing availability of media in other languages, employment outside the home area and the consequent use of other languages, while others were social factors, such as population movement and increased likelihood of marriage with speakers of other languages. Data were also gathered on the impact of institutions, including 57

75 government schooling and Christian denominations. Finally, the influence of location was also investigated Economic issues Trade language As Rakhine is the trade and regional language, frequent language contact has been made through trading. In the past, Rakhine workers came to villages to buy crops, and the locals sold rice to Kyaukdaw town in Rakhine State. However, after the Bamboo Flowering event 6 in 2008, the soil became less productive for crops and rice, and as a result some villages had to buy rice from Kyaukdaw. After 2008, paimö and wah-u became high in market demand for earning money; consequently the locals planted paimö and collected wah-u in the forest. These are still the bestselling commodities up to this date Overseas employment Over the past 30 years, some villagers have gone to Mizoram, India, to work; therefore, some villagers are able to speak Mizo. After 2008, many villagers went to Malaysia to work; a few people who came back had learned how to speak Malay. A few people can speak English since it is one of the school subjects. Villagers from Sadi and Hatung reported that Mara is also spoken when Mara people come to buy cows in villages Digital media As the villagers earned money, they bought EVD (Enhanced Video Disc) players, watching Burmese movies, along with VCDs in Burmese and other languages. There are 4-5 EVD players in each village. Some parents even reported that the Burmese 6 Bamboo flowering is called Mautam in Mizo, which takes place approximately every 48 years in Northeast India, Burma (mainly Chin State) and Bangladesh Hill tracts. This bamboo flowering event attracts rats, which eat the flowers and then destroy crops and rice fields. The bamboo dies off, and there are consequent food shortages as well. In 2008, the most affected areas were Paletwa and Matupi townships in Myanmar. 58

76 movies are not only for exposure and entertainment, but that they intentionally show Burmese movies to children because they want them to be fluent in standard Burmese, in order to succeed in learning at school Social issues Marriage with speakers of other languages Intermarriage between Lemi and other Eastern Khumi varieties, namely Likhy, Rengsa, Nideun, Matu, and Kaladan Khumi can also be found (LSDO Survey, 2010). Likhy, a mutually intelligible language, is the most-used neighboring language in the seven villages researched in the study Written communication There is one notable area where Lemi appears to be displacing Burmese as the language of choice: namely in written communication, including on signs commemorating important occasions or announcing community events, and in personal letters. In the past, stone tablets, such as grave-stones, were lettered exclusively in Burmese. Recently, however, when the Lemi decided to celebrate their own traditional New Year, they marked the occasion with a stone tablet written in Lemi (see Figure 23). Similarly, signs giving directions to such events as the Coweating festival, weddings, funerals, and church conventions, which were posted along the roads or trails at major intersections, were always written in Burmese. Now, however, the Lemi are increasingly using their own language on such signs (see Figures 24 and 25). The Lemi are now also writing personal letters in their own language. For instance, when Pastor Reng Sung wrote the villages asking for their cooperation with this research project, he wrote his letters in Lemi. 59

77 Figure 23 Unforgettable Lemi New Year celebration incised letter carving on stone tablet (Kayet Village, January 10, 2016). The incised letters are usually the same color as the stone. The creator traced over them with chalk to make them stand out for this photograph. Figure 24 Banner welcoming people to the New Year celebration 60

78 Figure 25 Banner for the 2016 New Year celebration. The top and bottom lines are in Lemi and the middle lines are in Burmese Institutions Lemi literacy One of the institutions that has had a strong effect on the use and transmission of the Lemi language is the Lemi literacy program. The foundations for the program were started in 2002, beginning with development of interest by some within the Lemi community, their mobilization of others, and the selection of a committee to develop and direct the literacy program. Trainings for teachers, and workshops such as writers workshops, pre-primer workshops, primer development workshops, and curriculum development workshops were held on various occasions in 2005, 2006, 2007, and 2009 in Soni Kanaung, Kayet and Sami. Pilot classes of the children s literacy (for age 5-7 and age 8-10) started in 2005 in Leitung (a Lemi village about an hour s walk from Soni Kanaung), Soni Kanaung and Sami. The literacy workers reported that adult literacy programs are more successful than children s literacy programs. Except for a few elderly women and men, most of the Lemi people above age 10 can read, and half of them can write in Lemi. 61

79 All of the villages have demonstrated considerable support for the literacy program. There are seven Lemi literacy committee members in each village. In addition, the program mobilized the funds to build an office for the Lemi literacy committee in Sami, with each household in every Lemi village contributing KS 1,000. Funds were collected in January 2016, and the building was completed in early The building will serve not only the Lemi literacy and culture committee, but will also be used for community meetings, boarding students, and running workshops for development programs Education According to the data, most of the children learn Burmese and Rakhine when they go to primary school (Basic Education Primary School), which begins at the age of five. Burmese and Rakhine have a lexical similarity of 91% and are both written using the Burmese script (Simons & Fennig, 2017). Lemi is written using Roman script. Rakhine is sometimes used as the language of instruction, but writing is always in standard Burmese. The influence of schooling on females usually ends with the completion of primary education, as most girls in the villages quit school at that time to help their parents with tending the household. Villagers taking part in this study reported that most parents expect their daughters will belong to another s family, that of their future husband. In their perspective, education will do little to prepare their daughter for that role, while she will bring shame to her parents if she lacks expertise in carrying out household chores and swidden farming. Education has also probably had a role in changing the naming practices of the Lemi. The Lemi have traditionally named their children after a grandfather or other relative, or after some special person who has played a significant part in the child s life. While this tradition has not entirely vanished, naming practices have changed significantly. Genealogical data from five informants in four different locations show that many of the children were given Burmese or Rakhine names, due to benefits of identification with the languages of wider communication. A few had been given Christian names in English. 62

80 Bible versions The churches are making increasing use of Lemi. Prior to completion of the Lemi New Testament in 2015, the churches used only the Burmese Bible. During worship services, churches in some of the villages now use the Burmese Scriptures for the Old Testament reading and the Lemi Scriptures for the New Testament reading. Some of the pastors, when referring to the Old Testament during a sermon, read the passage in Burmese and then translate it into Lemi. The Anglican churches in the language area are also using Lemi more in their liturgy. In the past, they used a liturgy book written in Kaladan Khumi, which was the language employed in Anglican churches throughout the Paletwa region. However, portions of the liturgy have been translated into Lemi and are now used in place of the Kaladan Khumi liturgy; the remaining portions are translated spontaneously into Lemi whenever the Eucharist is celebrated Church history and its relationship to language use Affiliation with church denominations and missions might have some impact on language contact in general. The Church denominational affiliations found among the Lemi region are the Anglican, Baptist, Assembly of God, Evangelical Reformed Church, Evangelical Free Church of Myanmar, Church of Jesus Church, Gospel Baptist and Seventh-day Adventist (LSDO Survey, 2010). Table 21 shows the church history in the research sites. There are also occasional visits from other church groups. Gospel teams from the Khumi area of Paletwa usually visit villages during Christmas and in the summer, and the Kaladan Khumi language is used for those occasions. Gospel teams from Matupi Township (bordering Paletwa on the east) have also visited some of the villages, relying on the Burmese language to communicate. During Christmas 2015, pastors from Matupi visited and taught the Bible in one village for a week preaching in Burmese with an interpreter, a local pastor. 63

81 Table 21 Church history Village Denomination or affiliation Notes Soni Anglican The India-based Bible Churchman Kanaung Evangelical Reformed Church Khumi Reformed Church Missionary Society arrived in 1949 and many people converted to Christianity. However, when the BCMS missionaries had to leave the country during the 1960s, those converts joined the Anglican Church. In the last few years, the Evangelical Reformed Church and Khumi Evangelical Church began work in the village and a small percentage of people have joined it. Kayet Anglican since 1935 Baptist since 1983 Evangelical Reformed Church since 1992 Believers Church since 2007 Khumi Baptist since 2014 Sadi Baptist (affiliated with Chin Baptist Convention) Khumi Baptist (affiliated with Tidim Baptist Convention) Gospel Baptist The first people to become Christians in this village were two men who converted in 1970 and joined the Anglican Church. Many others converted in the following years. When the CCOC mission (Chins for Christ in One Century, a Chin Baptist Convention movement) arrived in 1983, most of the Christians became members of the Baptist Church. Hatung Baptist 14 households Evangelical Free Church 10 households Khumi Evangelical 7 households (under Mara Mission) Association Songwa Evangelical Reformed Church Baptist Assemblies of God Anglican mission arrived in

82 Village Denomination or affiliation Notes Wading Evangelical Reformed Church 23 households. The first mission work was by the Anglican Church. The local Anglican Church later affiliated with the India-based Evangelical Free Church, and in 1997 with the Australia-based Evangelical Reformed Church. Baptist 18 households Believers Church 1 household Assemblies of God 1 household Sami Baptist Anglican Assemblies of God Location: isolation as a causative factor Since languages cannot compete with each other if they are isolated from one another, isolation could be a factor influencing the degree of multilingualism in the villages. Specifically, isolation may decrease the incidence of multilingualism. To test this hypothesis, the villages were grouped into four categories, defined by degree of isolation: town, riverside, roadside, and remote. Town refers to the largest village of the seven, Sami Town, which it is the least isolated. Other villages are more isolated from the outside world (and language competition). The remote mountain area, which can be accessed only by walking, has the greatest isolation. Isolation is lessened by being situated along a major river ( Riverside ) or along one of the newly constructed roads. The rivers are major trade routes linking villages to Sami Town (except during flood season). The construction of new roads during the past three years has also allowed increased contact with Sami Town. Such increased contact with Sami Town, and through it with the outside world, exposes the Lemi language to competition from other language communities. Grouping villages into these four categories allows us to assess the influence of isolation. Figures 26 and 27 show which languages are used in each village, making clear the competition between these languages. 65

83 Multilingualism across Lemi villages Sadi Soni Kanaung Kayet Hatung Songwa Wading Sami Lemi Burmese Rakhine Likhy Figure 26 Multilingualism across Lemi villages Multilingualism across villages by location type Remote Roadside Riverside Town Lemi Burmese Rakhine Likhy Figure 27 Multilingualism across location types 66

84 Relative number of speakers During the workshop, the participants provided data on the relative number of speakers of the four main languages within each sub-group by age. The data show that the villagers in each age group (Groups-A to F) use the Lemi language and that it has the highest population of speakers. Burmese is the second highest choice of language used by the villagers. Burmese is first learned by Group-B (above age 6) in most locations; except Sami Town, where a small number of the children in Group-A (under age 6) used Burmese as well, since Sami is located in a multilingual situation. Rakhine, the third most-used language, starts to be used in either Group-B (above age 6) or Group-C (above age 12). Likhy is the fourth most-used language, where in Songwa village a few children (Group-A) used Likhy as well. Table 22 and Figure 28 show the relative number of speakers by age group and location. Table 22 Population of speakers by age group and location Location Village Age group Lemi Burmese Rakhine Likhy A some none none none B many some some none Remote Sadi C many many many none D many many many none E many many many none F many some many none A some none none none B many a few a few none Soni Kanaung C many some a few a few D many many many some E many many many many Roadside F many many some many A many none none none B many a few a few a few Kayet C many some a few some D many some some some E many some some many 67

85 Location Village Age group Lemi Burmese Rakhine Likhy F many some some many A many none none none B many a few some none Hatung C many some many none D many many many none E many many many none F many some many none A many none none a few B many a few none some Riverside Songwa C many some none some D many many none some E many some none some F many some none some A some none none none B some some some a few Wading C many some some a few D many many many some Town Sami E many some many some F many some many many A many a few none none B many a few a few none C many some some none D many many many none E many many many none F many many many none Note: A=age 1-5; B=age 6-11; C=age 12-15; D=age 16-24; E=age 25-45; F=age

86 Population of speakers Lemi Burmese Rakhine Likhy A B C D E F A B C D E F A B C D E F A B C D E F A B C D E F A B C D E F A B C D E F Sadi Soni Kanaung Kayet Hatung Songwa Wading Sami Remote Roadside Riverside Town Figure 28 Population of speakers by age group and location A=age 1-5; B=age 6-11; C=age 12-15; D=age 16-24; E=age 25-45; F=age =none; 1=a few; 2=some; 3=many Fluency of languages The data show Lemi fluency in Group-C to F (all age groups above 12), and medium and little fluency among Group-A and Group-B (under age 12). Burmese and Rakhine fluency level is little, medium, and fluent among Group-B to F (above age 6). In some villages, those in Group-F (age 46-65) are less fluent than those in other age groups. Only Group-E and F show fluency in Likhy. Table 23 and Figure 29 show fluency in languages by age group and location. Table 23 Fluency in languages by age group and location Location Village Age group Lemi Burmese Rakhine Likhy A little N/A N/A N/A B somewhat little N/A little Remote Sadi C fluent little N/A little D fluent somewhat N/A somewhat E fluent somewhat N/A fluent F fluent fluent N/A fluent 69

87 Location Village Age group Lemi Burmese Rakhine Likhy A little N/A N/A N/A B fluent little little N/A Roadside Riverside Town Soni Kanaung Kayet Hatung Songwa Wading Sami C fluent somewhat little little D fluent fluent fluent somewhat E fluent fluent fluent fluent F fluent somewhat somewhat fluent A somewhat N/A N/A N/A B fluent little little little C fluent little somewhat somewhat D fluent somewhat fluent somewhat E fluent somewhat fluent fluent F fluent somewhat fluent fluent A fluent N/A N/A N/A B fluent somewhat little N/A C fluent fluent fluent N/A D fluent fluent fluent N/A E fluent fluent fluent N/A F fluent fluent fluent N/A A little N/A N/A little B fluent little N/A somewhat C fluent little N/A somewhat D fluent somewhat N/A somewhat E fluent somewhat N/A somewhat F fluent little N/A somewhat A little N/A N/A N/A B fluent little little little C fluent somewhat little somewhat D fluent fluent somewhat somewhat E fluent fluent fluent somewhat F fluent fluent fluent somewhat A little little N/A N/A B somewhat little little N/A 70

88 Location Village Age group Lemi Burmese Rakhine Likhy C fluent somewhat somewhat N/A D fluent fluent fluent N/A E fluent fluent fluent N/A F fluent fluent fluent N/A Note: cells filled with N/A (not applicable) indicate situations where there are no speakers of the language in question; in those places, fluency is, by definition, zero. Little= little fluent, somewhat=somewhat fluent 3 Fluency in languages Lemi Burmese Rakhine Likhy A B C D E F A B C D E F A B C D E F A B C D E F A B C D E F A B C D E F A B C D E F Sadi Soni Kanaung Kayet Hatung Songwa Wading Sami Remote Roadside Riverside Town Figure 29 Fluency in languages by age group and location A=age 1-5; B=age 6-11; C=age 12-15; D=age 16-24; E=age 25-45; F=age =no fluency; 1=little fluency; 2=somewhat fluent; 3=fluent Change in fluency over time Most data show a growing number of users for the Lemi language among all age groups, Group-A to F, though the number of users remains unchanged among Groups-A and B in two villages. A diminishing number of users of the Likhy 71

89 language among Group-A in Songwa and Group-B in Sadi might be due to a general decrease in population, or the fact that there are no Likhy churches in those areas. Table 24 and Figure 30 show change in language use by age group and location. Table 24 Change in language use by age group and location Location Village Age group Lemi Burmese Rakhine Likhy A = N/A N/A N/A B + = N/A - Remote Roadside Riverside Sadi Soni Kanaung Kayet Hatung Songwa C + = N/A = D + + N/A + E + + N/A + F + + N/A + A = N/A N/A N/A B = = = N/A C + = = = D = E + = + + F + + = + A = N/A N/A N/A B + = = = C + = + = D + = + = E + = + = F + = + = A + N/A N/A N/A B + + = N/A C N/A D N/A E N/A F + = = N/A A + N/A N/A - B + + N/A = 72

90 Location Village Age group Lemi Burmese Rakhine Likhy C + + N/A + D + + N/A = E = = N/A = F + - N/A = A + N/A N/A N/A B = Wading C + + = = D = E + = + = Town Sami F + = = = A + = N/A N/A B + = = N/A C + = + N/A D = = + N/A E + = + N/A F = = + N/A Note: cells filled with N/A (not applicable) indicate situations where there are no speakers of the language in question; in those places, fluency is, by definition zero. + for groups which are growing = for groups which are not changing in size - for groups which are diminishing 73

91 74 Lemi Burmese Rakhine Likhy Lemi Burmese Rakhine Likhy Lemi Burmese Rakhine Likhy Lemi Burmese Rakhine Likhy Lemi Burmese Rakhine Likhy Lemi Burmese Rakhine Likhy Lemi Burmese Rakhine Likhy Change in language use A (age 1-5) B (age 6-11) C (age 12-15) D (age 16-24) E (age 25-45) F (age 46-65) Increasing Constant Languages spoken Decreasing Sadi Soni Kanaung Kayet Hatung Songwa Wading Sami Remote Roadside Riverside Town Location Type of location Figure 30 Change in language use by age group and location 74

92 4.2 SUM Assessment Grid Language vitality is assessed by using the five FAMED conditions to score language use. Since language is often used differently in speaking and writing, separate scores are determined for orality and literacy. Both scores are then used to determine the EGIDS level. The FAMED condition of environment is divided into two components the political environment (attitudes, policies and practices of the national, regional and local government) and the private environment (attitudes, policies and practices of non-governmental organizations active among the language group); these are scored separately and then averaged to give an overall score for environment. EGIDS scores for language and music vitality were based on a weighted average. The overall weighted population average score for orality is and for literacy is 8.09; the overall EGIDS Level is 5 (Developing) (see Table 25 and Figure 31). An unexpected finding was that the Remote area, which is the most isolated of the four, had the lowest EGIDS score. This could be due to factors such as having had fewer opportunities for literacy training, or to the church denomination in that location providing less support for using the language. Table 25 FAMED scores and EGIDS levels by location type: Lemi Language Remote Roadside Riverside Town Average of location types Average for entire population Orality Literacy EGIDS 6b (Developing) 5 (Developing) 75

93 Comparison by location type Transmission Location type 0 Orality Literacy Orality Literacy Orality Literacy Orality Literacy Remote Roadside Riverside Town Figure 31 FAMED scores by location 76

94 Chapter 5 Assessing Lemi music vitality 5.1 Introduction Language and music are both used for communication (Saurman & Saurman, 2004), and there have been adaptations of linguistic theories into ethnomusicology (Titon, 1997), the differences in how language and music are used make it necessary to assess their vitality in slightly different ways (Coulter, 2007; Grant, 2014). Language is used on an everyday basis, while music is limited in use by the availability of performers, access to a suitable location, time, and the fact that each genre is only appropriate to certain situations (Coulter, 2007; Harris, 2012). Another issue in adapting the EGIDS for assessment of music vitality is determining the music equivalents for orality and literacy. For the purposes of this study, the EGIDS has been modified for music assessment by substituting performance for orality, and textual transmission for literacy. 5.2 Multimusicality Just as bilingualism and multilingualism have become common phenomena, bimusicality and multimusicality have also become common globally and locally (Hood, 1960; Titon, 1995; Soto, 2012). Multimusical means, having the ability to communicate in more than one music style. This communication can be active (performance, equivalent to speaking a language) or passive (listening, equivalent to understanding a language). The tremendous advances in communication technology over recent decades have brought interconnections between music genres that were previously separated, allowing them to influence each other and resulting in increased musical diversity worldwide (Grant, 2014:2). The Lemi people, like many other groups around the world, have also embraced new and different genres of music, using them for the functional purpose of sustaining their collective identity. As they have done so, they have adapted the new music genres in creative ways as 77

95 they live in the present modern world. Table 26 and 27 present the vocal and instrumental genres used in each village, while Appendix E provides a brief description of the Lemi s traditional musical instruments. Table 26 Song genres used in the communities Language Origin Frequency of use Genre Archaic Contemporary Internal External Active Occasional No longer used Lemi hymns (translated Western hymns) Lemi worship songs (translated from Khumi) Lemi praise-and-worship songs (translated from Burmese) Lemi praise-and-worship songs (with newly composed tunes) Christmas songs New Year songs Action songs Children s songs Gospel songs Psalm songs Love songs Choral songs Community (community development) songs Lullabies Folk songs Narrative songs (historic events, legends and stories) Welcoming songs Farewell songs Cow-eating festival songs Chicken-giving (wedding) songs Ritual songs Drinking songs Hunting songs Courting songs Harvest, planting and farming songs 78

96 Table 27 Instrumental music genres used in the communities Origin Frequency of use Genre Traditional instrument ensemble: gourd pipe (kätang), copper gongs (mang), flat gong (nengnyng), copper tray (abi), bamboo panpipes (tungtyng), drum (Aetawng), long drum (saipawng), cymbals (qala) Internal External Active Occasional Guitar (süng tingtyng) Keyboard (ätüng täky) No longer used Guitar, tambourine, short drum Bamboo tube zither (tingtyng) Jaw s harp (Xing xawng) Bamboo end-blown flute (üngpe langby) Elongated bamboo horn (baw) Leaf blowing (eng-awi) Bells (mangxing) 5.3 The Lemi music system and its interaction with other musicalities Lemi music employs three scales. Most of the traditional vocal music (e.g., lullabies and story songs, which are sung as solos, and the Chicken-giving wedding song and courting songs, which are sung responsively) uses a ditonic scale, i.e., a musical scale or mode with two notes per octave. (Figure 32 and Appendix D, Name of Lemi Instruments Song, give an example of a Lemi song in the traditional ditonic scale.) A few song genres, such as Children s Songs are in tritonic scale, a musical scale or mode with three notes (see Figure 33 and 34). The Field Ceremony song is in tetratonic scale, a musical scale or mode with four notes per octave (see Figure 35 and 36). This is the general pattern. However, minor thirds are sometimes sung as major thirds (M3), and minor and major thirds are often treated as free variations in songs in both the ditonic and tetratonic scales. Figure 36, which is an excerpt from the tetratonic Field Ceremony song, shows this variation between minor and major thirds. Modern Western music, in contrast, employs a diatonic scale with eight tones 79

97 and five semitones per octave, in which free variation between major and minor thirds is typically not permitted. The Lemi churches have adopted a number of Western hymns and carols by translating the words from English to Lemi. The translated Western hymns are learned orally. Since they are learned and passed on without the use of printed music, which might preserve the original tunes without variation, there has been ample opportunity for unintentional modification of the tunes. Alterations include the addition of glides and the adjustment of notes to a higher or lower pitch to bring the tunes into accord with the Lemi s traditional scales. Some notes are also sustained longer, to fit Lemi expectations of timing. All of these changes have served to translate the tunes themselves from the Western musical system to the Lemi musicality, so much so that they sound familiar to Lemi ears, while uninitiated Westerners frequently do not recognize the tunes when they first hear them. (or) Figure 32 Ditonic scale in minor third and major third Figure 33 Tritonic scale Figure 34 Excerpt from Lemi Children song Figure 35 Tetratonic scale Figure 36 Excerpt from Field Ceremony Song 80

98 5.4 Hybridity The data show that there has been only limited loss in Lemi music system. Most of the genres have survived. Some have been passed on without change, while others have interacted with outside music to produce new styles. The interaction with outside music to produce new styles is best understood as hybridity, the combination of elements from two kinds within a category (e.g., two languages, two genetic lines of a particular crop, two styles of music, etc.) to produce a new kind within that category. The Lemi have not merely adopted Western music; in the process of adopting Western hymns and carols, they have translated both the words and tunes into the Lemi language and Lemi music system. Rather than resulting in loss from the lemi language and musicality, this has allowed both of them to grow, and to allow the Lemi people to adapt to a new environment. Lemi music evidences both unaltered continuation and hybridity. Table 28 shows the different song genres used within the communities, and the origins of their elements. Note the last line, which describes the situation with Burmese love songs, a genre, which is growing in popularity with the young people due in part to its availability in digital formats, similar to local songs. In the case of Burmese love songs, every element lyrics, instruments used, and melodies have an external origin; thus, their use by the Lemi is not a case of hybridity. Hybridity occurs when at least one of the elements is of internal (traditional) origin. 81

99 Table 28 Hybridity in Lemi music Genre Lyrics Instruments Melody Lemi hymns (translated Western hymns) T T E E Lemi worship songs (translated from Khumi) T T E E Lemi praise-and-worship songs (translated from T T E E Burmese) Lemi praise-and-worship songs (with newly T T E E composed tunes) Lemi Christmas songs T T E E Lemi New Year songs T T E E Lemi Action songs T E T E E Lemi Children s songs T E T E E Lemi Gospel songs T E T E E Lemi Psalm songs T E T E E Lemi Love songs T E T E T E Lemi Choral songs T E (E) E Lemi Community (community development) T E E songs Lemi Lullabies T T Lemi Folk songs T T Lemi Narrative songs (recounting historic T T events, legends and stories) Lemi Welcoming songs T T Lemi Farewell songs T E E E Lemi Cow-eating festival songs T T T Lemi Chicken-giving (wedding) songs T T Lemi Ritual songs T (T) T Lemi Drinking songs T (T) T Lemi Hunting songs T T Lemi Courting songs T (T) T Lemi Harvest, planting and farming songs T (T) T Burmese love songs E E E Note: T = from Lemi music tradition, E = from external musicality 82

100 Musical tastes of the community are diverse as well, due to differences of age and denominational affiliations. A local CD and VCD seller, who goes and sells CDs and VCDs from village to village, reported that Anglican Church members prefer to buy Khumi Christian songs, Assembly of God and Evangelical Church members prefer to buy Burmese Christian songs, and Baptist church members prefer to buy Hakha Christian songs. The four song genres used most often in the seven research sites are Lemi hymns (translated from Western and Khumi hymns), Lemi praise-and-worship songs (translated from Burmese songs), Lemi folk songs, and locally composed Lemilanguage songs. All four genres can be sung by groups, or individually as solos. The genres sung most often by groups are Lemi hymns and Lemi praise-and-worship songs, which are sung congregationally during worship services and social gatherings. 5.5 Application of the SUM Assessment Grid to Lemi hymns and praise-and-worship songs The first Lemi hymnal was printed in 1987 (see Figure 37), the second in 2010, and the third in Most of the songs were translated from Western hymns, Burmese praise-and-worship songs, and Khumi gospel songs; a few locally-composed worship songs are included in the second and third versions. A few Lemi hymns and praiseand-worship songs were recorded onto VCD in Yangon, complete with subtitles, for use in adult literacy classes in villages. However, the VCDs have not reached most of the Lemi population. Despite the fact that so many of the Lemi Christian songs have been taken from exogenous sources Western, Burmese and Khumi (see Figure 33) and simply translated into the Lemi language, this process has produced unique but genuine Lemi music. The Lemi do not simply reproduce the Western tunes; they have also translated the tunes, adapting them to their own singing style, modifying the notes and rhythm to fit their own music tradition (see Figure 34). The two communal singing genres that the Lemi have produced through adaptation hymns and praiseand-worship songs have the highest vitality among all the song forms (see Tables 29 and 30). 83

101 Table 29 FAMED and EGIDS scores by location type: Lemi hymns Remote Roadside Riverside Town Average of location types Average for entire population Performance Textual transmission EGIDS 6b 6b 6b 6b 6b (Threatened) 6b (Threatened) Table 30 FAMED and EGIDS scores by location type: Praise-and-worship songs Remote Roadside Riverside Town Average of location types Average for entire population Performance Textual transmission EGIDS 6b 6b 6b 6b 6b (Threatened) 6b (Threatened) Figure 37 First Lemi hymnal (1987 version) 84

102 Lemi Lemi pre jawng hawi brai, Äpa kätyng aepa lawi sy. Areng üng phung käleng, Mä-ai pre-a aevang lawi sy. English translation Beautiful Lemi land, Let it be blooming like flowers. Glory to God. Let this land be enlightened. Chorus Sa ö si. Sa ö so. Sä-thaw tähang sa ö si. Lemi pre jawng hawi brai. Areng ämüng aesang sy. Ni kähawi lä byng y te thüng-a, Areng tähang sa jawjaw si. Chorus Let s work, Let s work. Let s work for God. Beautiful Lemi land. Glory to God. While there is still time, Let us continue working for God. Kai kangaw awng te phüng, Raw pi saite hai ma awng jaw. Nang bäheng te dawng y. Kangaw te mang-a hail ae vi. Because I am a sinner, I cried in sadness. I haven t realized Your mercy, I have been living in the sinful world. Älawng pre hing te lä, Kätü tänaetä ma byng ai, Nang aethaw ae-y hang. Nitä käni rui haile ai. Living in this world, The time will end so soon. Do not rely on your strength, Your day will wither/end before long. Mä-ai üng kangaw na, Areng, nang te ae-ui ai mang. Kangaw bäheng kü ba. Areng, nang ma bähawi kü ba. My sin I repent, Lord. Have mercy on me. Lead me Lord. Figure 38 Lemi pre jawng hawi brai (Beautiful Lemi land), A Lemi hymn (translated from a Khumi hymn) 7 7 Hymn no. 98. Lemi Hymn, September 2015 version. 85

103 Figure 39 Congregational hymn singing during Lemi New Year worship service 5.6 Application of the SUM Assessment Grid to folk songs A few Lemi folk songs have been included in the adult literacy books. The written form of folk song texts are rare since the songs are performed orally and the lyrics are usually improvised while they are sung. For instance, present day lullabies (locally-crafted folk songs which improvised words sung to traditional tunes) rarely use the old poetic language; the music form has been retained, but the words are modern-day Lemi, which is intelligible to the singer and listener. Lullabies are still sung by parents to their children, and by older siblings to younger siblings (see Figure 35). In contrast, the Chicken-giving song, an improvised responsive form used during weddings, is now seldom performed. Only a few villages have kept this old poetic singing style and it is performed only by the older generation. Likewise, only a few of the old men can still sing the Lailang Field Ceremony song. The data show that folk songs have the lowest vitality level of the four types of music (see Table 30). There are probably two reasons for this: 1) for some of the songs, the words have not been translated into modern-day Lemi; and 2) the songs 86

104 have not been adapted to the Lemi s new lifestyle and new belief system. For one reason or another, many Christians have strong feelings that the music associated with pre-christian rituals is incompatible with their new beliefs. Table 31 FAMED and EGIDS scores by location type: Folk songs Remote Roadside Riverside Town Average of location types Average for entire population Performance Textual transmission EGIDS 6b 6b 6b - 6b (Threatened) 6b (Threatened) Lemi A by. i i i Nang pa ai ma Ka Ya qawng ung Phinphe kadui vavai aidy i i Phinphe kadui ca ai te A by i i i English translation Baby sleep sleep sleep. Your father will bring swallow eggs from Ka Ya Mountain. You will eat swallow eggs sleep sleep Baby sleep sleep sleep. Figure 40 Lullaby song Application of the SUM Assessment Grid to locally composed songs The Lemi literacy program has included a few songs in its curriculum that use the traditional poetic form, but using present day language and a modern music style. However, these are seldom used outside of the classroom situation. The one and only contemporary Lemi song composer, Mr. Ang Tai, who is now 57 years old, started composing songs in As of this time, he has composed more than This lullaby song text was collected during EthnoArts workshop in 2013 at Sami from Lemi workshop participants where the researcher was one of the facilitators. The song text was translated by one of the LSDO EthnoArts workers. 87

105 songs. The Lemi literacy committee regularly commissions him to compose songs for the competitions held during Lemi literacy training sessions and conferences. His songs are popular in the community and sung by all ages. His Paimö Song (see Figures 41 and 42), composed in 2009 for the Regional Song Competition held in Kayet, has remained the most popular song even until today. The Lemi are also working toward producing digital recordings of these new songs. The use of audio and visual recording equipment during data collection in January 2016, inspired Mr. Ang Tai, to teach a band of local singers fifteen of his songs and lead them in a live performance (see Figure 43). They are now planning to record these songs for their first album at a studio in Paletwa. Despite the growing popularity of locally composed songs, only two of the villages included them as a major category of music. Even so, the data indicate that the vitality of locally composed songs is higher than that of folk songs (see Table 32). Table 32 FAMED and EGIDS scores by location type: Locally composed songs Soni Kanaung Sami Average of location types Performance Textual transmission EGIDS 6b 6b 6b (Threatened) Lemi Text Lemi pre ävang käting ky. Sathaw pre tähang paimö vang käting. Sathaw pre tähang kälu sai hai naw te vi. Aw, muilaw kä la na tähang vi. Käni pre üng ingthawng mätung haw saite vi. Lemi pre aevang hai haw hethang vi. Sathaw üng tähang kähawi lä, Käni qütä tähang kähawi to hethang. Lemi pre thüng paimö vang ting bärai te thüng-a. Aethaw sa kha kälu sa ö si. Käving pre ang hai haw by hethang sa ö si. Lemi pre tähang kähawi tyng dy. 88

106 Lemi Text Lemi pre tähang kähawi dy. Sathaw üng bälung naw hai saite lä, Käni pre tähang muilaw käsö saite vi. Lemi pre paimö kätung ky lä. Käving pre-a kälu sa hai haw hethang vi. Tahang kähawi lä tyng jaw jaw sy. English translation The most precious Lemi land. Paimö is precious for God s kingdom. Let us work for God s kingdom. Oh, it is for the lost souls. It is investing heavenly treasure. It is to light Lemi land. God has blessed us, To count blessings every day. When we know the value of Paimö Lemi Land. Let s work hard with integrity. Let s work to light the land of darkness. The blessing has arrived in Lemi land. Lemi land is the best. But the thing that touches God is, To save souls for the heavenly Kingdom. Paimö Lemi land is the most precious. It helps to work good in the land of darkness. Let there be blessing always. Figure 41 Paimö song composed by Mr. Ang Tai 89

107 Figure 42 Paimö, herbs and aromatic tubers Figure 43 Mr. Ang Tai and singers practicing songs for recording (January 15, 2016) 90

108 5.8 Connections between the vitality of language and music One of the objectives of this study was to determine the relationship between Lemi language vitality and music vitality. This objective was then posed as a hypothesis, namely, that Lemi language vitality and music vitality are related by community members active use of both for communication. This hypothesis was tested through statistical correlation between language and music vitality, varying the factors of comparison in order to determine which were most influential. Language and music vitality were quantified using the FAMED condition scores, and correlations determined between the rankings of the scores. The overall correlations between language and music according FAMED conditions result were strong (0.64, or 64%) and positive (see Figure 44). The relationship between language and music is strongest in the Anglican-majority villages of Soni Kanaung and Kayet. This may be due to that denomination having a tradition of strong support for both Lemi language and music in their liturgy. The correlation between orality (language passed on auditorily) and music performance (music passed on auditorily) is even higher (69%; see Figure 45). The multilingual area of Sami scored lowest for orality, while the riverside village of Hatung scored lowest for music performance. The result in Hatung might be due to either of two reasons: first, there is only a primary school in Hatung, and most of the young people go to Sami to continue their education; second, most of the young people, who are the most active in music performance, leave the village during their young-adult years to go to Malaysia and other places in Myanmar to support their families. The correlation between literacy (transmission of language through text) and music textual transmission (that is, using printed or hand-written lyrics) is less strong (42% in absolute value) and surprisingly, negative (-0.42; see Figure 46). That is, as textual transmission of language increases, textual transmission of music decreases. Closer examination of the data shows the negative relationship. The literacy score is lowest in Hatung, perhaps due to there being fewer literacy workers in that area and to literacy training being held less often. The second lowest score was in Sadi, which is in a mountainous area and the most isolated of all the villages. What is most 91

109 significant, though, is that the Lemi literacy score is generally low in all seven locations. It appears this is not due to competition from other languages, but rather to the fact that the Lemi typically do not communicate with one another through text. Written communication is most often with the outside world, and is therefore conducted using Burmese. But while isolation probably has little to no influence on Lemi literacy, it may well be linked to the textual transmission of music. The village of Sadi had the highest ranking for the textual transmission of music. Its geographical isolation provides less opportunity for community members to learn new songs by hearing them, which makes the use of textual transmission more valuable. Sadi village appears to have a strong interest in music: the winner of the Regional Song Competition between the Lemi villages, held during the 2009 Lemi literacy conference, was a singer from Sadi. FAMED (language) FAMED (music) Sami 1 2 Hatung 2 1 Songwa 5 3 Wading 4 4 Soni Kanaung 7 5 Kayet 6 7 Sadi Figure 44 Relationship between language and music 92

110 FAMED (oral) FAMED (performance) Sami 1 2 Hatung 3 1 Songwa 5 3 Wading 2 5 Soni Kanaung 7 7 Kayet 6 6 Sadi Figure 45 Relationship between language (Orality) and music (Performance) FAMED (literacy) FAMED (text) Sami 3 3 Hatung 1 6 Songwa 3 1 Wading 6 5 Soni Kanaung 7 2 Kayet 5 4 Sadi Figure 46 Relationship between language (literacy) & music (textual transmission) 93

111 Performance Texual transmission Performance Texual transmission Performance Texual transmission Performance Texual transmission 5.9 Summary The data support the hypothesis that the vitality of language and music are related, though unfortunately the sample size is too small to provide high statistical significance. However, the evidence for the vitality levels themselves clearly establishes that all four types of music are at EGIDS Level 6b (Threatened). However, a comparison of the EGIDS scores for the four genres of music studied (Figure 47 and Table 33) shows that the communal singing of Lemi hymns has the highest vitality, with the communal singing of praise-and-worship songs coming in second, locally-composed songs coming next, and locally-crafted folk songs (improvised words sung to traditional tunes) coming in fourth. The data suggest that having the freedom to adapt both foreign and ancient genres to present day language and situations is a key factor in achieving music vitality. Or to state it in academic language: hybridity is the key to sustaining language and culture in the modern-day context (Malone, 2004; Coulter, 2007; Eberhard, 2016) Comparison chart Transmission Song genre Lemi hymns Praise-andworship songs Folk song Locally composed song Town Riverside Roadside Remote Figure 47 Comparison Chart 94

112 95 Table 33 FAMED and EGIDS scores by location type for the four genre of music FAMED scores and EGIDS levels Mode of Average of Average for entire Genre transmission Remote Roadside* Riverside Town location types population Lemi hymn Performance Textual EGIDS level 6b 6b 6b 6b 6b (Threatened) 6b (Threatened) Praise-and-worship songs Performance Textual EGIDS 6b 6b 6b 6b 6b (Threatened) 6b (Threatened) Folk songs Performance Textual EGIDS 6b 6b 6b 6b (Threatened) 6b (Threatened) Locally composed songs Performance Textual EGIDS 6b 6b 6b (Threatened) *Data on locally composed songs in Roadside locations from Soni Kanaung only. 95

113 Chapter 6 Conclusions and Recommendations 6.1 Conclusions In summarizing the findings from this study, we will address each of the research objectives and then turn to the methodology Objectives 1 and 2 for language In conclusion, the vitality level of the Lemi language is currently EGIDS Level 5 (Developing). This means the language is in vigorous use, with literature in a standardized form being used by some though this is not yet widespread or sustainable (Lewis & Simons, 2015:105). As the vitality is above EGIDS Level 6a (Vigorous) but below Level 4 (Educational), the Lemi language has attained Sustainable Orality but not Sustainable Literacy, meaning that at this point in time, the language is sustainable in oral from but not written (see Figure 36). Figure 48 Sustainable levels of language use (Lewis & Simons 2015:148) 96

114 6.1.2 Objectives 1 and 2 for music Lemi music currently is in a less secure position. It has a vitality of EGIDS Level 6b (Threatened), meaning that it is being used for face-to-face communication within all generations, but it is losing users. Lemi music is threatened indeed, with its vitality being slightly below EGIDS Level 6a, it is currently sustainable only at the level of Sustainable Identity (see Table 34). However, with only a slight increase in vigor, Lemi music will attain, Sustainable Performance. Table 34 Sustainable levels of language use and music use (adapted from Lewis & Simons 2015) EGIDS Sustainable levels Sustainable levels of Overall vitality of level of language use music use the language or music system 10 Sustainable History Sustainable History Least 9 Sustainable Identity Sustainable Identity 6a Sustainable Orality Sustainable Performance 4 Sustainable Literacy Sustainable Textual Transmission Greatest However, the situation is more complex than the overall vitality level suggests. The data show that songs using archaic poetic forms (for instance, Chicken-giving wedding songs, Lailang Field ceremony songs, courting songs, legendary songs and history songs) have much lower vitality than other forms of Lemi music. The songs using archaic forms are in EGIDS level 8a (Moribund), the only remaining users of the music are of the grandparent generation or older, or EGIDS level 9 (Dormant), the music serves only as a reminder of ethnic identity, with no one having more than a symbolic proficiency (Lewis & Simons, 2015:106). The profound difference in EGIDS levels between songs using archaic forms and the other genres studied indicates that the ability to adapt traditional forms for use in new situations strongly contributes to music vitality. 97

115 6.1.3 Objective 3 While study shows that Lemi language vitality and music vitality are related through the community members use of both for communication, it is clear that the vitality of Lemi music is lower than of the Lemi language. This is due in part to differences in when language and music are used. Unlike language, which is used for day-to-day communication, music is used in more limited situations: communal holiday celebrations, congregational worship services on Sundays and religious holidays, songs to promote community development, songs to teach literacy (in classroom settings), and occasional individual use (as lullabies). Changes in the culture at large have contributed to the differences in when language and music are used. When the Lemi turned in large numbers to Christianity in the middle of the twentieth century, they stopped using traditional music genres that were closely related to pre-christian rituals, and instead adopted (and modified) new genres from external sources for communal and solo singing. At the same time, culture change has also brought a significant increase in institutional support for the Lemi s music and language. As Saurman (2013) points out, social groups and institutions are the means by which cultural knowledge is passed on, and changes in social structure and norms are therefore profoundly disrupt the intergenerational transmission of language and music. Culture change has had mixed effects in the case of Lemi language. The promotion of Burmese through the national educational system and increasing pressure to use Burmese and Rakhine as languages of wider communication, have tended to make Lemi a purely oral language. Other factors, though, work to resist this change. The Lemi language is being actively and effectively transmitted from one generation to another, in the home and in regular community life. Literacy classes, conducted by a secular committee, are resulting in an increasing number of Lemi becoming literate in their own language. The churches also support use of the Lemi language, employing it as the sole language for its weekly meetings, and actively promoting translation of the Christian Scriptures and liturgies into Lemi. Finally, there is increasing support for Lemi from within the education system itself. 98

116 However, in case of music transmission, each of the church denominations uses Lemi-language music in their weekly worship services, as well as on religious holidays; in doing so, the church has become the main mechanism for transmission of Lemi music through those hymns, which are sung whenever family worship takes place, unlike in the pre-christian days. The church denominations are providing institutional support to the Lemi language as well, through their efforts to translate the Bible into Lemi, their use of the translated Bible portions in their weekly meetings and in Bible studies, the use (in liturgical denominations) of Lemi-language liturgy, and their support for Lemi-language literacy classes being conducted by the Lemi s secular literacy organization. The Lemi Literacy Committee is leveraging further institutional support from the national educational system through its work, going on at the time of this research, to produce a Lemi literacy curriculum for use in government schools. Further progress in making literacy instruction available to both children and adults may make it possible for the Lemi language to achieve EGIDS Level 4 (Educational) vitality in the future, and thus attain sustainable literacy Methodology To this researcher s knowledge, this thesis study is the first time that the EGIDS has been adapted for use in assessing the vitality of a music system. There is much to commend this approach from a theoretical perspective. As language and music are both channels of communication, any method for assessing the vitality of language should also be applicable to music, so long as the factors used to determine vitality are expressed in terms that can be applied to any channel of communication. This study has demonstrated that such an adaptation is possible. It has also demonstrated that adapting the EGIDS for use with music facilitates the assessment of two channels of communication with the investment of only a modicum of additional time. Investigation of language and music at the same time makes it much easier to see relationships between the two. This study has also brought out the importance of considering hybrid forms when assessing the vitality of language or music. Acceptance of hybrid forms as belonging 99

117 to the language or music system essentially, treating them as dialects of the traditional or standard form provides a more valid assessment of language and music vitality. This approach would acknowledge that minority communities have the same right to adapt that dominant cultures assume for themselves, and support the minority communities efforts to use their language and music in new and vibrant forms to live well in their contemporary environment. Using the EGIDS, and its adaptation for music, has also brought out areas where the methodology should be refined. During use with four study groups in each of the seven research sites, it became evident that the participatory research tools used were sometimes difficult to follow for people who are not literate. The instructions and the specific interview questions should both be revised to make them more user-friendly. The Environment factor in the FAMED conditions should also be refined. In its current form, it divides the sociolinguistic environment into governmental and nongovernmental areas, thereby accounting for both governmental and nongovernmental support (or non-support) for a language (or music system). However, it does not distinguish between non-governmental institutions (such as churches and community-run literacy programs) and non-governmental informal actions (such as shop-owners prejudice against a minority language). This is unfortunate, as nongovernmental institutions sometimes provide tremendous support for a language or music system, as this study has brought out. The Environment factor should also be refined to distinguish between mere non-support and active opposition; currently, both of these situations receive an Environment score of 0. A final recommendation is that, when adapted for use with music, the EGIDS should focus on the transmission of music systems, rather than music genres. Music systems should be described in terms of their major features (scales or modes, keys, and time signatures, etc.), and these features used to recognize whether observed changes in music use should be understood as music shift or music loss. Particular genres of music may disappear from a culture s musical system, even while the essential features of the music system are retained. A focus on music genres may thus lead to underassessment of the music system s vitality. A focus on the basic features of 100

118 music systems would enable researchers to distinguish between strictly preserved forms, hybridity, and music loss, and thereby provide a more accurate assessment of music vitality Implications for the Lemi community Beyond mere measurements of vitality, this research into the Lemi s use of their language and music shows the value of focusing on the people who speak the language and make the music, rather than simply promoting strict preservation. The interviews and data collected demonstrate that the Lemi are interested in keeping their traditions, and do so by adapting their traditions to new contexts. The members of the Lemi community are striving to keep their language vital while securing a healthy position within their multicultural nation-state. This has led them to embrace the use of other functional languages, and to adapt their music and culture to the present day situation. One factor in this is the growing number of electronic media devices such as cell phones and VCD players that are owned by community members. Even though many people are eager to have Lemi music and audio recordings on their devices, almost everything available is in a regional, national, or global language. As the community persists in its efforts to create new Lemi songs and record them for electronic media, there is hope that the Lemi music vitality level can rise to EGIDS Level 6a (Vigorous) and can attain Level 5 (Developing). The possibilities for Lemi language and music vitality are encouraging. More importantly, though, the Lemi are demonstrating that they are active participants in crafting a bright and secure future for their community. 6.2 Recommendations The research conducted for this thesis was intended to benefit the Lemi people, as well as to contribute to academic knowledge and understanding. As such, it is appropriate to conclude with recommendations for the Lemi themselves, and suggestions to the academic world for further study. 101

119 6.2.1 To the village elders Each of the villages in this study continues to have elders who are experts in the traditional culture and music. I urge them to take the lead in sharing their knowledge with their villages young people in appropriate venues such as community festivals and life cycle events (e.g., weddings and funerals), and by making themselves available for interviews, research and documentation (e.g., song and video recordings). Elders who turned from following the traditional culture can still encourage members of the younger generation by endorsing their interest in autogenic research and assisting their efforts To the churches The churches in each of the villages, regardless of denomination, already participate in activities that support Lemi literacy, including the use of Lemi hymns and praiseand-worship songs, and the public reading of the Lemi New Testament (previously, the Scriptures were usually read in either Burmese or Kaladan Khumi). However, most of the children s songs used in Sunday schools are in Burmese or another non- Lemi language. The church could increase its support for passing on the Lemi language and music by encouraging the composition of new Sunday school songs for each age group (Kindergarten, primary, junior, and youth). By doing so, the children will have the opportunity to experience their language and music at an ageappropriate level and grow in them, rather than having to interact with Lemi songs and hymns intended for adults. Composing new songs in the language for church events and worship can also strengthen the identity and faith of the Lemi, both as a group and as individuals. Composition in the mother tongue raises community members regard for their language; produces songs which, through their language and style, speak to the heart; and by increasing the corpus of songs in the mother tongue, lessens the drive to turn to other languages for worship music To the Literacy Committee As a result of this study, the communities involved in the research have become aware of the vitality levels of their language and music, as well as their linguistic and musical ecologies. With that foundation, the literacy committee is in an 102

120 excellent position to mobilize the community to take practical steps in implementing language and community development programs. One such step is to incorporate music into the Lemi literacy program, in order to strengthen community identity. This would include not only traditional folk songs (using contemporary Lemi), but also newly crafted curriculum songs. The use of appropriate musical genres in the Lemi literacy curriculum would help the younger generation relate to their past, and also create the opportunity for the community s elders to catch a glimpse of the future for Lemi music. Literacy workers, teachers, and other staff can help bridge the communication gap between older and younger generations by asking local experts to pass on their heritage knowledge (e.g., of folk songs, stories, history, festivals, livelihood practices, and art forms) to the younger generation. This could happen in a range of venues, including formal classroom instruction, informal outdoor settings, or training during special community days. A number of other steps could be taken. One would be to organize workshops for composing songs, or for learning to perform traditional instrumental and vocal music. Another would be to organize public competitions for traditional and newly composed songs, which could be on a variety of themes, such as literacy or community development. Another step would be to record the new Lemi worship and songs and release them as VCDs and DVDs; this would help promote use of both the language and music. Recordings could also be made of the traditional instrumental and vocal music, thereby making them more accessible to the community, as well as documenting and preserving them for future generations To researchers While this thesis research has succeeded in clarifying the vitality of the Lemi s language and music, and in uncovering some of the factors contributing to that vitality, it has also uncovered opportunities for further study. There is a need to further refine the EGIDS and extend its use beyond the assessment of language. Adaptation of the EGIDS for use with music has proven to be both valid and practical, and suggests that the EGIDS can, with suitable adaptation, be used for assessing the vitality of other channels of communication, such as paralanguage 103

121 (gesture, body language, tone of voice, etc.), and visual motifs employed in textiles, pottery, and paintings. It has also brought out that the Environment factor in the FAMED Conditions should be expanded to account separately for the institutional and informal sectors in the non-governmental area. Expanding the study of Lemi communication forms would also be profitable. Discourse analysis of Lemi songs, comparative studies of Lemi poetic forms, and translation of archaic-lemi poetic songs into contemporary Lemi language would give the community greater access to their own history and tradition. Some of these studies would be more difficult than others. For instance, while a few elders can still sing the ancient legendary songs, even they find it difficult to translate them into present-day language. On the other hand, songs that are typically improvised (e.g., lullabies, Chicken-giving wedding songs, and Cow-eating Festival songs) would probably be easier to analyze. Further study could not only add to our academic understanding of language and music systems; it could also be of great benefit to the Lemi community. Research into the process and limits of hybridity in the intersection between music and language could contribute to the vitality of Lemi language and music by opening new doors for their transmission to younger generations. Insistence on passing on tradition without change is a prescription for language and music shift. As described earlier, when younger Lemi heard a song about one of their villages that was composed using the archaic language, they could understand none of it, even though they could read the lyrics. They were eager to learn the song, but lack of comprehension was a tremendous obstacle. In contrast, lullabies that use traditional tunes with modern day language are widely practiced throughout the community. Why not other genres as well? Further research into hybridity could enable the community to make well-informed choices about how they can adapt to a changing world without losing their linguistic and musical heritage. 104

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129 APPENDIX A SUM ASSESSMENT GRID FOR LANGUAGE 1. SUM Assessment Grid: Orality (adapted from Simons & Lewis 2014) လ ပ ဆ င ရန ၄(က) ဆရရ ည တည တ ခ င မမ မ ပပဇယ (အဆပပ ) ORALITY 0.Absent 1.Uncommon 2.Common 3.Sustainable (အပမပ ) ၀ လ ဝ ရ ၁ ပ န ဟတ ၂ ပ န ၃ ပ ရည တည တ Functions The ability to use The language is still The language is The language is the language for used throughout the used orally among used orally the many functions community, but all generations to among all of communication only for a limited meet the many generations not within the domains set of functions. functions of only in the of home and Another language is communication domains of community has being used to meet within the domains home and been lost, though the full range of of home and community, but symbolic use may functions in the community. in other domains persist. domains of home like work and and community. school and religion. အသ မပ ပ ဤဘ သ စက က ပလ စက က လ ထ ပလ စက က ကပလ ပလ စက က လ စလကခဏ တစ အသ င အဝ င တ င လ ကက အ ယ တ င က ကပလ လ ကက ခအပနနင သတ တ အသ မပ ပနပသ လည သ စနင လ ထ အ ယ တ င က ထ ပသ လည အခ ကဏ ဌအနည အသ င အဝ င ကက သ စနင လ ထ သ စနင လ ထ ငယ တ င သ အသ မပ တ င ပမပ ဆ ဆက ဆ အသ င အဝ င ကက အသ င အဝ င ကဏ ဌ ကကသည သ စနင ပသ ကဏ ဌအသ သ တ င သ ကလပ တ င ပလ စက လ ထအသ င အဝ င တ င အသ မပ သည ငန ခ င ပက င နင မ င ပမပ ဆ ဆက ဆ တ င ပမပ န အမခ ဘ သ ပ ဆ င န င စ ရ ပတ ပ ဘ သ စက က လည ကဏ ဌအသ သ တ င အစ ထ အသ မပ လည အသ မပ ပန သည သည Acquisition The language is no Some children are It is still the norm There is full longer being used still learning the that the language is transmission of between any language in the transmitted to the language to children in the home or community children in the all children in language and thus use it with home and the home and community as the each other, but the community; community. language they use majority are not. however, it has 112

130 to communicate become common with each other. that many children do not learn the language. သင ယ တတ ကပလ က ပလ ကပလ အခ က ပလ ကပလ အ သ ကပလ အ ပမ က စက က ယခင က သ စက က သ စနင စနင လ ထအသ င သ စနင လ ထ လ ထအသ င အဝ င လ ထအသ င အဝ င အဝ င ပလ စက အသ င အဝ င တ င ပမပ ဆ ဆက ဆ သင ယ လ က ရ ပသ က လက ဆင က ပလ စက က န အသ မပ ပတ ပ လည ကပလ အ စ ည ဟ စသတ တ အမပည အဝသင ယ က ပလ စက က ထ ပသ လည န င သည သင ယ ပတ ပ ကပလ အ စက ပလ စက က သင ယ ပတ ပ Motivation Members of the Some members of Most members of As a general ethnic community the language the language rule, members of can see no reason community perceive community see the language to continue real value in value in speaking community transmitting their speaking their their language and perceive language to the language and transmitting it to multiple benefits children. transmitting it to children, but it is (e.g. economic, children, but the limited to primarily social, religious, majority do not. sentimental or identificational) identificational of speaking their uses. language. အ ပပ လ လ ထအပနမ င ပလ လ ထအခ က ပလ လ ထအခ က ပလ ပယဘယ အ မ င ပဆ စက က ကပလ စက တန နင စက တန နင ပလ စက က အ အ လက ဆင က အသ ဝင ပက သ ပပ အသ ဝင ပက သ ပပ သ မပ ပသ ပကက င သင ကက ပပ ကပလ အ ကပလ အ လက လ ထက အက ပလ က ပအ င လက ဆင က သင ဆင က သင ကက အမ တ အ ဤဘ သ စက ကက ပပ ပသ လည ပပ ပသ လည ခစ သည တန နင အသ ဝင ပ လ ထအ စက ဤက သ လပ ပဆ င (ဥပ - စ ပ ပ က မ င န င ပတ ပ သင ကက ပပ မခင မခင သည လ စ လ ပ က ယ ပ င ရ ပ အ တ ပကဂတအပနနင အ သ ပ သ မ စ သည လကခဏ ) Political Dominant political There is no Neither dominant Dominant Environment attitude calls for dominant political political attitude political attitude assimilation to an attitude against use nor the wider affirms the oral official language. of the language, society is hostile to use of the community feels the use of the language. overwhelming language. pressure from the society at large to abandon their 113

131 language. ပတ ဝန က င န င ငသ /ရ သ /အ ဤဘ သ စက က ဤဘ သ စက က အ ဤဘ သ (က) သ ဘ သ စက တတ အသ မပ န အ အသ မပ န အ စက က အသ မပ ည ဟ အစ ခ ဆန က င မခင ရ ပသ (သ ဟတ ) အမခ န ခ င မပ ထ တ ထ သည လည လ ထက တ အ အစည သည ဘ သ စက က စ န တ မ စ မခင ခ သည လ တ န အ ပပ မခင ခ သည Private Non-governmental There is no Non- Neither Non- Non- Environment policy calls for governmental governmental governmental assimilation to an policy against use policy nor the wider policy affirms official language. of the language, society is hostile to the oral use of community feels the use of the the language. overwhelming language. pressure from the society at large to abandon their language. ပင လ ကပတ န င ငသ /ရ သ /အ ဤဘ သ စက က ဤဘ သ စက က အစ ဟတ ပသ ဝန က င (ခ) သ ဘ သ စက တတ အသ မပ န အ ည အသ မပ န အ အမခ အ အစည ည ဟ အစ သည အ အစည က (သ ဟတ ) အမခ အ ဤ ဟတ ပသ အမခ ဆန က င မခင ရ အ အစည ဘ သ စက က အ အစည က ခ ပသ လည လ ထက တ မ စ မခင ခ သည အသ မပ န ခ င မပ တ ထ သည တ ဘ သ စက က ထ သည စ န လ တ န အ ပပ ခ သည Differentiati There are no face- There are some There are many Members of the on to-face functions face-to-face functions for which language for which L1 is functions for which L1 is predominantly community have clearly preferred. If either L1 or L2 is used, but L2 is a set of shared L1 is still used face- clearly preferred; sometimes used for norms as to to-face, L2 is also however, for most those same when to use the commonly used for functions both are functions. local language in all the same used without a clear face-to-face functions. preference. interactions versus when to use a more dominant language. There are many functions for which L1 is always used and 114

132 L2 is virtually never used. သ မခ ထ ပလ စက က အခ င အခ င ခ င ပမပ ဆ ပလ စက က လ ထ ပလ အခ င ခ င မခင (သ သန ခ င ပမပ ဆ ဆက ဆ ဆက ဆ တ င ပလ ကဏ ဌအ စတ င ပမပ ဆ ဆက ဆ ကဏ ဌခ ထ န ဥ စ ပပ သ စက နင အမခ ဘ အသ မပ ပနပသ လည တ င ပလ ဘ သ မခင ) ပတ ပ ပလ စက သ စက က နစ / အမခ ဘ သ စက စက က သ အသ က အသ မပ ပနပသ သ စလ က အသ က လည ထ နည မပ ည ဟစအမ စ ပသ လည အမခ မပ ပနပသ လည ည တ အသ မပ သည သတ တ ထ ပပ ဘ သ စက က လည သည စက က ည အမခ ဘ သ အခ င ခ င ပမပ ဆ သည ကဏ ဌတ င အသ စက က လည ဆက ဆ တ င အသ မပ ည ဟ သ သန ည သည ကဏ ဌ မပ သည သတ တ ထ မခင ရ တ င အသ မပ ည ပ ဟသတ တ ထ သည ORALITY TOTAL: အပမပ စပပ င တ 2. SUM Assessment Grid: Literacy (adapted from Simons & Lewis 2014) လ ပ ဆ င ရန ၄(ခ) ဆရရ ည တည တ ခ င မမ မ ပပဇယ (စ ဆပတတ ဆပမ က မ ) LITERACY 0. Absent 1. Uncommon 2. Common 3. Sustainable ၀ လ ဝ ရ ၁ ပ န ဟတ ၂ ပ န ၃ ပ ရ ည တည တ Functions There is no There is some L1 There are enough Adequate L1 literature in the literature and some L1 literature and L1 Literature and local language L1 writing practices writing practices in Literacy practices and no functions but they are not yet use within the are in use for all in which it is widely known or community that the the functions for written. used throughout the value of L1 literacy which the community can be seen. community wants L1 literacy. အသ မပ ပ ပလ စ ပပနင ပတ ပလ စ ပပဆ င ပလ စ ပပဆ င ပလ စ အပ စ ပပ သက ပလ လ စ အပ စ ပပ က စ အပ စ ပပ က နင ပလ စ ပပ ပ သ ထ မခင ပလ လ ပ သ အသ လလပလ က ပလ က က လ ထနင ဆ င ပသ ရ မပ ကကသည သ ပသ ရ သည လ ထကပလ ကဏ ဌအသ သ တ င က ယ က ယ မပန မပန လ ပ သ အသ မပ လည အသ မပ အသ မပ မခင ရ ပသ ကက ပလ စ ပပ သည ပ တန က လည သ သည 115

133 Acquisition There are no Materials to support There are adequate Children materials to L1 literacy materials to support throughout the support literacy instruction exist but L1 literacy language instruction in the are not being instruction and community are language. widely used some members of being taught to throughout the the community are read and write community. successfully using their language by them to teach trained teachers others to read and under the auspices write the language. of a sustainable institution. သင ယ တတ ပလ စ တတ ပလ စ တတ ပမ က ပလ စ တတ ပမ က ကပလ က ပလ ပမ က ပမ က ပ ပ အပထ က အက ပ အပထ က အက စ အပ အ တ က အပထ က အက မပ မပ သင ကက ပ မပ သင ကက ပ စ အပ ပလ စက မ င သင ကက ပ စ အပ စ အပ ရ သည လလပလ က သင ယ န င သည ပလ လ ရ သ ပသ က ယ က ယ ပလ က ရ သည လ ထ သည မပန မပန အသ မပ မခင အခ က ဤစ ပပက ရ ပသ ပ အသ မပ အမခ သ က လည ပလ စ အပ အ တ သင ကက ပပ သည Motivation Speakers of the Some members of Most members of Members of the language can see the language the language language no reason to read community perceive community see community and write their the value of reading value in reading perceive multiple language. and writing their and writing their benefits (e.g. local language, but language, but it is economic, social, the majority limited to primarily religious, perceive no benefit sentimental or identificational) of for L1 literacy. identificational reading and purposes. writing in the local language. အ ပပ လ ပလ စ ပ တတ လ ထအခ က ပလ စ လ ထအခ က ပလ စ ပလ စ တတ ပဆ တ တတ သည က ပ တတ တ တတ ပ တတ တ တတ ပမ က မခင နင အသ လ ထအပနမ င အ မခင တန က သ မခင တန က သ မပ ပသ ပကက င က ရ သည ဟ သည သ တ င လ ထ သည သ တ င ဤက လ ထကအက အ ထင အ စက ပလ စ သ လပ ပဆ င မခင / မ တ အ တတ ပမ က မခင တတ ပမ က မခင သည ခစ သည (ဥပ - အက ပက ဇ သ လ စအ တ စ ပ ပ လ ပ ပသ ပ သပကဂတအပနနင သ က ယ ပ င အ သ မ စ သည ပ လကခဏ ) Political Dominant Dominant political Dominant political Literature in L1 Environment political attitude attitude calls for the attitude and has a role in 116

134 and practice cultivation of this practice is fostering education ignore the language, but does the development of throughout language or are not yet put that the language and L1 primary and hostile to it. policy into practice. literacy had a place secondary grades. in the educational curriculum. ပတ ဝန က င အစ အ ဤဘ ပလ ဘ သ စက ပလ ဘ သ စက ပလ စ ပပက ပည (က) သ စက တတ ပ တ တက ပ ပ တ တက ပ ခ ပ (ကဏ ဌ) သ ငယ ပမ က ပ က လစ ခ တ ထ ပသ တ လက ပတ တန နင ပထ တန လ ရ ထ သည လည လက ပတ အပက င အထည ပ (သင ရ ည န တ ) အပက င အထည ပ ပဆ င က သည တ င လည ထည သ င မခင ရ ပသ ပ ပလ စ ပပက ပည သင ကက ပပ သည ပ သင ရ ည န တ တ င လည ထည သ င သင ကက ပပ သည Private Non- Non-governmental Non-governmental Literature in L1 Environment governmental policy calls for the policy and practice has a role in policy and cultivation of this is fostering the education practice ignore language, but does development of the throughout the language, or not yet put that language and L1 primary and are hostile to it. policy into practice. literacy had a place secondary grades. in the educational curriculum. ပင လ ကပတ အစ ဟတ ပသ အ အစည က ပလ အ အစည က ပလ ပလ စ ပပက ဝန က င (ခ) အမခ အ အစည ဘ သ စက ပ ဘ သ စက ပ တ ပက င မပင ပပည အ ဤဘ သ တ တက ပ ခ တ တက ပ ခ တ ပ သင ရ ည န တ စက တတ ပမ က ထ ပသ လည လက လက ပတ အပက င တ င လည ထည သ င ပ က လစ လ ရ ပတ အပက င အထည အထည ပ ပဆ င သင ကက ပပ သည ထ သည ပ မခင ရ ပသ ပ က သည ပလ စ ပပ က (အစ )ပက င မပင ပပည ပ သင ရ ည န တ တ င လည ထည သ င သင ကက ပပ သည Differentiati There are no There are some For most literacy Members of the on literacy functions literacy functions functions it is clear language for which L1 is for which either L1 that either L1 or L2 community follow clearly preferred. or L3 is clearly predominates; shared norms for If L1 is used in preferred; however, however, there are when to use L1 in writing, L1 is also for most both are some functions for writing versus commonly used used without a clear which both are used when to use a for the same preference. without a clear more dominant literacy functions. preference. language. 117

135 သ မခ ထ ပလ စ ပပက စ ပပအပ အသ နင စ ပပကဏ ဌအ စ လ ထက ပလ မခင အသ မပ ည ဟ ပတ သက အခ တ င ပလ စ နင အမခ အခ င ခ င ည သည စသတ တ ထ မခင ကဏ ဌတ င ပလ စ ဘ သ စက နစ ကဏ ဌ/ ည သည ရ ပ ပလ စ ပပ (သ ဟတ ) အမခ စလ က အသ မပ သည အခ န တ င ပလ စ က စ ပ သ ဘ သ စက က စ တ သ တ င ည သည အသ မပ ည ဟ တ င အသ မပ သလ ကက က ပ မခယ န င စက က ည သည စသတ တ ထ ပပ အမခ ဘ သ သည သ တ င ည ကဏ ဌ/ ည သည အခ န အမခ ဘ သ စက စက က လည သည စက က ည တ င အသ မပ ည ဟ က လည ည သည ထ နည တ အသ မပ သည ကဏ ဌ/ ည သည သ သန သတ တ ထ ကဏ ဌတ င အသ မပ သည အခ န တ င အသ မပ မခင ရ ပ ည ဟ သတ တ ည ဟ သ သန သတ ထ သည တ ထ မခင ရ ပ LITERACY TOTAL: စ ပပတတ ပမ က စပပ င တ 3. SUM Assessment Grid: Music performance (adapted from Simons & Lewis 2014) MUSIC PERFOR- MANCE Functions Acquisition 0.Absent 1.Uncommon 2.Common 3.Sustainable The ability to use This music genre This music genre is This music genre this music genre for is still used performed orally is performed the many functions throughout the (or non-written orally (or nonwritten of communication community, but music) among all music) within the domains only for a limited generations to meet among all of home and set of functions. the many functions generations, not community has Another non-lemi of communication only in the been lost, though music genre is within the domains domains of symbolic use may being used to of home and home and persist. meet the full community. community, but range of functions in other domains in the domains of like work and home and school and community. religion. This music genre is Some children are It is still the norm There is full no longer being still learning this that this music transmission of used between any music genre in the genre is transmitted this music genre children in the home or to children in the to all children in 118

136 Lemi community as community and home and the home and the music they use thus use it with community; community. to communicate each other, but however, it has with each other. the majority are become common not. that many children do not learn this music genre. Motivation Members of the Some members of Most members of As a general Lemi community the Lemi the Lemi rule, members of can see no reason community community see the Lemi to continue perceive real value in performing community transmitting this value in this music genre perceive music genre to the performing this and transmitting it multiple benefits children. music genre and to children, but it is (e.g. economic, transmitting it to limited to primarily social, religious, children, but the sentimental or identificational) majority do not. identificational of performing uses. this music genre. Political Dominant political There is no Neither dominant Dominant Environment attitude calls for dominant political political attitude political attitude assimilation to an attitude against nor the wider affirms the oral official national use of this music society is hostile to performance use music genre or genre, but the the use of this of this music system. Lemi community music genre. genre. feels overwhelming pressure from the society at large to abandon this music genre. Private Non-governmental There is no Non- Neither Non- Non- Environment policy calls for governmental governmental governmental assimilation to an policy against use policy nor the wider policy affirms official national of this music society is hostile to the performance music genre or genre, but the the use of this of this music system. Lemi community music genre. genre. feels overwhelming pressure from the society at large to abandon this music genre. Differentiati There are no face- There are some There are many Members of the on to-face functions face-to-face functions for which Lemi community for which this functions for this music genre is have a set of 119

137 music genre is which either this predominantly shared norms as clearly preferred. If music genre or used, but (non-lemi to when to use this music genre is non-lemi music is music) is sometimes this music genre still used face-to- clearly preferred; used for those same in face-to-face face, non-lemi however, for most functions. interactions music is also functions both are versus when to commonly used for used without a use a more all the same clear preference. dominant non- functions. Lemi music. There are many functions for which this music genre is always used and non- Lemi music is virtually never used. Music Performance Total: 4. SUM Assessment Grid: Written music (adapted from Simons & Lewis 2014) WRITTEN MUSIC Functions Acquisition 0. Absent 1. Uncommon 2. Common 3. Sustainable There is no There is some There are enough Adequate written written music written music written music music resources resource for this resource and some resource and and writing; this music genre and writing practices in writing practices in music genre no functions in this music genre but this music genre practices are in which it is they are not yet within the use for all the written. widely known or community that the functions for used throughout the value of this music which the community. genre can be seen. community wants this song genre. There are no Materials to support There are adequate Children materials to instruction for materials to support throughout the support writing this music instruction for Lemi community instruction for genre exist but are writing this music are being taught writing this music not being widely genre and some to write this music genre (in Lemi used throughout the members of the genre by trained language.) community. community are teachers under the successfully using auspices of a them to teach sustainable 120

138 others to write this institution. music genre. Motivation Members of the Some members of Most members of Members of the Lemi community the Lemi the Lemi Lemi community can see no reason community perceive community see perceive multiple to perform and the value of value in performing benefits (e.g. write this music performing and and writing this economic, social, genre. writing this music music genre, but it religious, genre, but the is limited to identificational) of majority perceive primarily performing and no benefit for sentimental or writing this music performing and identificational genre. writing this music purposes. genre. Political Dominant Dominant political Dominant political Written music Environment political attitude attitude calls for the attitude and resource in this and practice cultivation of this practice is fostering music genre has a ignore this music music genre, but the development of role in education genre or are does not yet put this music genre; throughout hostile to it. that policy into and performing and primary and practice. creating this music secondary grades. genre has a place in the educational curriculum. Private Non- Non-governmental Non-governmental Written music Environment governmental policy calls for the policy and practice resources in this policy and cultivation of this is fostering the music genre has a practice ignore music genre, but development of this role in education this music genre does not yet put music genre and throughout or are hostile to that policy into performing and primary and it. practice. creating this music secondary grades. genre has a place in the educational curriculum. Differentiati There are no There are some For most writing Members of the on writing functions writing functions functions, it is clear Lemi community for which this for which, either that either this follow shared music genre is this music genre or music genre or non- norms for when to clearly preferred. non-lemi music, is Lemi music use this music If this music clearly preferred; predominates; genre in writing genre is used in however, for most, however, there are versus when to use writing, non-lemi both are used some functions for a more dominant music is also without a clear which both are used non-lemi music. commonly used preference. without a clear for the same preference. 121

139 Written music Total: writing functions. 5. SUM Assessment Grid: Song book (adapted from Simons & Lewis 2014) SONG BOOK 0. Absent 1. Uncommon 2. Common 3. Sustainable Functions There is no songbook for this music genre and no functions in which it is written. There is some songbook and some writing practices for this music genre; but they are no yet widely known or used throughout the community. There are enough songbook and writing practices for this music genre in use within the community, that the value of this music genre can be Adequate songbook and writing practices are in use for all the functions for which the community wants this music genre. seen. Acquisition There are no materials to support for writing/making songbook instruction for this music genre (in Lemi language). Materials to support writing/making songbook instruction for this music genre exist; but are not being widely used throughout the community. There are adequate materials to support writing/making songbook instruction for this music genre; and some members of the community are successfully using them to teach others to perform Children throughout the Lemi community are being taught to perform and create this music genre by trained teachers under the auspices of a sustainable institution. and write/make songbook for this music genre. Motivation Members of the Lemi community can see no reason to write/make songbook for this music genre. Some members of the Lemi community perceive the value of writing/making songbook for this music genre, but the majority perceive no benefit for writing/making Most members of the Lemi community see value in writing/ creating songbook for this music genre, but it is limited to primarily sentimental or identificational Members of the Lemi community perceive multiple benefits (e.g. economic, social, religious, identificational) of writing/creating songbook for/in this music genre. songbook for this music genre. purposes. Political Dominant Dominant political Dominant political Songbook for this 122

140 Environment political attitude attitude calls for the attitude and music genre has a and practice cultivation of practice is fostering role in education ignore songbook writing/making the development of throughout for this music songbook for this the songbook for primary and genre; or are music genre, but this music genre has secondary grades. hostile to it. does not yet put a place in the that policy into educational practice. curriculum. Private Non- Non-governmental Non-governmental Songbook for this Environment governmental policy calls for the policy and practice music genre has a policy and cultivation of is fostering the role in education practice ignore writing/making development of the throughout songbook for this songbook for this songbook for this primary and song music; or music genre, but music genre has a secondary grades. are hostile to it. does not yet put place in the that policy into educational practice. curriculum. Differentiati There are no There are some For most songbook Members of the on songbook songbook functions functions, it is clear Lemi community functions for for which either that either this follow shared which this music this music genre or music genre or non- norms for when to genre is clearly non-lemi music is Lemi music use songbook for preferred. If this clearly preferred; predominates; this music genre music genre is however, for most, however, there are versus when to use used in songbook, both are used some functions for a more dominant non-lemi music is without a clear which both are used non-lemi music. also commonly preference. without a clear used for the same preference. functions. Written music Total: 123

141 APPENDIX B CLANS IN THE RESEARCH SITES The clan names in the table below are listed in the order given by the informants. The clans are patrilineal. In two of the villages (Songwa and Wading), the informants also gave the birth clans of woman who had married into those villages; those clan names are italicized. Clans in the research sites Soni Kanaung Kayet Sadi Hatung Mipui Cärui Mäling Sangvang Lisüng Kawipui Meqawng Qengsang Anglüngcaw Mipui cärui Pawnglaw Lisüng Sangvang Nawlawxui Khung cärui Xailyxui Mäling Tengpae Meqawng Sangvang Anglüngcaw Pawnglaw Naelaw xui Xailyxui Tengpae Lisüng Qengsang Mipui cärui Tähüngcaw Pawngte Anglüngcaw Mälung Tengpae Xailyxui Sangvang Nixae Songwa Wading Sami Pawngte Anglüngcaw Mälung Tengpae Xailyxui Sangvang Nixae Qengsang Mipui cärui Mipui cärui Khung cärui Qengsang Khunglohui Khaungteng Khungtawngkan Tataung/Ahtaung Disae/Lisae Anglüngcaw Mipui cärui Sangvang Mäling Khungcärui Pawnglaw Dicae Qengsang Anglüngcaw Vawinipae Tengpae Pawngte Xailyxui Aelawng Ningna Cäraisüng Khawngteng Tangnaexui Naelawxui 124

142 Songwa Wading Sami Khawipui Mängan Vawinipae Khawngteng Khungcärui Mawthung Angtawi cäxui Tengpae Pawngte Pawnglaw Sangvang Mäling Vawinipae Naelawxui Tangnaexui Sawngra shein Meqawng Cäpangku Mawthung Nixae Qangtaxui Lisüng 125

143 APPENDIX C LEMI KINSHIP TERMS Data were also collected from five informants to determine kinship reference terms and the kinship system. The following diagram, which records the information given by a 45-year-old male, reveals an unexpectedly high infant mortality rate: 75% of the children died while still very young, most likely due to the unavailability of proper health care facilities in the past. Lemi Kinship terms 126

144 APPENDIX D LEMI TRADITIONAL MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS Lemi traditional musical instrument data were collected from four villages: Kayet, Hatung, Songwa and Wading. The data on instruments were collected in Songwa 9, due to the availability of informants. The Lemi share musical traditions and instruments with the Likhy and other neighboring language groups. Some of the instruments are no longer used in the communities; but in several cases, villagers made new instruments to show them to the researcher and demonstrate how their traditional instruments looked and sounded. List of Lemi traditional musical instruments 1. Tungtyng (bamboo panpipes) 2. Üngpelangby (bamboo end-blown flute) 3. Tamang or Mang (gong) 4. Qala (cymbals) 5. Abi (copper tray) 6. Nengnyng (flat gong) 7. Kätang (gourd pipe), Kätang uilö (3-pitch gourd pipe), Kätang raica (8-pitch gourd pipe) 8. Mangxing (bells) 9. Baw (elongated bamboo horn) 10. Tingtyng (bamboo tube zither) 11. Aetawng (short drum) 12. Saipawng (long drum/ bigger drum) 13. Xing xawng (jaw s harp) 9 The informants were Mr. Ing Twe (age 75), Mr. Bone Gyi (age 64), Mr. Ah Dwi (age 57), Mr. Saw Law (age 60), Mr. Pan Mui (age 57), Mr. Teng Pe (age 60), Mr. Ma Naung (age 36), Mr. Htay Naing (age 58), Mr. Elia (age 26) and Mr. Ni Shey (age 26). 127

145 The Songwa villagers not only gave a list of Lemi musical instruments, but also showed the functions of each instruments and demonstrated how they are played. During data collection, they actually made the instruments such as Tungtyng, Üngpelangby and Baw, which are no longer used in the community. Most importantly, the villagers composed a song about Name of Lemi Musical Instrument using a traditional tune. Name of Lemi musical instruments song Üngpelangby, Tungtyng, Kätang, Kätang uilö, Kätang raica, Baw, Aetawng, Tingtyng, Saipawng, Mang, Nengnyng, Xing xawng, Mangxing, Qala. English Translation: Bamboo end-blown flute, bamboo panpipes, Gourd pipe, 3-pitch gourd pipe, 8-pitch gourd pipe, bamboo horn, Short drum, bamboo tube zither, long drum, gong, flat gong, Jaw s harp, bells, cymbals. Name of Lemi Instruments Song, recorded using Western notation 128

146 Children observing instrument making, and listening to the long-lost sound of their own traditional instruments, Songwa Village (January 7, 2016) 1. Tungtyng (bamboo panpipe) and Üngpelangyby (bamboo end-blown flute) The Tungtyng (bamboo panpipe) and Üngpelangby (bamboo end-blown flute) are made from fresh bamboo. They are played in groups, the Tungtyng by three people and the Üngpelangby (a set of bamboo end-blown flutes) by five to eight persons. For both instruments, bamboo sections are cut to different lengths and blown with different rhythms. There are four pieces of bamboo and three people in a Tungtyng group. Two pieces of Tungtyng are bound into a pair and played by a single player, while the other two pieces are played by one player each. The melody is played in the hocket style, in which a single melody is passed back and forth between two or more instruments, being played alternatively by each. Tungtyng and Üngpelangby are played to communicate messages for instance, to inform villagers that some event is about to begin. They are traditionally played only by men. The men play them during harvest time, beginning on their way back 129

147 from the rice fields and stopping when they arrive at the village (or the host s house). They are also played during a ritual in which a pig is sacrificed to the Rice Spirit to get a large crop. Tungtyng and Üngpelangby music is also played during other rituals, including the Lailang Field Ceremony, which is celebrated from April to June, between rice planting and harvest time. Some Üngpelangby are marked with fish trap design. Kayet villagers playing the Tungtyng during Lemi New Year Festival (January 10, 2016) 130

148 Üngpelangby ensemble, Songwa Village (January 7, 2016) Making and tuning Üngpelangby in Hatung Village (January 5, 2016) 131

149 Village head tuning Üngpelangby in Hatung Village (January 5, 2016) When the children saw adults playing they also tried spontaneously, Hatung Village (January 5, 2016) 132

150 Üngpelangby playing during Lemi New Year celebration, Kayet village (January 10, 2016) 2. Mang or Tamang (the 8-htwa gong) The Mang is played as a solo instrument. For instance, when a person dies, the Lemi play the gong as a funeral cry. They believe in their ancestors saying that if people cry at a funeral, their crying sound sounds like dogs howling; and only the sound of a Mang echoes like a cry. Therefore, they play this gong in funerals. The Mang is also used to gather people; for instance, to prepare meals, to announce meal times, or to announce the arrival of visitors. Mang can be played together in a variety of combinations. The largest ensemble consists of one person each on the Mang (gong), Qala (cymbals), Aetawng (short drum); four to eight people playing the Nengnyng (gourd pipes) and the Abi (copper tray), with two to four people playing each kind; five to eight people playing Üngpelangby (bamboo end-blown flute); and only three people playing Tungtyng (bamboo end-blown flute). In addition, three to five people play the Kätang (there are three kinds of Kätang) and one person plays the Aetawng (short drum). The 133

151 Mangxing (bells) is used by the dance leader; while the Baw, Tingtyng, and Xing xawng are solo instruments. Mang is also used as part of the bride price. The groom s family has to give five to ten gongs to the bride s family as bride price. The gong is also used in weddings to welcome the guests, for the New Year ceremony, new house celebrations, and for the Lailang Field ceremony. In the past, Mang were played by men during the Lailang. This ceremony was held after burning the field and planting rice in the field. Before lunch time, they played instruments while dancing circling around the field hut seven times, and then return home before sunset. When they arrived at the village, they would again dance around the host s house for about ten minutes. The two kinds of Lailang ceremonies held for the spirits were a ritual for good harvest and a healing ritual. For these two Lailang ceremonies, all the instruments would be played except Kätang (gourd pipes). Due to the ancestors beliefs that cows and goats do not go with rice fields, for the Lailang ceremony only pigs and chickens were offered as sacrifices. During the offering ritual the gong, flat gongs, Tungtyng and Üngpelangby were not used. Up to now, the gong is played with a number of different instruments during the Cow-eating festival and dance. People dance and play music before they kill the cows, and they also dance for one night after killing the cows. During the Cow- Eating festival, 7-8 htwa gongs are hung and played. Gong sizes can range from 7 htwa to 12 htwa. In , the bamboo in the area flowered, a phenomenon that occurs once every 48 years 10. This attracted a large numbers of rats, which ate both the bamboo flowers and the rice, causing a famine and a scarcity of mature bamboo. That affected southern Chin State, northern Rakhine State, and the bordering area of India. Many people were forced to sell their metal instruments to buy rice and seed for the following year, so there are not many instruments (including nonmetal

152 instruments) left in the village. In addition, a change in religion, increased population to feed, and a reduction in the practice of giving gongs as a bride price have led to an overall decrease in instrument making and purchasing (metal instruments are not made in the villages). Mang are bought in Mindat and Kanpetlet town, Southern Chin area. One Mang costs about 100,000 kyat at present, which equals with 60 baskets of rice (raw rice with husk). Mang (gong) Mang (gong) played during community dance at Lemi New Year celebration, Kayet Village (Jan 10, 2016) 135

153 3. Qala (cymbals) Cymbals are played together with other instruments. They are made with copper and are 20.5 cm wide each. They were used in ritual offering to spirits, and are still used in the Cow-eating festival, weddings, and funerals. Cymbals and drums are used in almost every celebration and ritual. However, gongs are not used during ritual offerings. Qala (cymbals) 4. Abi (copper tray) and Nengnyng (flat gongs) Abi and Nengnyng are made from copper. Abi are held with the left hand in open and closed positions, while the right hand strikes the Abi with a mallet or stick. Abi are also used as part of the bride price. There are two kinds of Abi, one with a male sound and one with a female sound. The groom has to give three to seven pairs of Abi as bride price. One pair of Abi costs around 30,000 kyat. However, in 1995 one pair of Abi cost only 5,000 kyat. 136

154 There are different sizes of flat gongs. Nengnyng, the smallest, at about cm wide costs 60,000 kyat. Two different styles of flat gong, Salawng and Ca-ke, both costs 70,000 kyat, and Kanikho, the biggest and loudest kind, costs over 100,000 kyat. Sound of Abi (copper tray) Female sound Male sound Female sound Abi (on left) and male sound Abi (on right) Abi (copper tray) 137

155 Sound of Nengnyng (flat gong) Female sound Male sound Female sound Nengnyng (left) and male sound Nengnyng (right) Nengnyng (flat gong) 138

156 5. Aetawng (drum) The Aetawng is the main Lemi instrument. All traditional ensemble music starts with this drum sound. The two ends of the drum are covered with deer skin; and the skins tied to each other with a cane. The drum body is made of wood. This drum is played only with the right hand. In former rituals and spirit worship, the drum is not played. One drum costs around 30,000 kyat. Aetawng (drum) made by Pastor Mang Khaw, Sadi Village 6. Kätang (gourd pipe) a. Kätang (gourd pipe ensemble) Kätang is a general term for gourd pipe. There are three pitches in a gourd pipe ensemble, either from a 3-pitch gourd pipe with 3 holes (Kätang uilö), or from a gourd pipe ensemble where each of the three of gourd pipes has a different pitch. The low pitch is called Aheik (female sound), the high pitch is called Ahuk (male sound), and the highest small pitch is called Acaw (child sound). When it is played, it can start with either the female voice or the male voice. 139

157 Kätang costs around 30,000 kyat and can take more than a year to make. An inedible bitter gourd is dried and used to make the body of the flute, as well as water containers and cups in the community, because of its insulating properties. This bitter gourd can be dried anytime. But making the reed takes a longer time because the bamboo has to be cured. After the bitter gourd is dried, a hole is cut into the top of the gourd s neck for the mouthpiece, and another hole is cut into the side of the gourd s body for inserting the bamboo pipe. The reed can be bought from Wakyat Chaung village and Pamaung (Likhy village). The cost is 500 kyat in Kätang sounds related with gender term Aheik Ahuk Acaw (female sound) (male sound) (child sound) Mr Bong Gyi, explaining the constrution and the parts of Kätang, Songwa Village (Januray 7, 2016) 140

158 Female sound Kätang, male sound Kätang and child sound Kätang b. Kätang uilö (3-pitch gourd pipe) Kätang uilö (3-pitch gourd pipe) can only be found in Kayet Village. A musician, Mr. Pa Baw from Kayet, made that instrument three years ago. It can also have four pitches, where the lowest pitch, F of the female sound, is played in octave. Another interesting fact is that it has a flared round bell resonator at the end. The instrument is held with both hands, both thumbs and index fingers need to control the sound of the three holes, one on each pipe. The musician uses circular breathing to blow air in and out. There are four finger positions to play this instrument. The instrument can produce several sounds. One hole can make two sounds, which are just half tone apart. The first position consists of pressing all three holes and produces a G-C-D suspension chord. The second position consists of pressing the top hole and makes a C (when breathing-in) or C# (when breathingout). The third position, pressing the right hole, makes a D (when breathing-in) or D# (when breathing-out). The fourth position, pressing the left hole, makes a C (lower octave) D#-D chord. 141

159 Kätang uilö (3-holed gourd pipe) demonstrated by Mr Pa Baw, only available in Kayet Village (December 29, 2015) c. Kätang raica (8-pitch gourd pipe) Kätang raica (8-pitch gourd pipe) cannot be found in the community, but the elders in the community can still recall its name and give a detailed description of it. Raica is a type of Kätang (gourd pipe), but it has eight holes and pitches. It was used until two generations ago but has disappeared in the present day. It can also be played by women. This instrument was usually used in courtship among young people between villages. It was played in a responsive manner; as asking permission for courting by one group followed by as a response for the request by the other group, and then continued playing until late at night. 142

160 Imaginary figure of Kätang raica (illustrated by Songwa villagers) 7. Mangxing (bells) Mangxing (bells) are made by bronze. They are used in traditional ceremonies, the Cow-eating ceremony and the Pig-Killing ceremony. They are held by the dance leader while he dances with a shield. Only a few Mangxing are left among the villages. Mangxing (bells) 143

161 8. Baw (elongated bamboo horn) Baw is made of 10 to 12 pieces of bamboo in graduated sizes. It is a solo instrument. It is played during harvest time to drive away wild boars and goats mostly in the evening. It is also played during night-time for leisure. In villages, it is played to announce the arrival of visitors. It is also used in some folk celebrations. Bamboo Baw are made in the village using forest materials. (They have heard that, in India, there is Baw made with iron, which costs around 60,000 kyat.) Baw (elongated bamboo horn) freshly made by Mr. Htay Naing. He went to the forest, collected bamboo, made it in the morning, and showed demonstration of that instrument during the data collection workshop at Songwa Village (January 8, 2016). 144

162 9. Tingtyng (bamboo tube zither) The Tingtyng is a type of zither made from one whole section of bamboo (from one joint to the following joint), with two small holes at the centre of the instrument for resonance. Most bamboo tube zithers have five strings: three strings on the right and two strings on the left. There are two kinds of bamboo tube zithers: with bamboo strings (original form) and with guitar strings (modern style). This instrument is used especially for courting. It is not too difficult to play and this instrument can be played by all ages. Most of the elders in Songwa can still play the Tingtyng. The Tingtyng is unique because the sound it produces is very soft and difficult to hear outside of the instruments. Instead, the musician will hold his ear to the instrument as he plays and listeners will hold private listening tubes against the Tingtyng and listen through the tubes. The Tingtyng has a very sweet sound, and this method by listening creates a way to send sweet personal messages to the listener(s). However, because of this method of listening, it is not easy to record the Tingtyng, even with a very sensitive recorder. Different pitches in Tingtyng Tingtyng string played by left hand (on left) and played by right hand (on right) Left hand Right hand Aheik Ahuk Acaw (female sound) (male sound) (child sound) 145

163 Elder Pau Pe making Bamboo Tingtyng with guitar string, Hatung Village (January 5, 2016) Different way of listening to Tingtyng music, played by Elder Laung Hta, Hatung Village (January 5, 2016) 146

164 Bamboo Tingtyng with bamboo string, played by Baptist lay leader, listener AG pastor, Songwa Village (January 7, 2016) Listeners hold private listening tube to listen Tingtyng music, Hatung Village (January 5, 2016) 147

165 10. Xing xawng (jaw s harp) The Xing xawng is made of iron and is only 5 cm long. It is held inside the mouth with the teeth and plucked with the right hand. In the past, some expert players use their lips to play the instrument. Xing xawng can also be made with bamboo. It is used for courtship and can be played during daytime or night-time. The Xing xawng is presently not used in most of the villages and is in danger of becoming extinct. Xing xawng (jaw s harp), Hatung Village (January 5, 2016) 11. Saipawng (long drum, bigger drum) The Saipawng is a two-sided drum about 70 cm long and is covered with dried animal skin on both sides and the body. Instead of talking, people can play the drum as a means of conversation while drinking rice wine. It is also used to welcome guests and unpleasant feelings can be expressed through the drum while having an argument. It was frequently used by the grandparents generation. However, it is not used in most of the villages these days. 148

166 Saipawng (long drum, bigger drum) Welcoming dance accompanied by traditional instrument ensemble during Lemi New Year celebration at Kayet Village (January 9, 2016) 149