Ksana: Compositional Control of Spectral Fusion as a Parameter of Timbre Functionality

Transcription

1 Ksana: Comositional Contol o Sectal usion as a aamete o Timbe unctionality by Anthony Tan SCHLICH SCHOOL O MSIC McGILL NIVESITY, MONTÉAL Ail 015 VOLME I: Text A thesis submitted to McGill nivesity In atial ulillment o the equiements o the degee o Docto o hilosohy 015 Anthony Tan

2 ABSTACT This thesis ooses a comositional model o aoaching timbe as a aamete o music able to contibute to the exeience o tension and elease, which I deine as timbe s unctional use Its aim is to uniy concets o timbe ecetion and timbe comosition such that comoses might be bette able to undestand and contol the ole o timbe as a stuctuing oce in thei wok Seciically, the thesis ooses the synthesis and alication o the sychoacoustic concets o Sectal usion, Auditoy Scene Analysis, and Sensoy Dissonance, as dimensions o timbe unctionality This thesis divides into two volumes Volume I oes a witten text that descibes the theoetical and comositional aoaches utilized in the comosition, Ksana I, o lage ochesta Volume I uthe divides into thee otions at I descibes histoical concets o timbe and its comositional and unctional use at II ovides a theoetical basis, and ooses an additional model o contolling timbe unctionally Though an analysis o Ksana I, at III illustates the use o this model in conjunction with evious aoaches to timbe comosition The main toics o the analysis comise timbe eesentation, the hoizontal and vetical oganization o timbe, mico-temoal contol o timbe, and multidimensional timbe unctionality Volume II contains the ull scoe o Ksana I The comosition divides into seven individual sections each eesenting a dieent comositional aoach to timbe With a duation o twelve minutes, the wok is scoed o (icc) (eh) (bcl)(cbsn) 411 ec ha stings (10104) ii

3 ÉSMÉ Cette thèse oose un modèle comositionnel ou abode le timbe en tant que aamète musical ouvant contibue à l exéience d un aot onctionnel ente la tension et la détente Dans le but de emette aux comositeus de mieux comende et contôle le otentiel stuctuant du timbe dans leu tavail, cette thèse end en considéation aussi l asect eceti et comositionnel de ce aamète lus séciiquement, la thèse oose une synthèse et une alication de concets sychoacoustiques telles que la usion sectale, l analyse de scènes auditives (Auditoy Scene Analysis), et la dissonance sensoielle su le lan onctionnel du timbe La thèse se divise en deux volumes Le emie volume consiste en un texte qui décit les aoches théoiques et comositionnelles utilisées dans l uve Ksana I, ou gand ocheste Ce emie volume se divise en aties La emièe atie décit les concets histoiques liés au timbe et à son utilisation onctionnelle La deuxième atie ounit une base théoique et oose un modèle sulémentaie ou contôle la onctionnalité du timbe La toisième atie, a l analyse de Ksana I, illuste l utilisation de ce modèle en aot avec des aoches éexistantes de la comosition des timbes Les sujets inciaux de l analyse incluent la eésentation du timbe, l oganisation hoizontale et veticale du timbe, le contôle micotemoel du timbe et une onctionnalité multidimensionnelle du timbe Le deuxième volume consiste en la atition comlète de Ksana I La comosition est divisée en set sections distinctes, eésentant chacune une aoche comositionnelle diéente du timbe L ochestation de la ièce, d une duée de douze minutes, est la suivante : (icc)(co angl) (cla bs)(cbsn) 411 ec hae codes (10104) iii

4 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS istly, my sinceest gatitude goes to my doctoal adviso, John ea, whose oiginal suot bought me to McGill to usue gaduate studies He has been a continued souce o guidance duing the witing o this dissetation Though ou weekly comosition meetings ove the ast yeas, I believe I now have the necessay tools to conont and oge my own ath within the music comosition wold Secondly, my deeest gatitude goes to my second doctoal adviso Stehen McAdams who has, though many discussions, oeed numeous new comositional ideas and shaed much o the way I undestand music and sound The enomous wold o sychoacoustics has been an imotant asect o my develoment since my aival at McGill In addition, I would also like to thank Mak Ande and anz Matin Olbisch, o thei guidance duing the comositional hase o this wok I would also like to extend my thanks to the Desdne hilhamonie and conducto, Dominik Beykich, o the ist eomance o this wok As well, my deeest gatitude goes to KlangNetz Desden o oviding this unique ootunity Lastly, this thesis is dedicated to my aents It has been thei continued love and suot that has allowed me to usue a musical ath This ivilege is not lost on me, and I am vey conscious o all o the gits that have been ovided by them iv

5 GLOSSAY O TEMS The ollowing tems ae used extensively thoughout the text A bie deinition o each is ovided hee in ode to acilitate discussion Auditoy Image A mental eesentation o a sound entity that may be consideed coheent in its acoustic behavio and in its ecetion This tem has also been descibed as a Sound-object within the Acousmatic School o comosition Done A done eesents a musical diection whee a single chod, o itch continuously sounds with limited vaiation om-beaing Dimension The sychological exeience o a musical stuctue iesective o notation and intellectual intention A musical dimension may bea om i it can be oganized, ecognized, and comaed mentally with othe coniguations One might also seak o om-evading dimensions, qualities o music that ae not ecognized o even distot the sychological exeience o stuctue omant This deines sectal eaks o the sound sectum oten due to the hysicality o the esonating cavity, and sometimes eeed to as acoustic esonance unctionality - In music, this ees to the oganization o stuctues / aametes to ulill some edeined ole, oten elated to exession o the uoses o this thesis, exession connects to exeiences o tension and elease usion o this thesis, usion suggests a ecetual ocess wheeby two o moe units gou into a eceived, indivisible unit Sectal usion ees to a simultaneous gouing into the same auditoy image, the comonents, and dimensions o a comlex sound sectum This tem may also be eeed to as integation and its oosite may be disintegation, which eesents the asing o the comonents o a comlex sound souce into seaate comonents Multi-dimensionality This deines having o involving seveal dimensions o asects that contibute to the emegence o an oveall exeience / om Sound Enveloe An imotant element o timbe that eesents the amlitude chaacteistics o a sound though time It is oten seaated into thee otions: the attack, sustain, and elease o a sound Attack tansients eesent changes occuing beoe the sound eaches a steady-state intensity Sustain ees to the steady state o a sound, and the elease eesents the time eiod in which it ades to silence Sound Object A sound-event ossessing a basic ecetual and temoal unity, containing chaacteistic eatues that can be vebally descibed om a ecetual oint o view this connects to the concet o Auditoy Image Tension and elease In music, tension eesents the eceived need o elaxation o elease ceated by a listene s exectation atten ocesses contolled by the comose may set u this eeling o exectation v

6 TABLE O CONTENTS Oveview: Volume I: Witten Text at I Histoical Timbe at II Theoy and oosition at III Alication and Analysis Volume II: Musical Scoe VOLME I ABSTACT ÉSMÉ ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS GLOSSAY ii iii iv v INTODCTION 1 Descition 1 Oiginal Contibutions 1 Oganization AT I HISTOICAL TIMBE CHATE 1 Timbe: Deinition and Stuctue 6 11 Intoduction 6 1 Deining Timbe 6 11 Oigins 5 Helmholtz 7 Standad Deinition 1 ecetual Views 9 ecetualization and the Timbe aadox 9 Multidimensionality 9 Synthesis and e-synthesis 1 1 Aesthetic Deinition 14 Acousmatics 14 Timbe Emegence 14 1 Timbe as Comositional Stuctue 15 vi

7 11 Caie vesus Object 15 1 Oigins and ecusos 16 1 Logical and Categoical Oganizations 19 Klangabenmelodie 19 Musique Concéte 0 Musique Concéte Instumentale 1 14 Synthesis and Analysis Synthesis Elektonische Musik Sectalism 15 Timbe and Textue 4 16 nivesal Aoaches 5 14 Conclusion Timbe - in vito in vivo 6 Chate - Timbe unctionality 1 Stuctue vesus unction 11 Tension vesus dissonance 9 1 Citeia o aoaching unctionality 0 Histoical Aoaches 1 1 Linguistic / Semiotic 1 Semiotics 1 Timbe Hieachies Gestual Sectomohology 4 Embodied Music Cognition 5 Extension o Hamony 5 Sectal unctions 6 Sound-Noise Axis 6 Non-hamonic ogessions 7 4 Cognitive Timbe Analogies AT II Theoy and oosition Chate Theoetical Basis 4 1 oosition 4 Sectal usion 4 1 Deinition 4 usion aametes 44 Sectal asing 46 Auditoy Scene Analysis 4 vii

8 1 Deinition 4 Sequential and Simultaneous Gouing 49 Musical Timbe and Auditoy Scene Oganization 51 Timbe as a cause o segegation 5 Timbe as a esult o usion 5 Timbe as musical om 54 4 Sensoy Dissonance 55 5 Synthesis 56 6 usion aadox 5 Chate 4 oosition o Comositional Model Adatation 61 4 usion aametes 6 4 usion Continuum Timbe Aays Bi-dimensional Aay usion Aays usion ototye 6 46 Comositional Imlications 6 47 Didactic Examles Examle 1a Synchonicity and oximity aallel motion Examle 1b Synchonicity and oximity contay motion Examle Modulation Steams Examle Satialized Sectum Discussion 7 4 Timbe as a Vetical ocess Conclusion 0 AT III Alication and Analysis: Ksana I o Ochesta Chate 5 Concetualization, Stuctue and Mateial 51 Intoduction 5 Comositional Objectives 51 oetics 5 Aoaches to timbe 5 Oveview o om, and Othe Geneal Consideations 4 54 Mateial Geneal Consideations Initial Souce eesentation Comute Assisted Ochestation Temoal Consideations 97 Temoal Categoies 97 viii

9 544 Temoal Ma 101 Chate 6 - Timbe: Hoizontal and Vetical Stuctuing Intoduction 10 6 Hoizontal Oganization econsideing Timbe Melody (klangabenmelodie) 10 6 Timbe Coss ades Vetical Oganization Timbe Imulses 106 Tyology o Imulses - Schaeeian Categoies 106 Mico-temoal Dimension 110 Timbe Isohythm 11 Timbe Gamma Textue: Vetical - Hoizontal Integation (an examle) 11 Chate 7: Timbe: unctional Alications Intoduction Attemts Attemt I (mm1 94) Attemt II (mm ) 11 7 Attemt III (mm 11 1) Discussion 1 7 Summay and Citicisms Atethought 16 AENDIX 1 BIBLIOGAHY 19 VOLME II ull Scoe: Ksana I o Ochesta Instumentation i eomance Instuctions ii ull Scoe 1 ix

10 INTODCTION Descition Ksana I, an ochestal comosition with a duation o twelve minutes, eesents the ist in a titych o woks exloing comositional asects o timbe and temoality The ocus o my doctoal eseach centes on the comositional use o timbe in a unctional manne, able to oduce vaying levels o tension within a musical wok As such, this thesis exloes numeous models o timbe unctionality, ollowed by a oosition o a ecetually inomed model o timbe unction, asects o which ae then alied to the musical comosition Oiginal Contibutions The oiginal contibution o this thesis is the synthesis o models ound in sychoacoustics and timbe ecetion eseach and thei alication towads a comositional model o timbe unction Objectives: Why Timbe My incile objective is to undestand the manne in which a comose can contol timbe unctionally in ode to geneate vaying levels o tension and elease The ecetion o the movement between tension and elease may be consideed an imotant asect in the ecetion o musical om (McAdams 1999) Taditionally, comoses have achieved tension and elease though the contol o itch / hamonic (tonality) and hythmic stuctuing (beat and agogics) With the gowth o timbe-oientated comosition, howeve, we lack a clealy deined aoach to timbe unction The shit om consideing timbe as a caie o itch and hythmic inomation, towads timbe as the imay object o musical meaning, esents many comositional challenges The ecetual 1

11 natue o timbe constains the stict aametical contol o timbe, as its alteations must be eceivable Theeoe a unctional model o timbe develoed om the aametical contol o timbe aametes must aise om a ecetual oint o view Alication o sychoacoustics to Music Comosition As timbe unctionality must be ecetually aoached, the comositional alication o sychoacoustic models eesents an imotant asect o this wok One may conside sychoacoustics as the study o the elationshi between the hysical oeties o sound (acoustics) and the obseve s subjective descition o the sensations esulting om the sound Theeoe, I will aly to comositional thinking thee sychoacoustic concets elated to timbe ecetion: Sensoy Dissonance A tem coined by Helmholtz (177) oviding a sensoy basis o dissonance elating to the oughness and beating that occus due to the amlitude luctuations geneated by sectal comonents o sound that all within the same auditoy ilte in the inne ea Sensoy dissonance may be consideed a hysiological om o dissonance seaate om syntactic dissonance, wheeby dissonance occus due to edeined contextual ules Auditoy Scene Analysis A model o auditoy ecetion develoed by Albet Begman (1994), wheeby the auditoy system oganizes sound into ecetually meaningul events and steams As sound eaches the human ea as a whole, the signal must be analyzed into its individual ats As such, auditoy scene analysis ocesses allows us to distinguish between multile souces within an acoustic whole Timbe has been shown to have

12 a stong eect on both the concuent and sequential comonents o Auditoy Scene Analysis Sectal usion This concet elates to the concuent oganization asect o Auditoy Scene Analysis Coined by McAdams (McAdams 19), wheeby multile atials o a comlex sound sectum, analyzed by the ea, gou togethe to om a single auditoy image Each used sectum may be thought o as aising om a single souce An examle may be a violin timbe, as we do not hea the individual atials o its sectum, but athe the ecetual esult o the hamonic atials using togethe usion, in a sense, esults in timbe, as it eesents the ecetual descition o a used auditoy event o steam Oganization This thesis divides into two volumes, a text otion, and a musical scoe Volume I uthe divides into thee ats at I exloes the eceived views o musical timbe In Chate 1, I esent timbe s aadoxical deinition and exloe timbe as a multidimensional musical stuctue and the mannes in which comoses have utilized timbe as a stuctuing asect o thei wok Chate exloes unctional aoaches to timbe with an oveview o vaious histoical aoaches at II o the dissetation esents a ecetually inomed model o timbe unctionality Chate descibes the sychoacoustic models o Sectal usion, Auditoy Scene Analysis, and Sensoy Dissonance and thei elevance to timbe unction Chate 4 ooses a comositional model o timbe unctionality synthesized om these sychoacoustic models as well as the concetualization o timbe as a vetical ocess o music

13 at III ovides an analysis o the musical wok Chate 5 esents the comositional objectives and oveall stuctue o the wok I descibe the develoment o the oiginal mateial o the comosition as well as the use o the comute assisted ochestation tool, Ochidée I also esent the temoal consideations o the wok Hee, I deine thee imay temoal categoies: metical, chonological, and mohological and thei deloyment thoughout the wok Chate 6 details the oganization and stuctuing o timbe om both hoizontal and vetical esectives inally, with Chate 7, I demonstate the deloyment o my comositional model o timbe unction within the musical comosition Issues and ossible new avenues o exloation ae also discussed This leads to Volume II o the thesis, the musical scoe 4

14 AT I: HISTOICAL TIMBE 5

15 Chate 1 TIMBE: DEINITION AND STCTE 11 Intoduction This chate ovides a bie oveview o vaious concets elating to the deinition and comositional stuctuing o timbe Timbe vaies geatly in its deinition Theeoe, it would be imotant to esent these vaious views in ode to achieve a global undestanding o the concet The second at o the chate discusses the histoical comositional uses o timbe as the imay stuctuing element One might ague that a divide exists between aoaching timbe as an object o study and its aesthetic comositional use This chate closes with a discussion addessing this aticula divide 1 Deining Timbe 11 Oigins The wod timbe oiginates om the Geek oot tytein, meaning to beat o to stike It late eeed to hysical instuments such as a Geek kettledum, tymanon, in Latin a tambouine, tymanum, o in 17 th centuy ance, tymbe, o a hamme stuck bell By the late 17 th centuy a moe moden deinition aose, but aligned with the human voice, as the voice was consideed caable o oducing dieent tymbes (ales 005) Not until 1 th centuy ance did timbe s moden deinition as a seaate quality o sound, dieing om itch o hythm, emege In 1716, hilie de la Hie wote: One must distinguish the sound that is omed by the encounte o two sonoous bodies which clash in the itch which it has in comaison to anothe itch o the same natue 1 1 On doit distingue le Son que se ome a la enconte de deux cos sonoes qui se choquent d avec le ton qu il a en le comaant à un aute ton de la même natue (ales 005, 1) 6

16 ousseau s Dictionnaie de musique (ousseau 176) may be consideed the ist to descibe timbe metahoically as, that quality o sound by which it is sha o sot, billiant o dull, dy o sweet (ousseau 176) Helmholtz Helmholtz s seminal wok, On the sensations o tone as a hysiological basis o the theoy o music (15), may be consideed one o the ist to descibe timbe om a sychohysical oint o view This theoy assets that a dieence in timbe o comlex tones deends uon the stengths o hamonics o the tones sing Ohm s (14) acoustical law, wheeby the ea eoms a ouie analysis on a comlex eiodic waveom, Helmholtz asseted that a comlex tone consists o hamonically elated sinusoids whose stength o thei amlitudes detemines the quality o a tone Moeove, duing nomal listening situations, this comlex o sinusoids uses within one's conscious ecetion Helmholtz makes a stong distinction between musical sounds and noise Musical sounds deive om musical instuments wheeas noise oten eesents natual sounds, such as the slashing o wate o the ustling o the wind The dieence aises om consideing musical sounds as having a eiodic waveom and noise sounds, a non-eiodic waveom eiodic tones contain oscillations that constantly etun to the same condition ate exactly equal intevals o time (Helmholtz 15, ) Thus, the individual sinusoid comonents o eiodic/musical tones coesond to the whole-numbeed hamonic seies Convesely, waveoms that continually vay in thei oscillation and contain equency comonents that do not coesond to whole numbeed multiles engende inhamonic o noise sounds cette qualité du Son a laquelle il est aige ou doux, soud ou éclatant, sec ou moelleux (ousseau 176, 5) 7

17 Since the time o Helmholtz, numeous oblems have been identiied with his theoem His attention ocused on steady state tones, neglecting temoal descitos o natual tones Since most natual signals dynamically change ove time, this may be seen as a limitation in Helmholtz s theoies uthe, the distotion o the sectum does not aect the ecognizability o the timbe o examle, musical instuments can be ecognized as such, even though a vey oo ecoding (ie distoted sectum) isset and Wessel (1999) asset that the e-synthesis o timbes om thei sectal descition ails to oduce the actual instumental timbe they descibe, meaning that uely sectal descitions o timbe ae inadequate Also, methods o sound maniulation eveal that temoal alteations o timbe stongly aect tone quality o examle, Schaee discoveed that the emoval o the attack otion o a sound enveloe altes timbal quality and its ability to be ecognized (Schaee et al 1967) Standad Deinition Cuently, the standad deinition o timbe comes om the Ameican National Standads Institute which deines timbe as that quality o sensation in which a eson can judge two sounds, having the same itch and loudness, as dieent (ANSI 197) This chaacteization esents, howeve, a negative view o timbe, deined as something that it is not - itch and loudness It is notable to comae this deinition o timbe to the 1716 deinition ovided ealie om hilie de la Hie Both deinitions ely on descibing timbe in tems o eceived dieences when othe sound qualities such as itch and amlitude emain constant As well, in both cases thee lacks a diect timbeseciic wod o descition o timbal qualities

18 1 ecetual Views ecetualization and the Timbe aadox nlike equency o amlitude ecetion, timbe ecetion cannot be associated diectly with any seciic hysiological mechanism athe, as a ecetual oduct o multile dimensions, timbe ecetion aises om what Conelia ales deines as a distibuted ecetion, since it does not aise om a single dedicated mechanism (ales 00) Timbe might univesally seve to identiy sounds in the envionment; its deinition aising om an evolutionay unction wheeby catalogues o envionmental o cultually conditioned sounds assist humans in negotiating thei suoundings We do not howeve necessaily eceive timbe om its acoustic eatues, since thee exists a lage degee o e-attentive listening Accoding to ales (00), any cognitive oeation o eatue that contibutes to the ecetual outcome o a signal beyond the actual acoustic elements o the signal, leads to a ecetualization o timbe Yet we use this inomation to deine ou envionment As the acoustic stimulus and the eceived stimulus may conlict, o ales, this amounts to a timbe aadox, as we identiy envionmental timbes though a ecetual coloing Multi-dimensionality nlike othe musical stuctues, timbe cannot be descibed using dualistic language constucts o examle, descitions o itch evolve between high o low, duation between long o shot, dynamics between loud o sot Consideed as a multidimensional aamete, timbe must be deined with multile aametes and continuums Sethaes (005) ooses the ollowing subjective ating scales o timbe: 9

19 Dull ß à Sha Cool ß à Wam Sot ß à Sha ue ß à ich Comact ß à Scatteed ull ß à Emty Static ß à Dynamic Coloul ß à Cololess While seving to descibe eceived qualities o timbe, these continuums eesent subjective nominalizations, and do not coesond to measuable hysical oeties Additionally, timbe may be deined within a multi-dimensional timbe sace Multi-dimensional scaling involves gatheing subjective similaities between ais o comlex sounds, measuing subjective distances that ae then maed as oints in a multi-dimensional sace (lom 1970; Gey 1977) Timbe sace ovides a notion o the ecetual elationshis between dieent timbes The dimensions o timbe sace elate to indeendent audio coelates o timbe To detemine the satial osition o timbes, eseaches eom dissimilaity tests on ais o timbes, whee itch, loudness, and duation ae ket constant Listenes esond to the degee to which two timbes elate to each othe om this, individual instumental timbes can be maed to a multidimensional timbe sace, wheeby thei oximity denotes thei similaity The axes o the sace eesent one-dimensional attibutes that catue temoal, sectal, sectotemoal and enegetic oeties Also known as audio descitos, such aametes may be consideed timbal dimensions whose combinations give ise to the emegent oety we deine as timbe Some o the moe ominent indeendent timbe attibutes include: 10

20 1 Sectal Centoid This eesents the elative distibution o high and low equencies in the sectum and oten coesonds to bightness o the cente o gavity o a timbe Logaithm o the attack time This coesonds to the sectotemoal duation o the attack otion o a timbe Sectal lux This attibute eesents the degee o sectal movement aound the sectal centoid ove time 4 Sectal Deviation This measues the degee o jaggedness o the sectal shae In addition to these descitos, one must also ee to the seciicities o a timbe Seciicities descibe the individual, unique chaacteistics o instumental o synthetic timbes They may be consideed to eesent eatues that distinguish a sound om all othes within a aticula context (McAdams 01) o examle, this may include the sound o the action o a hasichod, the edal noise o a iano, o even the sectal enveloe o a clainet Seciicities, in combination with the othe indeendent audio descitos, contibute to a holistic descition o a timbe Timbe sace deals with ecetual elationshis between ais o timbes and makes no a ioi assetions about the hysical o ecetual stuctue o timbe (McAdams 01) Ealie attemts o this aoach equalized imotant musical aametes such as itch, loudness, and duation in ode to isolate timbal attibutes, the easoning being that slight inequalities in these thee hysical actos would aect dissimilaity judgments made by listenes and wouldn't necessaily be elated to timbe o examle, a slight mistuning in itch might be consideed a timbe alteation elated to bightness 11

21 and dullness (Gey 1975) Nevetheless, musical assetions om timbe sace should be weighed against the esence o elative musical aametes such as itch, duation, and loudness, since they ose questions as to the ecetual obustness o multidimensional scaling in musical conditions As such, ecent aoaches to timbe sace have weighed itch vaiations with esect to timbe Maozeau and de Cheveigné (007) ound that dieences in itch aect timbe in two dieent ways istly, they asset that lage dieences in itch made it diicult o listenes to ocus only on timbe Secondly, that changes in itch geneally aect the sectal centoid, o bightness o a timbe Handel and Eickson (001) also ound that listenes had diiculty extaolating the timbe o a sound acoss lage dieences in itch They uthe oclaim a ule o thumb: the bandwidth o timbe invaiance is one octave When moving beyond an octave, the listene begins to eceive dieences in timbe om this eseach the musical use o multidimensional scaling o timbe esents many cues and challenges A geneal cue that can be extaolated concens itch vaiances lage than an octave and how they diectly aect ou ability to notice timbe, theeby imosing a itch estiction when dealing with timbe as object comosition This obably accounts o the evalence o done-based music in association with timbe comosition whee one seeks a ecetually continuous yet mico-vaiable timbe constuction In elationshi to ochestation, we may asset that timbe vaies in conjunction with itch and dynamics o a given instumental timbe, and theeoe cae with egad to egiste and dynamics becomes cucial o the success o an ochestation These assetions, howeve, ose a oblem with esect to comositional saliency Contemoay comoses oten lay between dieent comositional stategies within 1

22 the same iece; at times they may esent itch-based stategies o hythmic stategies, and at othe times they conside timbe as thei imay stuctuing element Timbe sace might be limited to the use o the latte scenaio o at least to timbe-oiented comositions that seveely estict itch and dynamic qualities uthemoe, in cetain comositional amewoks, it might be desiable to have itch and duational elements consideed comletely indeendently o timbe In this case using timbe sace, as a comositional tool, may be limited, since itch, egistation, and dynamic actos might be consideed bound to timbe Much musical comlexity aises om the decouling o musical aametes and ocesses Synthesis and e-synthesis isset and Wessel (1999) exloed timbe though what they deine as a ecetual model as oosed to a hysical model A hysical model mimics the hysical mechanisms that give ise to timbe In the ecetual model, howeve, the esynthesized timbe need only ecetually esemble the oiginal sound Hee, timbe eesents a ecetual by-oduct, since the e-synthesis model may not be conguent with the actual causalities o the oiginal timbe o this aoach, a timbal analysis estimates the salient aametes o the timbe model Secondly, execution o the model om the calculated timbal aametes, esynthesizes a vesion o the oiginal timbe inally, the use o a goodness-o-it evaluation technique to detemine the comaability o the analyzed timbe and the synthesized timbe assesses the success both o the model and the aametes chosen to estimate the oiginal timbe This aoach ovides insight and undestanding into the elevant ecetual aametes o timbe It also leads to a simliied eesentation o timbe elimi- 1

23 nating nonessential hysical actos (Gey 1975) These models can then be used to eom comositional tansomations on the oiginal sound 1 Aesthetic Deinitions Acousmatics It was iee Schaee in the mid 0 th centuy who ist concetually divoced sound om its souce to only seak o timbe s ecetual qualities Acousmatic listening equies the listene to divoce the sound om its causal elations, educing sound to heaing alone (Schaee et al 1967) This notion aises om a henomenological idea that the listene ays attention to the content o ecetion athe than to the hysical object o cause esonsible o the ecetion Schaee esented the concet o the objet sonoe, o sound object, which eesents a temoally deined ecetual object o timbe sing a technique called écoute éduite, o educed listening, a constantly eeated sound altes one s ecetion, theeby divocing it om its causality and souce educed listening thus allows a listene to eceive and identiy the eceived qualities o a timbe Timbe Emegence Many comoses also deine timbe as an emegent oety om multidimensional aametes In Timbe et causalité, Claude Cadoz (1991) assets that the multidimensional elationshi between the timbal object, and the musical eect, gives ise to an emegent quality deined as timbe As such, timbe aises not only though souce identiication but also though its gestual and envionmental eects, and its elationshi to notation and comositional stuctuing Similaly, o iee Boulez, timbe may be deined as an emegent stuctue om the intelay between instumentation, lan- 14

24 guage, and comositional maniulation (Boulez 197) hilie Manouy, in Les limites de la notion de timbe (Manouy 1991), discusses how ou concetualizations o timbe ae invesely elated to ou ecetual aeciation The limits to which Manouy ees ae the diiculties in coss-domain maings o timbal attibutes o him, timbe s multidimensional natue makes it diicult to be maed to any single one aamete, such as itch o hamony athe, timbe emeges om a delicate intelay o itch, duation, and intensity Géad Gisey connects timbe to temoality claiming, by deinition, we will say that sound is tansitoy, (Gisey 197) Timbe deined om a temoal oint o view, emeges om the secto-temoal oeties o sound Hee the mohology o a timbe denotes om, leading to a tension between the mateial o comosition and its diachonic stuctuing oce 1 Timbe as Comositional Stuctue 11 Caie vesus Object obet Eickson (1975) distinguishes two oles o timbe - that o caie o o object eesenting the evalent use o timbe in westen classical music, timbe as a caie seves as a vehicle o vaiations in itch and hythm In viewing timbe as an object, howeve, timbe becomes the imay stuctue o musical inomation This accounts o a music that elies less on vaiations o melodic and hythmic stuctues but athe, leads the listene into the condition o timbe listening wheeby vaiations in timbe aametes ovide the incile listening ocus The comose Lasse Thoesen also distinguishes between note-based and soundbased music (Thoesen and Hedman 007) He challenges the notion that westen musi- 15

25 cology has imaily ocused on only thee stuctues: 1) itch stuctues, such as hamony and modality; ) omal stuctues such as themes, and motives; ) hythmic stuctues, though mete Convesely, timbe has been given a seconday consideation as colouation though the ochestation o musical stuctues associated with itch, omal, and hythmic elements With new advances in technology and sectomohological illuminations oeed by iee Schaee, Thoesen assets that we have become enlightened to the use o timbe as a imay stuctuing element o music elatedly, accoding to isset and Wessel (1999), westen classical music can be aoached in two mannes istly, it may be aoached om the oint o view o gamma and vocabulay in elationshi to tonality and olyhony Hee the comositional aoach ocuses on the elationshi between the hoizontal and vetical oganizations o itch Convesely, westen comosition may also oject a imodial attemt to enew the musical vocabulay This view ocuses on sonic mateial itsel and the maniulation o the intenal elements o sound isset and Wessel asset that this aoach eesents the incile natue o timbe comosition 1 Oigins and ecusos Instumental timbe was imaily consideed as a delineato o contauntal melodies duing the Baoque ea Music consideed om the oint o view o the melodic line did not seciy geneally the use o a aticula instumental timbe Timbe emained subsevient to itch, hythmic, and omal stuctuing, and was not necessaily consideed a undamental comonent-object o comosition Duing the late Baoque, howeve, comoses began witing o seciic instuments (and thus a aticula timbe) leading to concets o instumentation and ultimately, ochestation Initial aoaches to 16

26 instumental sonoity did not conside timbe as a netwok o contasting and comlementay colos, but athe evaluated instumental sonoities against the standad o the human voice (Dolan 01) The contol o nuances o timbe within the singing tone situated the voice as the deinitive caie o melodic eomance Instuments that could imitate the voice wee thus equally ized om the Classical to the omantic eiods o music, timbe emained subsevient to a stongly hieachical and ich musical language based on itch and hamony As the size o ochestas inceased, evealed by an exansion o bass and woodwind sections, an inceasing alette o timbe develoed In this sense, timbe esulting om instumentation and ochestation decisions unctioned as a sign-ost o emotions (Boulez 197) In his Gand taité d instumentation et d ochestation modenes (144), Hecto Belioz elucidates which instumental timbes may be consideed leasant, sweet, joyous o sad, theeby linking ochestal instuments to seciic emotional qualities Hee, Belioz demonstates that the oe use o instumental sonoities is undamental to the stuctue o music; coect comosition is imossible without an intimate knowledge o the oeties o instuments, (Dolan 01, 5) The emegence o timbe as a comositional object may coincide with the changing unctionality o hamony in the ealy 0 th centuy At the twilight o the 19 th centuy to the dawn o the 0 th centuy, hamonic unction exanded beyond chomaticism Tauskin (009) oints out that hamonic unctionality moved towads a hamonic contextuality, whee local esolutions o dissonance sueseded tonal goal oientation Thus, ehas the move towads timbe as object comosition aose om the inal stages o the 17

27 unctional oces o hamony whee non-unctional hamonic stuctues may be consideed the oto-ealizations o timbe-oientated comosition Eickson (1975) oints to the oigins o timbe as object comosition with ichad Wagne s heingold (154) The ovetue to heingold begins with a low done by eight contabasses einoced by a contabass tombone and contabass tuba With no motives, only an aeggiated E-lat majo tiad emeges in the othe instuments, ceating an uwad moving ochestal gestue This textual, done scoing leads the listene om a hamonic/itch listening condition to a timbe listening condition, and ehas oeshadows a moe moden inteetation o dones by Giacinto Scelsi whose Quatto ezzi su una nota sola (1959), educes the itch inomation to micotonal vaiations aound a cental itch leading the listene towads timbal listening Imessionism may also be consideed as a ecuso to timbe comosition With Claude Debussy s Jeux (191), chods ochestated o thei timbal eect athe than hamonic unction suggest an aoach towads ochestation as comosition itsel Mauice avel s ochestation o a single melody in Boleo (19) illustates the musical vaiety that can be dawn om the usion o ochestal/timbal oces Extending om this tadition, Olivie Messiaen linked timbe and non-unctional hamony in Chonochomie ( ) such that shiting timbal colos detemined the logic behind the hamonic ogessions Anothe ealy oonent o timbe-oiented comosition, Edgad Vaèse, emhasized timbe, textue, and sace in a sel descibed aoach called oganized sound Vaèse descibes his view o timbe in his maniesto, The Libeation o Sound (196; 1966): 1

28 The ole o timbe would be comletely changed om being incidental, anecdotal, sensual, ictuesque; it would become an agent o delineation, like the dieent colos on a ma seaating dieent aeas, and an integal at o om (Vaèse and Wen-chung 1966, 1) Vaèse consideed sound and hythm to be imay comositional elements, evidenced by his evalent use o the ecussion ensemble Woks like Ionisation (191) teat ecussion instuments as an ensemble equal in owe and exession to that o stings and winds John Cage s aoach to the ecussion ensemble and to the eaed iano uthe laced imotance on inhamonic sound mateial, exanding the sonic wold beyond that o hamony In Sonatas and Inteludes (1946-4), iano eaation with scews and vaious tyes o bolts and ubbe alteed the iano s natual sound, evealing an aoach ocused on timbe itsel 1 Logical and Categoical Oganizations Klangabenmelodie It is my oinion that the sound becomes noticeable though its timbe and one o its dimensions is itch itch is nothing but timbe measued in one diection (Schoenbeg 19, 506) o the use o timbe as a imay comositional aamete, a logical oganization must be achieved At the end o Schoenbeg s teatise on hamony, Hamonielehe (1911), he suggests the constuction o logical timbe stuctues Schoenbeg assets that tone colo is, thus, the main toic, itch is a subdivision, (Schoenbeg 19) uthe, Schoenbeg analogously assets that i we ae able to ceate attens out o itches called melodies whose coheence conoms to thought ocesses, it ought to be ossible then to make ogessions out o timbe An examle o this may be in his ün Ochestestücke 19

29 (1909), whee the eetitive use o the aben chod o colo chod, evokes a summe moning by the lake Anton Weben adats the concet o Klangabenmelodie as a linea, sequential constuction, assigning dieent itches o a melody to dieent instuments/timbes This ointillist aoach may be exemliied in Konzet ü neun Instumente, (194) Accoding to Eickson (1975), the linea aoach to Klangabenmelodie was ehas not suicient Schoenbeg viewed Weben s constuctions o linea timbal melodies as being only a small at o what he conceived, and that in his own wok, it is oten olyhonic (Eickson 1975) In contast, Luigi Nono s Il canto soseso (1955) ovides a non-motivic aoach to Klangabenmelodie, ocing the listene to obseve the timbes themselves, ceating a distancing, Veemdungseekt Musique concète Technological advances in the ealy 0 th centuy uthe allowed the develoment o new electic instuments, the ecoding o sounds, and o the close maniulation o timbe though vaious studio techniques Ate the Second Wold Wa, iee Schaee and the GM (Goue de echeches musicales) deined the concet o musique concète, wheeby objets sonoes o, sound objects seve as the imay timbal note o a comosition uthemoe, this method allowed o the use o all sounds, egadless o instumental o envionmental souce Musique concète involves the comositional maniulation o concete, ecoded sounds on eecoded tae and not the abstact notation o sound Schaee ealized that it was ossible to emove all souce and causal identiication though cetain techniques such as emoving the attack o a ecoded sound o though eeated listening om this, Schaee oganized a categoical table o timbe 0

30 qualities The TATY, o Tableau écaitulati de la tyologie (Schaee 1966), esents a timbe solège, which ovided comoses and analysts timbal categoies with which any sound could be descibed This eesents a ecetual categoization tool that outlines eceived timbe chaacteistics iesective o its souce and hysical causality Schaee s woks such as Symhonie ou un homme seul (1949), demonstate the deloyment o this tyological aoach and the concète actice Musique concète instumentale Helmut Lachenmann, in Klangtyen de Neuen Music (1970), esents his own timbe tyology oclaiming an aoach to instumental music, musique concète instumental, Lachenmann emeged om 1950s ost-wa seialism with the use o concete sounds as insied by Schaee, but alied to instumental music Lachenmann daws om Schaee by similaly stuctuing mateial based on the eceived acoustic oeties o sound His Klangtyen divide into ive boad categoies Kadenzklang, o sound cadence, eesents temoally discete sound events abklang, o sound colo, eesents stable sustained sounds luktuationsklang, o luctuating sounds, eesents a timbe with intenal movement Textuklang, o textued sounds, dies om luktuationsklang in that the intenal movement is iegula The inal categoy, Stuktuklang, o stuctual sound, esents a sound that contains a, olyhony o odeed juxtaositions Hee, timbe eesents a elational entity that cannot be eceived as itsel, but athe as a dialectical object o ecetion connected to contexts and elationshis omed within the listene and thei envionment Lachenmann s deloyment o these categoies Stuktu läßt sich so deinieen als olyhonie von Anodnungen (Lachenmann 1970, 1) 1

31 makes use o extended-techniques, wheeby the instumentalist eoms thei instument in non-conventional mannes so as to oduce timbal objects o vaying quality 14 Synthesis and Analysis Synthesis The synthesis o new sounds outside o the taditional instumental context ovided a new avenue o timbe comosition Ealy electonic instuments such as the Theemin (191) and the Ondes Matenot (19) may be consideed ecusos to this aoach Synthesizes om a collection o electonic modules that make it ossible to contol the aametes o timbe theeby oducing a sound om udimentay elements Synthesis techniques ocus on the comositional contol o sectal and temoal aametes maniulated to e-ceate instumental timbes o o the synthesis o novel timbes The majoity o analog synthesizes utilize subtactive synthesis techniques, wheeby ilteing techniques alte the sectal comonents o comlex waveoms to oduce new timbes o examle, Moton Subotnick s Silve Ales o the Moon (196) eesents the use o modula synthesizes built by Don Buchla to ceate esonalized timbes Instead o analog cicuity Digital Signal ocessing (DS) techniques ceate sound digitally, which can then be conveted to an analog signal and diused though loudseakes ioneeed in 1957 by Max Matthews, woking at Bell Labs, timbe aametes could be contolled though comute ogamming languages Digital synthesis techniques include equency Modulation Synthesis (Chowning 1977), and Non-linea Wave-shaing Synthesis (Cutis oads 1979) Jean Claude isset s Mutations (1969) illustates the use o comute sound synthesis to bidge between itch, hamony, and tim-

32 be Hee, itches ist head melodically become sustained to ceate hamony, then used in ode to give bith to timbe Elektonische Musik In the 1950s, the Nodwestdeutsche undunk (NWD) studio in Cologne contasted itsel with the GM and the musique concète aoach by not using ecoded sounds as the imay comositional mateial, but athe, using timbes geneated by analog electoacoustic means The oigins o this aoach may be taced to that o integal seialism as electonics extended the contol o musical aametes to a deee and moe igoous contol o timbal aametes o examle, Kalheinz Stockhausen s Studie I und II ( ), deive the conscious oganization o music om the mico-acoustic shee o timbe itsel Hee, itch is detemined by a timbe s undamental equency, and timbe is oduced by the elative stength o its ovetones in the hamonic seies, whee hythm and om deive om the equency continuum though tanslated at much slowe cycles Sectalism In the late 0 th centuy, the use o mathematical models o timbe in conjunction with sychoacoustic inciles esulted in the metahoical maing o timbal descitos to musical aametes and the develoment o the sectal school o comosition Centeed at ICAM (Institut de echeche et coodination acoustique / musique) in ais, the analysis o seciic timbes o thei sectal and temoal content allowed o the maing o timbal aametes to aametes o itch, hamony, hythm and om Such attitudes may be ound in the woks o Tistan Muail and Géad Gisey, who ma the atial chaacteistics o a taget timbe to instuments, ceating an instumental syn-

33 thesis Géad Gisey s seies, Les Esaces acoustiques ( ), uses sectal comonents as an ochestation imetus, wheeby the stuctue o the ovetones becomes assigned to the instuments o the ochesta Tistan Muail s Désintegations (19) uthe uses ocesses emloyed in the electonic music studio, such as ing modulation, alied to instumental comosition 15 Timbe as Textue om the oint o view o textue, the comositional weaving o numeous individual lines, howeve oganized, omotes a timbal listening esective Hee, timbe may be consideed to emege om the gouing o integation o simultaneously sounding musical steams (Begman 1990) This aoach lays with the ecetual boundaies between itch and noise, and aeas unde vaious aesthetic tems such as stochastics, micoolyhony, and soundmass o examle, the stochastic aoach in Metastaseis (195-54), by Iannis Xenakis, o the mass integal-seialist stuctues in Kalheinz Stockhausen s Guen ( ), oduces a timbal esective om the amalgamation o lage itch clustes Othe textual aoaches to timbe include Gyögi Ligeti s concet o micoolyhony in Atmoshèes (1961), whee individual intewoven instumental voices become absobed into the geneal textue and lose thei identity In Kzyszto endeecki s Thenody to the Victims o Hioshima (1959), clustes o sounds deived om extended laying techniques on sting instuments oduce lage timbal sound masses These sound masses occu at exteme egiste lacements geneating omal stuctues based on timbe quality 4

34 16 nivesal Aoaches Outside o the westen musical tadition timbe eesents an imotant aamete o musical actice om an ethnomusicological oint o view Conelia ales (00) identiies asects o timbe comosition that aea in disaate musical cultues ales identiies two geneal eomance styles in elation to timbe comosition: Timbal Anomaly and Timbal Juxtaosition Timbal Anomaly uthe divides into two tyes: extaction o edistibution Timbal extaction occus by the alteation o the individual comonents o a timbe s sectum o examle, in the ovetone singing o Tibet, the amliication o a aticula hamonic leads to a ecetion o a second sound but without a second souce In contast, timbal edistibution oes no changes to the oiginal sound but ees to chimeic eects when two sounds use to om a thid emegent timbe o examle in the Inanga Chuchotée o Buundi, the whiseed text and the hamonics o the Inanga (zithe) use to ceate a melodized whise Timbal Juxtaosition involves a subtle contasting o hamonic-stuctued timbes and omant-stuctued timbes ales suggests that thee exists a continuum o timbe stuctues On one end o the sectum, omant-stuctued timbes contain secta with seveal omant bands, o boad clums o high intensity hamonics o examle, the voice eesents a distinctively omant-based sound stuctue On the othe end o the sectum, hamonic-stuctued timbes aise om secta with a ew imay hamonics that chaacteize the timbe o examle, ales consides lute sounds in thei high egiste to be imaily hamonically based, since the stength o a ew imay hamonics chaacteizes the timbe A classical examle o Timbal juxtaosition comes om onamentation in Indian sita music whee a sting is bent towads a taget itch Hee, the 5

35 sita geneally oduces a omant-based timbe but the itch bend in the sting oduces a ominent hamonic that leetingly eaanges the Sita s timbe such that one eceives a moe hamonic stuctue (ales 00) This contast between hamonic- and omantbased stuctues amounts to a edistibution o ecetualization seving as a timbal comositional device 14 Conclusion Timbe - in vito in vivo It may be clea that in both the deinition and in the comositional stuctuing o timbe, thee exists a divide between consideing timbe scientiically as an object o study and aesthetically as an object o exession In aiming to undestand timbe as an object itsel, we oten isolate it om aesthetic ideas and elative qualities (o at least estict them) in ode to undestand it (in vito) Convesely, as an object o exession, the exeience o timbe aises om its subjective musical use in elationshi to othe musical aametes, cultual connections, and aesthetic intentions (in vivo) ehas this divide elates to the dieence between itch and equency itch may be consideed a metaho o dieent equency ositions in sace, namely high o low In contast, equency eesents an object o scientiic study, since sound waves and thei oscillations do not necessaily ceate a itch itch may also be quantiied as equency, but it does not eesent a uely hysical oety but athe a elative exeience o sound 4 uthe, itch may be consideed a sensation in which a listene assigns musical tones to elative ositions on a scale O it may be exeienced as a quality o a comlex waveom, with numeous equencies contained within Theeoe, on the one 4 o examle, the itch A is oten connected to the equency 440Hz, but it actually could mean a numbe o dieent equencies deending on histoical eiod and community Some ochestas even tune-u thei A to 44Hz o 444Hz in ode to oduce moe bite 6

36 hand we have the objective measuement o sound, and on the othe, an asect o exeience (qualia) etuning to timbe s multidimensional deinition, timbe may be aoached om the objective measuement o numeous acoustic oeties belonging to temoal, sectal, and sectotemoal attibutes At the same time, howeve, timbe esults om the ecetual inteactions between these objective measuements, what ales (00) descibes as timbe s ecetualization Thus, timbe itsel may be consideed subjective Though it can be educed to individual objective measuements, a subjective ocess colos its multidimensional emegence This subjectivity esents a challenge to both comoses and scientists Comoses who desie the stict aametical contol o timbe must ealize that timbe eesents a ecetual quality Scientists, who aim to undestand the objective natue o timbe must ealize that timbe is by natue subjective, and thus also a oety o aesthetic combinations connecting to histoy and cultue ehas, we should conside the Geman wod o timbe: Klangabe, o in a liteal tanslation, sound colo Timbe as a comositional device connects metahoically as an embodiment o the visual ealm It eesents shits in hues and gadations o sectal light Although we can aoach timbe though measuing its sectal and sectotemoal descitos, it also eesents the visualization o sound within a cultue, whose deloyment engendes netwoks o sensations able to oduce a meaningul musical discouse 7

37 Chate 1 Stuctue vesus unction TIMBE NCTIONALITY The numeous methods o oganizing timbe stuctues eveal vey little as to how we may deloy these stuctues in a unctional manne By deinition, a unctional stuctue should seve as a vehicle o exessivity: unction is the ole, o natue o aticiation, o an event in the imot o exessive content and signiicance; () the unctional-exessive meaning and substance o the event ae its eceived, cognized chaacteistics (o those esumably intended) and elations to ailiated events in a given wok at a given level (Bey 1976, ) o mysel, how timbe stuctues oeate within a musical context o aadigm in ode to geneate vaying levels o tension suggests timbe s exessive ole in music In addition, unction may ee to a ocessive asect, denoting stuctual elationshis that occu ove time One may, howeve, suggest aoaches to unctionality that do not necessaily exess tension o examle, succession, ecession, stasis, ojection, segmentation, and eetition may all connect to unctional descitions o stuctue used within musical discouse o the uoses o this thesis, I aim to distinguish between stuctuing o oganization and stuctuing o exessivity This stuctual exessivity should causally aect the ecetion o tension I asset that the cognitive exeience and contol o tension eesents a imay comositional goal o comoses Theeoe, vaiations in tension that dieent stuctual attens engende, egadless o thei unctional descitions, esents an aoach to timbe that moves beyond solely oganization

38 11 Tension vesus Dissonance Tension eesents a ecetual quality that seves as a link between the ecetion o a musical stuctue and subjective emotional esonse Successive tension and elease exeiences may be common while listening to music (essnitze et al 000) Thee emains, howeve, no univesal exlanation o tension Inceasing tension may be qualitatively descibed as inceasing excitement, o exectation, while the decease in tension may be descibed as elaxation, o ulillment Moeove, we might seaate dissonance om tension Dissonance may be consideed the imay asect o tension o which we may uthe deine two tyes: sensoy dissonance and syntactic dissonance Sensoy dissonance may be consideed as an absolute asect o tension as it esults om a hysical basis Hee, dissonance aises om the sensation o oughness when two tones with an inteval smalle than the citical bandwidth, sound simultaneously ceating beats (Helmholtz 15) We may also conside a syntactic aoach to dissonance wheeby dissonance deives om a context o elationshis In othe wods, dissonance, and subsequently tension, esults om exectation attens within elative situations and the ulillment o this exectation bings about elease (Huon 006) o examle, in the tonal context the ecognition o cadence attens ceates exectation contexts within a hieachical itch system With the aim o inding a satisactoy deinition o consonance and dissonance Cazden (190) deined it as the movement between stability and instability: Musical consonance and dissonance ae thus unctions and not oeties o things As unctions, they exhibit a ola oosition Consonance ees to the stable moment ollowing uon the esolution o dissonance, while dissonance means the unstable moment calling o esolution to consonance (Cazden 190, 166) 9

39 Cazden does not comletely eject sensoy notions o dissonance, but athe, consides it as a static, isolated om o dissonance He ostulates that musical dissonance equies a dieent deinition, since it aoaches consonance and dissonance as qualities o what the sonoities do athe than on what they ae This eesents the vey deinition o the syntactic aoach, in that consonance and dissonance aise om the unctions o objects athe than thei inheent oeties This deinition, howeve, emeges out o a itch dominant musical aadigm The consonance and dissonance o timbe may be an entiely dieent constuction altogethe, and a henomenon o imay inteest to my thesis 1 Citeia o aoaching unctionality In Qualities and unctions o Musical Timbe (McAdams and Saaiaho 195), six citeia o aoaching unctionality ae oosed The authos ocus on om-beaing dimensions asects o music that can be isolated by the ecetion o the human mind and not abstact notational stuctues This idea connects to timbe as it lacks a clea notational stuctue istly, one must be able to identiy eceivable stuctues that may be categoized Secondly, seaking to a syntactic asect o unctionality, these stuctues should be odeed to induce unctionality Thidly, these unctional elations should be o vaied stengths allowing o the building o tension and elease outhly, attention to vaious dimensions o the ecetual stuctues must be ossible With timbe it should be ossible to eceive dieent timbal dimensions that give ise to vaiations in unctional stuctue ith, the unctional system must elect the cognitive constaints o the human mind I timbe stuctues ae to be undestood unctionally one must be able to eceive thei comositional attening This esents a diicult aesthetic question as the 0

40 uose o new music might involve challenging the established ecetual models o listening inally, as unctional qualities must be etained unde vaious tansomations, these unctional stuctues should be obust Histoical Aoaches In geneal, we may divide aoaches to timbe unctionality into ou boad categoies: linguistic / semiotic, gestual, an extension o hamony, o cognitive These categoies ae not mutually exclusive and many models o timbe unctionality involve multile aoaches uthemoe, the authos o these models do not necessaily use the tem, Timbe unction, but they do addess how to use timbe as a om-beaing dimension able to oduce vaying exeiences o tension and elease 1 Linguistic / Semiotic A linguistic / semiotic aoach eithe diectly uses models om linguistics and alies them to timbe, o though the ceation o symbolic eesentations o timbe stuctues, engendes a meta-language in ode to analyze timbe unctions Semiotics An issue with aoaching timbe unction semantically aises om its lack o a deined notational actice The witten scoe in classical instumental music eesents a diect stimulus object o which an analytical method may be alied (Bey 1976) oads and Wieneke (1979) dieentiate between iconic and symbolic eesentations Iconic eesentations utilize shaes and oms that coesond toologically to the hysical sound Listening scoes o electoacoustic music tend to be iconic as thei dawn 1

41 shaes coesond to the head event stuctues These shaes howeve eveal little concening the unctional timbal elationshis Convesely, symbolic eesentations contain no toogahical similaity but eesent a conventional ecetual link These symbols may be combined into a omal language whose syntactic elationshis denote thei unctionality (C oads and Wieneke 1979) Stéhane oy in L Analyse de la musique électoacoustique (oy 004) ovides a semiotic method o timbe unction within the aadigm o electonic music This aoach attemts to unite symbolic analysis with a subjective nominalization o eceived sound objects Insied by semiotic aoaches deived om Nattiez s analyses at the neutal level, one identiies ecetual units o a musical wok (Nattiez 1990) oy then deines a unctional Gid with symbols o oty-ive unctions classiied in ou main categoies (oientation, statiication, ocess, hetoic) These symbols can then be assigned to the eceived stuctues wheeby a unctional analysis can be eomed on the syntactical symbolic elationshis Timbe Hieachies the issue o timbe oganization is above all a ecetual issue (Ledahl 197, 16) In Timbe Hieachies, ed Ledahl (197)esents a gamma eesentation model o timbe Ledahl assets that ich timbal oganizations can be constucted simila to the oganization o itch and hythm, which ae also synthetic Insied by eseach in geneative gammas 5 whee linguistic stuctues ae motivated by geneal cognitive ocesses, Ledahl aims o a gammatical odeing o timbe 5 A geneative gamma ees to a aticula aoach to the study o syntax that attemts to deine ules that will coectly edict which combinations o wods will om gammatical sentences

42 Concentating on hieachical stuctuing, Linguistic ase Tees set u Timbe olongation Stuctues in which a sense o belongingness o seaateness aises om a comaison to a timbal ototye This timbal ototye must eesent the most consonant timbe in any given categoy and seve as a ecetual ancho simila to the tonic itch o a diatonic scale The consonance o dissonance o a timbal ototye aises out o sensoy exeiences o timbe and occus in many dieent oms o examle, a sha attack may be consideed moe dissonant than a smooth attack A elatively bighte timbe, such as an oboe, can be consideed tense in comaison to a bass clainet Ledahl ooses thee tyes o olongation stuctues istly, a stong olongation occus though a diect timbal eetition Secondly a weak olongation occus when a timbe deives om a aent timbe Thidly a ogession occus with the esentation o a new timbe om these stuctues, timbe may be aoached analogously to itch stuctues whee one can ceate timbal intevals and subsequently timbal scales, eventually develoing syntactical ules o timbe unction As such, dissonance and consonance aise om a elational system o timbe stuctues in elation to a timbal ototye Gestual om the oint o view o gestue, tension unctions ae deined in tems o teleological enegy oiles ove time Exectation oiles deive om the susension and comletion o enegy tajectoies This assumes a diachonic elationshi between timbe stuctue and timbe unction In most cases, a subjective asing o timbe stuctues occus ate which the nominalization o thei gestual oiles allows o thei analytic o comositional use

43 Sectomohology Dennis Smalley s Sectomohology (Smalley 1997) eesents a evailing gestual aoach to timbe unction Sectomohology ees to how a timbe s sectum moves o is shaed ove time In addition, timbal tension may be said to aise om two aths in Smalley s aoach istly, the elationshi between a timbe and its hysical causality om a cognitive bond deined as Gestual Suogacy Smalley identiies ive levels o gestual suogacy imal gestue occus outside o music and connects to diect hysical movement ist ode suogacy ojects the imal level onto sound in an uncontolled manne Second ode suogacy eesents taditional contolled instumental gestue Thid level suogacy occus when a gestue can be ineed o imagined in the music alone inally, emote ode suogacy occus when the souce-gestue elationshi becomes comletely utued In this last case, a cognitive-dissonance occus om the seveing o causal elations Convesely, a diect connection between timbe and its causal elations might be said to be cognitively consonant om this, a discouse between vaying levels o timbe souce connections engendes unctional elationshis In addition, Smalley identiies sectomohological exectations, which connect to a timbe s enegy motion tajectoy This divides into thee temoal otions, onset, continuant, and temination, and eesents temoal indicatos whose length detemines thei gestual stength o Smalley, concets o gestue and textue, and Motion and Gowth ocesses all connect to this temoal enegy motion tajectoy unctionally, dawing om Schaee s tyologies o sound objects (TATY), one eoms a subjective nominalization o the qualities o a sound object s enegy motion tajectoy Wods 4

44 such as emegence, tansition, continuation, closue, aival, and elease, ovide a manne to identiy the unctional chaacteistics o a timbal stuctue based on thei eceived gestual imlications The exectation attens that these enegy motion tajectoies ceate may also be cultually conditioned as we have a stong association to the eceived sectal changes o envionmental sounds Embodied Music Cognition ecent tends in sychoacoustics seak o Embodied Music Cognition Hee the body seves as a mediato between head musical stuctues and the cognitive attens that aise in the mind This aoach seems intuitive o timbe-oientated comosition as it may seak to imal associations between sound and hysicality ol Inge Godøy uses this concet in Gestual Sonoous Objects (Godøy 006) Also dawing insiation om Schaee s tyology, Godøy connects the sound object to gestual aticulations claiming that timbe ecetion involves a moto-mimetic comonent Hee, the ecetion o sound objects connects to a hysical eenactment o the imlied causality o these sound objects unctionally, these sound oducing gestues can be subdivided into discontinuous, continuous, and iteative excitatoy gestues, simila to that o Schaee s tyology Similaly, the unités sémiotiques temoelles (Delalande et al 1996) combine both semiotic and gestual aoaches, ceating a bio-semiotic analysis such that timbe stuctues ae identiied and nominalized based on hysical enegy oiles Extension o Hamony Anothe aoach to timbe unction may deive om an extension o hamony The oots o timbe comosition in westen instumental music may be thought o as ais- 5

45 ing om the end o hamonic unction Timbe unction might eesent a natual extension o a non-unctional hamonic syntax Sectal unctions A edominant aoach to timbe unction om the oint o view o hamony aises om the Sectal School o comosition Hee, the liminal ecetion between timbe and hamony suggests that both may be consideed the same musical entity (Gisey and inebeg 000) Since timbe itsel became the metaho o hamonic eesentation, the hamonic and itch stuctues emloyed move beyond tonal and equaltemeed itch stuctues to what Tistan Muail descibes as equential-hamonies (Muail 000), allowing o the ceation o new hamonic unctionalities Thus, since hamony and timbe ae consideed a single unit, an exanded hamonic unctionality incooating new equency comonents extends to timbe unctionality Consonance and dissonance theeoe aise om the modulations between hamonic / timbal stuctues (Gisey and inebeg 000) As such, the intelay o tension and elease becomes aticulated though the dichotomy o continuity and discontinuity o eceived timbe stuctues Sound-Noise Axis In Timbe and Hamony Inteolations o Timbal Stuctues, Kaija Saaiaho (197) deines a sound-noise axis in which hamonic sounds ae consideed consonant and noise/inhamonic sounds ae consideed dissonant The contol o timbe in this case extends om the contol o hamony Taditionally the unctional asects o hamony move hoizontally ove time wheeas timbe s ole is vetical in natue Saaiaho aims to bing timbe into the hoizontal dimension though this sound-noise axis, which coe- 6

46 sonds to metahoically, a smooth-ough axis A ough noisy textue equates to dissonance and a smooth clea textue equates to consonance Saaiaho admits this aoach is one-dimensional and must be used in conjunction with hamonic and hythmic qualities Non-hamonic ogessions The hamonic aoach to timbe unction uthe bings in the measuement o sensoy dissonance on hamonic and non-hamonic stuctues as a means o deining timbal dissonance within a musical wok (ancutt and Stasbuge 1994; MacCallum, Hunt, and Einbond 005) Comosing hamonic ogessions o non-hamonic sonoities based uon sychoacoustic aametes eesents a imay aim in this aoach ancutt and Stasbuge daw uon Tehadt s theoy whee the ecetion o hamonic comlexes o timbe involves atten ecognition bought about though conditioning and eeated listening o comlex tone stuctues The two undamental asects o ancutt and Stasbuge s model coesond to the itch commonality and itch distance within timbe stuctues itch commonality elates to itches common to successive sonoities itch distance elects eceived voice leading elationshis between successive timbes These melodic o voice-leading elationshis connect to eceived itch stuctues within timbal comlexes and may be combined to oduce a measue o the oveall tonal elationshi between any two timbes ndestanding this elationshi will aid comoses in the ceation o unctional ogessions o timbal stuctues ancutt and Stasbuge asset, howeve, that the ootions in which they ae combined deend on context, style, and aesthetics 7

47 4 Cognitive Timbe Analogies Timbal sace may also be used as a musical contol stuctue whee, subjective sace models can oose new aths and new intiguing concets such as the analogies o timbal tansitions ceating timbal scales and tansositions (Wessel 1979) As timbe may also be deined accoding to its osition in a multidimensional timbe sace, the distance between timbes in a timbal sace may be consideed its timbal inteval I this inteval becomes teated in the same manne as itch intevals then one may deine timbal analogies such as tansositions and invesion stuctues (McAdams and Cunible 199) uthe, the movement between multile timbes within a timbe sace might be consideed a timbal tajectoy, analogously eesenting a timbal melody om this, edictive and discusive caabilities o timbe intevals might be obtained such that tension and elease stuctues aise om exectations geneated though leaned timbal inteval attens Thee ae howeve numeous issues with this ehas a linea oganization inheently belongs to the ealm o one-dimensional aametes As a multidimensional stuctue, timbe s melody cannot be simly a one-dimensional movement ove time, but athe a multi-dimensional movement encomassing numeous tajectoies itch melodies equie constuctive oganization based uon a system o intevallic elations and tuning systems The caving out o the equency continuum engendes intevals that can be tansosed, inveted, and evesed Theeoe, when we wish to ceate timbe melodies we ae eally ascibing a linea tansomation to a multidimensional aamete Multile continuums exist with a multi-dimensional aamete, ehas oducing a cognitive

48 constaint, whose simultaneous modulations may be imossible to aeciate One might ague howeve that meely utilizing a sequential logical oganization deines a melodic stuctue Theeoe a timbe melody need only contain an intenal logic to the timbe sequences Again the question emains as to ou ability to hea elational timbal oganizations Kumhansl and Iveson (199) obseved that timbe may be eceived as a situational aamete not elational Meaning, timbe ecetion may not be intevallic as analogous to itch stuctues but athe, absolute and in the moment As such, it would be diicult o the comose to develo a musical syntactic system utilizing timbal vectos i elational ecetion emains illusive This may seem contadictoy to evidence suggested by Wessel (1979), wheeby dissimilaity judgments between timbal stuctues oduced elational ecetions This disceancy may be atially attibuted to the exeimental ocedues o the two exeiments and the inteetation o thei esults In Kumhansl and Iveson, inteactions between itch and timbe wee tested in itch / timbe sequences They obseved that timbe dieences could be eceived only when itch emained constant Howeve in sequences with high itch vaiance, and on the basis that much music contains lage itch vaiations, the eseaches concluded that timbe is eceived moe as a situational aamete than as a elational one In Wessel (1979), the similaity o dissimilaity among ais o timbes was tested Wessel concluded that timbe elations could be ound, but again only when itch emained invaiant Thus, we may inteet om these two exeiments that, in ode o timbe elations to develo, itch must be ket invaiant in ode o timbe elations to be eceived That being said, Maozeau and colleagues ound that atings o dissimilaities on ais o sounds dieing in timbe ae only slightly aected by a concomitant itch change o u to 1 semitones 9

49 (Maozeau, de Cheveigné, McAdams and Winsbeg 00; Maozeau and de Cheveigné 007) Additionally, timbe intevals may only be ossible with synthetic sounds whee one can ecisely contol timbal aametes This esents a stong estiction o those inteested in instumental music and electonic maniulations o instumental timbes As the seach o inteesting sounds eesents one o the imay concens o a comose These inteesting timbes may contain numeous seciicities in ode o them to be unique, which may ende timbal vectos diicult to contol since they add an additional dimension not equal to othe timbes inally, multidimensional scaling oten equies a estiction o othe musical aametes such as dynamics, hythmic stuctuing, and intensity oducing unmusical situations Thus, in ode to eceive the multidimensional maniulation o timbe one might have to educe the multidimensionality o music 40

50 AT II: THEOY AND OOSITION 41

51 Chate THEOETICAL BASIS 1 oosition I oose that a synthesis o the sychoacoustic models o Sectal usion, Auditoy Scene Analysis, and Sensoy Dissonance engende a ecetually inomed comositional model o timbe unction The maniulations o sectal usion and scene analysis aametes ovide a manne in which to omalize the contol o timbe as a tension building stuctue In this chate, athe than to unish an in-deth eview o each toic, I account o the necessay and seciic theoetical knowledge equied o my aoach Thoughout the discussion o each theoetical concet, comositional imlications will also be discussed Sectal usion 1 Deinition Deined by Stehen McAdams (19), Sectal usion denotes the ocess by which sectal comonents use togethe to om a unique auditoy image that we deine as being a distinct head timbe An incoming acoustic signal seaates into indeendent comonents that vay in equency and amlitude As the auditoy system eectuates a sectal analysis on this inomation, an additional ocess detemines whethe o not the incoming signal belongs to a single souce o multile souces How the individual comonents o a signal evolve ove time yet maintain a cetain causal connection all oint to a ocess o ecetual usion o examle, i one consides the sound o a lute, we don t hea the individual even numbeed hamonics associated with its sectum, but athe the usion o these comonents into a single object that we then label as lute 4

52 Jean-Claude isset (1991) states that the notion o timbe imlies usion as it coesonds to the sound quality o an ensemble o comonents integated in an auditoy entity that is assignable to a single souce, whethe eal o vitual 6 Tems such as blend, and coheence, have also been used to label this ocess Dennis Smalley (1994) ees the wod integation and suggests an integation disintegation continuum Integation denotes that, within the incoming auditoy signal, the distibution o sectal comonents in sectal sace, and thei behavio ove time should not be such that a comonent o sub-gou o comonents can be eceived as an indeendent entity, (Smalley 1994) The continuum between integation and disintegation sets u a sectomohological sace in which comoses can co-odinate between a single integated timbe and a collection o disintegated timbes Additionally, McAdams (19) distinguishes between two tyes o listening: synthetic and analytic listening eceiving one used timbal object may be deined as synthetic listening while eceiving indeendent sectal comonents may be temed analytic listening Odinay listening may be consideed synthetic when we tend to gou audio signals om the envionment into ecognizable objects Analytic listening howeve may also be ound natually, as in the case o the sectotemoal mohology o a gong o bell that eveals its dieent ovetone comonents ove time o the comose, the intelay between synthetic and analytic listening situations esents a uitul discouse Comoses might be able to maniulate, though context o ochestation techniques, whethe o not a listene is to hea used o non-used timbes In an inomal exeiment (Tan 014), a used timbe was segegated into seventeen e- 6 "La notion de timbe imlique la usion; elle coesond à la qualité sonoe d'un ensemble de comosantes intégées en une entité auditive et assignées à une même souce sonoe éelle ou vituelle" (isset 1991, 57) 4

53 quency bands Ate esenting the used timbe, the indeendent comonents wee then esented sequentially in dieent combinations By doing so, the ea was lead om a synthetic listening situation towads an analytic listening situation such that when the used timbe was esented again at the end, one could still hea the individual atials This suggests that synthetic and analytic listening situations deend uon esentation contexts that can be maniulated by the comose: Comoses can maniulate the atten context in which sectal stuctues aea, accoding to the set o inciles which goven the usion and segegation o atials by the auditoy system (Wight and Begman 197, 66) Eickson (1975) oints out that to hea the individual sectal comonents o wind instuments (an analytic listening situation), the instuments must lay comletely without any vibato o equency modulation Thus, an ochestato s undestanding o instumental aticulation aametes and thei eect on using ochestal timbes diectly elates to synthetic o analytic listening usion aametes Accoding to McAdams, Sectal usion deends imaily on two actos: 1) Hamonicity o the sectal comonents ) Coodinated modulation o sectal comonents Hamonicity o the Sectal Comonents In geneal, equency comonents that coesond to the natual hamonic seies use togethe easie than equency comonents that do not The usion o hamonic comonents may be temed as atial hase locking Non-hamonic secta may also use deending on the aangement and elative stength o comonents o the sectum 44

54 Stetched secta, o examle, have a highe tendency to use than secta that ae comessed (McAdams 19) o a comose, this ovides two valuable cues The ochestation o hamonic stuctues deends uon the qualities o the hamonies used Ochestating hamonic stuctues that deviate om the hamonic seies will tend towads disintegation Moeove, the usion o instumental timbes elates to thei hamonic sectum Instumental timbes with conguent hamonic secta tend towads usion ehas these ules have been known emiically though histoy The ochestation o atonal music, whose vetical stuctues do not einoce lowe undamentals, lead to a thinne ochestation Even the homogeneity o the sting quatet lagely aises om the similaity in sectal comonents Convesely, the esistance o usion between a violin and an oboe due to sectal dieences make it diicult o thei emloyment in small ensemble situations whee one seeks timbal usion Coodinated modulation o sectal comonents Most natual sounds ae not steady-state but athe modulate in equency Theeoe, a coodination o equency modulation oduces a geate sense o usion since it maintains a constant atio o equency comonents ove time Without any modulation, analytic listening situations become evalent whee one may discen individual equency comonents with geate ease o comlex tones, the coodination o modulation oes an imotant cue o usion (McAdams 19) This knowledge may be adated to comositional uoses and decisions elating to the contol o modulation in both acoustic and electonic mediums o examle, the use o vibato has long been known to bing solo instuments to the oegound in the 45

55 context o a conceto Within contemoay music, vibato usage has less to do with the binging out o melodic lines but moe to do with sound design Theeoe contemoay comoses must caeully contol vibato usage i thei aim is to ceate new instumental combinations out o non-tonal stuctues uthe, equency modulation techniques used in electoacoustic music must be consideed with egad to thei usion consequences Coodination o modulation among tacks within a mixing session would diectly aect the oveall usion o the comosite mix Sectal asing Convesely, the actos that inluence the seaation o sectal aametes need to be undestood since this seaation leads to analytic listening situations McAdams (19) suggests thee imay actos that aect sectal asing: 1) Tone onset asynchony ) Asynchony o onset o modulation o dieent souce secta ) Temoal coelation among modulations belonging to seaate souces Tone onset asynchony This aamete seaks to the disintegation eects bought about though dieent onset times Tones that begin togethe ae moe likely to be goued as belonging to the same souce (Begman and inke 197) ound that an incease in asynchony o the sectal comonents o a comlex tone coelates with a decease in the tendency o those tones to use Comositional contol o onset synchony contibutes to the contol o usion o comlex timbes This aects comositional decisions elating to the lacement o imulses in a metical stuctue o examle, lacement o instumental attacks on the downbeat o a metical stuctue might have a stonge degee o synchony comaed to 46

56 imulses, o examle, witten on the last beat o a quintulet The length o time between onsets must also be consideed In a comositional exeiment (Tan 014), temoal seaations longe than 100ms led to hythmic eects This suggests a ecetual bode between timbal asynchony and hythm ecetion, wheeby asynchonies lage than 100ms seaate sectal comonents leading to a ecetion o hythmic stuctues Asynchony o onset o modulation o dieent souce secta The auditoy system will tend to seaate equency comonents whose modulations begin at asynchonous moments Most natual sounds modulate in equency and this modulation begins simultaneously o all sectal comonents When alying modulation to a seaate at o the sectum, this subgou has a tendency to use togethe becoming a seaate timbal stuctue This may also be consideed a ecetual onset o a new timbal stuctue o a comose this ule suggests that, when building ensemble timbes, aticulation techniques such as vibato o temolo should have simila onsets in ode to suot the usion o the ensemble sound Convesely, timbes that a comose wishes to seaate om the ensemble should commence modulations asynchonously om the est o the ensemble, a eatue that need not aly only to ensemble situations When comosing o instuments that ae caable o olyhonic laying such as the iano, guita, o ogan, one could take advantage o this knowledge by contolling the aticulation aametes o each line in the olyhony Temoal coelation among modulations belonging to seaate souces Not only do the modulations begin at the same time o used sectal comonents, but the temoal coelation o modulations will also aect sectal asing Sec- 47

57 tal comonents whose modulations do not temoally coelate will esist usion oming seaate timbal stuctues Convesely, sectal comonents whose modulations ae temoally coelated will be assumed to aise om one souce This may be utilized comositionally in olyhonic witing Voices / sectal comonents can be maniulated to use o disintegate deending on thei modulation coodination As such, the comose can navigate between a single ensemble sound and the intelay o individual weaving lines Auditoy Scene Analysis 1 - Deinition Auditoy Scene Analysis (Begman 1990) exemliies the second ecetual theoy my oosed model emloys Auditoy steam omation theoy concens how the auditoy system detemines whethe incoming acoustic inomation esults om one souce o om moe than one This theoy ovides a ecetual ocess o building seaate mental descitions o the vaious sound-oducing events we hea The atten o acoustic enegy eceived by the eas eesents a mixtue o dieent acoustic envionmental cues To make sense o this mixtue listenes must ind elationshis within ats o the signal at one time oint, and elationshis among ats o the signal acoss time oints (Handel 199) o examle, i ochestal music emeges om one souce such as a loudseake, we ae able to distinguish the dieent instumental timbes within the sound comlex With two loudseakes howeve we eceive the sound oiginating om inbetween the seakes, even though thee exist no hysical souce at that location uthemoe when in a concet hall, listening to a sting ochesta (eesenting numeous souces) leads us to eceive only one used comlex These dieent situations illustate the need o undestanding how the human auditoy system gous o segegates como- 4

58 nents o an incoming sound signal Incoect gouings, ie, the gouing o acoustic elements om dieent hysical souces, may cause the listene to hea non-existent sounds assembled by the ecetual system into vitual souces Auditoy scene oganization analogously deives ocesses om concets o visual ecetion in Gestalt sychology, which investigate the ceation o visual scenes At the cux o scene theoy is the law o ägnanz (Handel 199), which may be deined simly as elements that belong to a single event contain extemely simila qualities, wheeas elements belonging to dieent events contain extemely dissimila qualities Gestalt sychologists develoed numeous inciles to descibe the occuence o ägnanz [liteally, egnant, ithiness, conciseness] These oganizational inciles include: 1) similaity: simila elements tend to be goued togethe; ) oximity: elements close togethe in oximity (satial o temoal) tend to be goued togethe; ) continuity: elements that ollow the same diection will be goued togethe; 4) common ate: elements that move togethe, gou togethe; 5) symmety and closue: elements that om symmetical and closed objects will gou togethe Sequential and Simultaneous Gouing Begman (1990) outlines two tyes o gouing cues: simultaneous and sequential gouing Simultaneous gouing connects auditoy data that ovela in time, wheeas sequential gouing connects incoming auditoy inomation ove time In othe wods, simultaneous gouing occus within the instantaneous moment To achieve the coect ecognition o souces om an acoustic mix, the auditoy system must use cetain acoustic eatues in ode to detemine the adheence o vaious events In elationshi to tim- 49

59 be, many simultaneous gouing eatues coesond to the sectal usion aametes descibed ealie An imotant eatue would be, o examle, the equency sectum o a souce I the auditoy system detects that a subset o equencies deive om the same undamental, it will tend to teat this subset as belonging to the same souce Convesely, i the acoustic mix contains multile subsets with dieent undamental equencies, then each subset will gou as seaate souces Anothe asect o simultaneous gouing elates to the intensity o atials Secta tend towads integation i the highe atials ae less intense than the lowe atials Electoacoustic comoses may use this knowledge as a timbal maniulation tool A sectal ilteing algoithm can contol the intensity o dieent bands o a equency sectum Inceasing the intensity o highe atials in the sectum segments that asect o the sectum elative to the oveall mix, ceating a seaate timbal object Othe than sectum aametes that aect simultaneous gouing may be the synchony o onsets o osets, the satial location o the equency comonents, simila attens o amlitude luctuation, o the closeness o the sectal comonents So-called eos in simultaneous gouing may lead to the blending o sounds that should be head as seaate This, howeve, might be beneicial to comositional alications o gouing actices, as it lays with the bodes o ecetion, a desiable asect o inteesting music Sequential gouings eesent a diachonic ocess in which comaisons o sectal content occu one moment to the next (Begman 1990) In geneal, a ecetual distance weighted by dieences in acoustic dimensions, such as equency and time, detemine whethe o not successive events gou togethe into steams When events be- 50

60 come goued togethe by the auditoy system into a eceived sequence distinct om othe occuing sequences, each sequence might be eeed to as an auditoy steam Numeous actos may inluence sequential integation istly, satial location seems to be an imotant cue ats o acoustic signals that maintain a consistent hase, timing, and intensity (all cues o localization) will be eceived as coming om the same souce o a comose this has imlications with egad to the lacement o timbe within sace, esecially when comoses seaate thei eomes with lage distances, o in multi-channel electoacoustic music whee sounds ae satialized thoughout the hall As the sead o the timbes inceases the tendency o the listene to sequentially link timbes deceases Moeove, the movement o timbe though sace must take into account the ability o the auditoy mechanism to tack timbal steams in ode to maintain gouings (Kendall and Adila 00) attemted to deine a satialization vocabulay that takes into account auditoy scene ocesses Anothe aamete elevant to the sequential gouing o timbe might be the bightness o a timbe, o the elative distibution o high and low atials Exteme dieences in bightness can ase timbe sequences into seaate steams Contolling bightness could be eective o the use o timbe as a delineation device, wheeby sequences o timbe will steam successully i timbal units contain simila bightness oiles Musical Timbe and Auditoy Scene Oganization Timbe may ceate stong eects on gouing in music The auditoy system must detemine two things in elationshi to timbe istly, which seies o equency como- 51

61 nents that aose ove time and oiginate om the same souce should be goued sequentially into a steam Secondly, which set o simultaneous comonents om one souce should be used into a uniied timbal stuctue Timbe does not eesent the automatic ecetual esult o a cetain acoustic inut (Begman 1990) athe, timbe esults om auditoy scene analysis ocesses This eesents a aadox within timbe ecetion since timbe inluences scene analysis but, at the same time, scene analysis ceates timbe (Begman and inke 197) To esolve this aadox, timbe may be consideed as a oety o used acoustic comonents Subsequently, the timbal oety o events can be used to detemine simila timbes that become integated into an auditoy steam o dissimila timbes that ceate steam segegation Theeoe, timbe seves two oles in music: as a cause o segegation o as a esult o usion Timbe as Cause o Segegation Timbe oten seves as a cause o segegation in westen classical music, since timbe similaities aid the comose in deining and seaating the stuctue o melodies (Begman 1990) The uses o timbe within melodies may be deloyed with vaying techniques o examle, the comound melodic line oten ound in Baoque music ceates two o moe lines o melody om a single instument / timbe Thus even within a single instument, steam segegation may occu Convesely, hocketing segegates a single melodic line by asking two o moe instuments to aidly take tuns in oducing single notes, o shot gous o notes om the melody I the timbes aea dieent enough the melody will be segegated into seaate timbal steams A moe exteme examle o this might be associated with Klangabenmelodie Weben s aoach in the ist movement o his ün Stücke ü Ocheste (191) aidly shits a itch melody be- 5

62 tween instuments, wheeby the aid changes o timbe inteee with sequential integation Timbe as the esult o usion As eviously discussed in the ist at o this chate, musical timbe may also be consideed the esult o usion The ceation o new timbes though ochestation o mixing techniques in electonic music must involve an undestanding o the auditoy mechanism that gives ise to sectal usion Histoically, chimeic instumental timbes began to develo as instumental ensemble music became moe ominent o examle, a lute doubling a violin an octave highe, o the bassoon doubling the cello esents a adically dieent aoach to instumentation, which duing the Baoque saw single instuments delineating contauntal stuctues Begman wites that, to know how to comose sonic objects with desied timbes, comoses have to undestand what makes sounds use and in what om the oeties o the constituent sounds ae eseved in the timbe o the lage sonic object, (Begman 1990, 49) In the at o ochestation, new timbes ae ceated though the timbal blend between two seaate ochestal instuments Sandell (Sandell 1995) descibes thee tyes o ochestation with egad to ecetual goals: 1) timbal heteogeneity: whee the instumental timbes emain distinct; ) timbal augmentation: whee one instument embellishes the othe instument, which emains ecetually dominant; ) timbal emegence: whee a new timbe emeges om the usion o othe instuments that cannot be ecetually attibuted to an individual instument Blend deends uon two imay actos: 1) onset and oset synchonicity o the atials and; ) similaity in sectal centoid Othe exeiments have aimed to ind sig- 5

63 niicant blend aametes Lembke and McAdams (01) show that omant stuctues elating to dake timbes omote blend in wind instuments This would also coesond to instument eomances at lowe dynamic levels as this attenuates highe omant egions ndestanding these ules imacts ochestation actice and might aleady coesond to ast, established ochestation ules In comositions concened with timbe as object, howeve, this eseach suggests that to achieve a comosite used sound, one should also conside dynamic ange, sectal centoid, and omant stuctue as diect actos o usion Timbe as musical om Also imotant o timbe comosition would be an undestanding o how maniulations to a single timbe would maintain a cognitive coheency athe than intoducing the ecetion o an intejection o a new timbe This eesents an imotant asect in electonic music whee the sectotemoal shae o a timbe engendes musical om Begman states: i the changing o timbe is used to ceate a musical om, it is imotant that the ats o the om should have a tendency to stick togethe, (Begman 1990, 44) The ecetual ocesses involved must be able to tack and hold a timbe s maniulation though time u to a oint whee timbal maniulation becomes so exteme that the ea ecognizes a second souce This ocess deals with the comositional modiication o a sectal stuctue Yet the elative intensity o sectal comonents elates to the much moe comlex categoy o omant stuctue It has been shown that the aid inteution o a omant stuctue inteuts sequential gouing (Begman 1990) Thus, it could be suggested that in successive timbes we build a mental stuctue o the hysical causality o the events When 54

64 listenes hea a sequence o elated sounds they tack the similaities in the hysical causality o the sound, ointing to a hysical-souce model o timbe ecetion When we hea and build a mental descition o timbe, we ae building it not just in tems o its intenal qualities but also in tems o the hysical oeties o the souce (Cadoz 014) In a succession o sounds, this causality is maintained Comositional maniulations o sectal stuctue might alte the individual eatues o the sound sectum, but ehas we ae eally heaing changes in causality (Begman 1990) This might eesent timbe s embodiment in the human voice The vocal chods o the human voice ovide the souce vibations, but the vocal tact o the human seake iltes the vibations giving it a aticula esonance 4 Sensoy Dissonance ist suggested by Helmholtz (15), sensoy dissonance occus when two ue (sine) tones esented at almost the same equency ceate constuctive and destuctive inteeence attens between them, and as a esult geneate a distinct beating within the ea Geneally, the beating becomes slowe as the two tones move close togethe, and disaeas when a total unison occus Sensoy dissonance does not elate uely to intevals between distinct itches, but also on the sectum o the timbes used Since any comlex sound may be educed to a collection o sine waves, dieent sensoy dissonance ecetions may be connected to dieences in the atials o comlex timbes One may theeoe seak o a sensoy consonance in addition to a sensoy dissonance A sensoy consonance aises when one eceives slowe beats, since it elicits a sense o smoothness Convesely, sensoy dissonance aises om aste beatings and might be consideed ough 55

65 Evidence suggests a stong sychoacoustic elationshi between the sensation o beating and the ecetion o musical dissonance (Helmholtz 15; Bigand, ancutt, and Ledahl 1996) Enst Tehadt (1974) assets that musical consonance aises om the absence o sensoy dissonance and the conguency o a sound to the hamonic seies Hee, sensoy consonance/dissonance eesents the gaded absence/esence o beats and oughness elating to a concet o itch ambiguity, cetain secta evoke clea itch sensations Timbes with atials conoming diectly to the hamonic seies clealy evoke this itch sensation Convesely, secta that deviate om the hamonic seies evoke cometing, ambiguous itch sensations o Tehadt, dissonance eesents a negatively valenced sensoy exeience that aises when sound evokes ambiguous itch ecetions inally, sensoy notions o dissonance suggest that individual comlex timbes contain an inheent, static dissonance caused by the inteaction o atials This dies om a syntactic asect o dissonance that aises om contextual elationshis between elements A known citique o the sensoy notion o dissonance suggests that it does not catue the unctional asects o dissonance, wheeby exectations and ulillments o esolution occu (Sethaes 005) 5 Synthesis Timbe dieences signiicantly aect both a listenes ecetion o sensoy dissonance as well as usion om a tonal esective (Sandell 1995) One may ask howeve: what may be the elationshi between the usion and segegation o sectal comonents to the eceived sensoy dissonance o a non-hamonic, timbal stuctue Auditoy scene analysis ocesses do gou acoustic inomation into steams ate which auditoy oughness is comuted (McAdams 01) uthe, Begman (1990) oints out that: 56

66 Comoses can attenuate the eceived degee o oughness in the same way as they can attenuate the ecetion o any sot o global oety o a mixtue, by ensuing that the simultaneous sounds ae not assigned to the same auditoy steam (Begman 1990, 511) It may be inomally obseved that much contauntal music o the 17 th centuy, such as the ugue, tend to be witten o mono-timbal settings I eomed an inomal comositional exeiment utilizing a ou-voice ugue, wheeby the ou voices wee given dieent timbes esulting in a non-used oveall timbe The ou seaate timbes delineated each individual musical line o the ugue Also obseved howeve was the ecetion o an oveall eeling o attenuated tension Convesely, when all ou voices wee then given the same timbe, a sectal usion occued esulting in the ou lines using into a comlete timbe This vesion maintained a highe eeling o tension as comaed to the ome segegated stuctue I hyothesize that this dieence in tension aises om the disesion o sensoy dissonance in the multi timbal vesion In the used vesion whee one timbe was emloyed, the sensoy dissonance calculation occued on the equency comonents as aising om a single souce, leading to a heightened sense o tension In a moe omal exeiment utilizing Weben s ochestation o Bach s iceca, McAdams and aaskeva (1997) hyothesized a elationshi between sensoy dissonance and auditoy steaming sing two oms o the iece, an ochestated vesion and a diect iano tanscition o the ochestated vesion, esondents in this study continually ated the iano vesion as having a highe degee o eceived tension The hyothesis was that the lesse eceived dissonance o the ochestal vesion esults om timbeinduced steam segegation With the single iano timbe, which eesents one used sectal object, sensoy dissonance comutation occus on the equency comonents o a 57

67 single auditoy steam In othe wods, due to the sectally used iano timbe, dissonance aising om the intevallic content o the music was calculated as belonging to one single souce With the ochestal vesion, timbe dieences among ochestal instuments disese the calculation o sensoy dissonance among multile steams Must the measuement o sensoy dissonance be quantitative in ode to be used as a comositional device Many eseaches, (ancutt and Stasbuge 1994; Sethaes 005), discuss the measuement o sensoy dissonance cuves as a method o contolling dissonance The quantitative measuement o sensoy dissonance might seem moe elevant in dealing with elative comaisons o comlex timbes whee a ogession o individual sensoy dissonance levels would engende unctional ogessions o timbal stuctues athe, one may emloy a single timbe and contol the segegation and usion o its atials theeby contolling sensoy dissonance and consonance By emloying the concets o sectal usion and scene analysis, the seaation o a timbe into indeendent comonents diseses the calculation o sensoy dissonance o a timbal stuctue acoss multile souces 6 usion aadox The connection between usion and dissonance is not new In his Tonsychologie, Cal Stum (190) oosed that consonance occus when two tones ecetually use o blend togethe Convesely, dissonance esults om two tones esisting usion, liteally as dis-sonance (sounding aat) It might seem howeve that we have a usion aadox hee Tonal usion leads to a sense o consonance wheeas sectal usion leads to a sense o dissonance Stum s theoy o tonal usion connects imaily to the analysis o itch 5

68 eesentations o tones and avoids discussing the timbe executing these itches Sectal usion on the othe hand concens itsel with the usion o equency comonents o timbe stuctues, whethe o not we eceive these equency comonents as belonging to single o seaate timbes uthemoe, Begman (1990) believes that two ecetual ocesses o hamonic elations, indeendent o each othe, can account o this aadox The ist ocess aises om the intevallic elations on the basila membane, oducing sensations o sensoy dissonance The second ecetual ocess contols usion This eesents two distinct ocesses: usion deends on scene analysis, and dissonance esults om the beating o tones Stum conused this asect by saying that usion was the eal cause o the consonance as he could not oely distinguish between head as one and head as smooth (Begman 1990) o examle, one can hea a bust o white noise as being sensoy dissonant even though one heas a sectally used sound souce uthe, a eect ith inteval disesed between two souces will have a vey dieent sensoy dissonant oile than i the same inteval wee layed by a single souce Thus with sectal usion, the amount o instumental blend contibutes to the calculation o sensoy dissonance o an inteval Stum s tonal usion did not account o timbe quality and only addessed the ecetion o intevals iesective o thei sound souce In a comlex timbal stuctue sensoy dissonance esults om the combination o atials Each atial is not intinsically dissonant When sectal usion cues avo a vetical integation, the auditoy system teats the combination as a unit, and sensoy dissonance may be seen as a oety o this gouing Convesely, the ecetion o dissonance can be suessed when the tones that om the dissonance ae eceived as be- 59

69 longing to dieent auditoy steams (Begman 1990) Non-conguent usion cues lead to disintegation whee one eceives individual sectal comonents Thus, by contolling the cues that omote the usion and segegation o sectal comonents one may be able to contol the eceived dissonance o secta 60

70 Chate 4 OOSITION O A COMOSITIONAL MODEL 41 Adatation One o the imay goals o this thesis concens the alication o the cognitive models, about which I wote in the evious chate, to a comositional model o timbe It is imotant to oint out hee that the inteaction between cognition and musical comosition need not be consideed as unidiectional Now while the comositional use o timbe may aleady take into account such cognitive dimensions, my oosed model seves to omalize this elationshi such that sectal usion becomes an active dimension o timbe comosition In synthesizing the indings om evious theoies, the ollowing comositional ule may be asseted: Comositional contol o both sectal usion and auditoy scene analysis aametes will aect whethe o not the evaluation o sensoy dissonance o a hamonic stuctue is comleted on one souce, o disesed among souces Thus, deending on the natue o what is being used, the contol o sectal usion contibutes to vaiations in eceived tension When given a hamonic stuctue with a high degee o sensoy dissonance and assigned to comlex timbes, such as in ochestation, usion o the comosite timbe into a single blended auditoy image will suggest a highe sense o tension, since the sensoy dissonance o the hamonic stuctue will be calculated on a single auditoy image Convesely, the disintegation o the comlex timbe into multile auditoy images will disese the sensoy dissonance oile o the hamonic stuctue among souces, leading to a lowe exeience o tension 61

71 Imotant to note hee: usion itsel does not lead to a highe sensoy dissonance I one uses unisons o octaves, one exeiences stong consonance I, howeve, one uses dissonant intevals such as a mino second, o majo seventh, thee is dissonance Sensoy dissonance associates with auditoy oughness, and it is the seaate contol o usion that detemines whethe o not oughness is calculated on one o moe souces Thus, the two comonents o my comositional ule, sectal usion and sensoy dissonance, must be caeully connected in ode to contol the eceived amount o tension uthemoe this ule, I suggest, esumes an undestanding o the teitoies between itch, hamony, and timbe The musical use o timbe oten blus the lines between these elements since vaying musical contexts oten maniulate the ecetual elationshis that one heas o examle, hamonic comonents may be ochestated so as to become timbal stuctues Chimeic ensemble timbes may segegate to oduce a contauntal listening situation Sectal comonents o a timbe may be extacted o use as hamonic comonents And in emloying electonic techniques, sectal comonents can be maniulated in numeous ways to navigate between countless listening categoies These dieent musical situations eally eesent situations that inluence the usion o disintegation o equency comonents Moeove, they also connect to the concet o synthetic o analytic listening since comositional attening may alte whethe o not one tends towads a uniied timbe o seaate timbal gouings Within a single sectal stuctue sub-usions may occu that give ise to multile eceived timbe souces Imagine, o examle, a single comlex timbe seaated into two timbes o esectively even and odd numbeed atials These two esulting comlex timbes om thei own used stuctue and have vey dieent eceived qualities The 6

72 ome ehas sounds moe like a lute and the second moe like a clainet Yet when bought togethe they become a thid comlex emegent timbal stuctue containing all the atials combined Thus when dealing with the usion o comlex timbes one must also negotiate the sectal stuctue o the individual comlex timbes themselves and thei esistance o tendency towads usion with each othe 4 usion aametes usion aametes eesent comositional aametes that contibute to the usion o disintegation o sectal comonents Synthesizing the wok o McAdams (19), Begman (1990), and Shields and Kendall (004), the ollowing oosed aametes o the comositional contol o sectal usion may be asseted (see igue 1) These aametes divide into two boad categoies eesenting equency and temoally based usion aametes equency Temoal 1 Hamonicity o equency comonents Satial and sectal oximity Similaity o sectal centoid 1 Synchonicity o onset and oset o equency comonents Synchonicity o onset and oset o modulation Temoal conguency o modulation igue 1: usion aametes The omal maniulation o usion aametes might be consideed imotant o the unctional contol o timbe, since thei comlex inteactions altes usion and theeoe sensoy dissonance Numeous eatues within this model continue to develo Since sectal usion esults om the multi-dimensional inteaction between these aametes, simultaneous maniulation o all the aametes becomes extemely comlex uthe, how these ac- 6

73 tos inteact, suot, o disut each othe emains unclea usion aametes may be contolled in oosition to each othe ehas ceating vaying levels o usion, suggesting a aametical counteoint Lastly, dieent aametes might give ise to vaying degees o imotance o examle, sectal centoid similaity might be consideed the imay dimension o the usion o auditoy souces The othe sectal aametes might be aametes o sectal similaity and not necessaily diectly linked to sectal usion Such a gouing would imly that the combinations o all o these aametes might not be equal, and might instead be vey seciic in thei contibuting oce 4 usion Continuum Ate identiying the usion aametes, the next ste would be to lot these aametes linealy on a continuum, such as ollows in igue : Maximum used Sectum (single auditoy steam) Hamonicity o equency Comonents Satial and Sectal oximity Similaity o Sectal Centoid Synchonicity o onset and oset o equency Comonents Synchonicity o onset and oset o Modulation Temoal Conguency o Modulation Minimum Non - used Sectum (steam segegation) Sensoy Dissonance calculated on a single auditoy image igue : usion Continuum Sensoy Dissonance calculated on multile auditoy images In igue on the let, a maximum quality o all the usion aametes leads to an otimal situation o sectal usion and theeoe a sensoy dissonance will be calculated on a single souce Convesely, with the minimum amount o these aametes we would have a non-used sectum, and theeoe sensoy dissonance calculation becomes disesed among souces This might seem quite linea in its esentation since usion a- 64

74 ametes may move in counteoint with each othe esenting vaious levels o usion uthemoe, usion can occu in situations that ae inconguent with this continuum o examle, many actos including hamonic elations alling outside o the natual hamonic seies will event the usion o tones Howeve i two tones o non-hamonic elations have synchonous onsets and osets, thei simila duation and eceived simila souce might kee them ecetually used This suggests that the contol o usion aametes such as sectal oximity, hamonic concodance, synchonicity, and satial oximity, eesent indeendent usion aametes whose eects might be omally contolled The usion continuum meely suggests an otimal binay stuctue om which we can deive a simle tension elease aadigm simila to the leading tone to tonic (VII à I) scale degee movements in tonal music 44 Timbe Aays The inteaction between usion aametes eesents comlex multidimensional elationshis usion aametes need not be couled and the indeendent elationshis o aametes might geneate vaying levels o usion In ode to aoach this comlexity one may adot om Ledahl s (197) Timbe Hieachies the idea o multi-dimensional timbe aays Hee sequential levels o dieence within one aamete ae lotted on seaate axes Each ste in one dimension o an aay eesents what sychohysicists deine as a just noticeable dieence o that aticula aamete In igue below, this would eesent the aay o hamonicity (H): H 0 H 1 H H H 4 igue : Hamonicity Aay 65

75 Each ste in the hamonicity aay eesents a just noticeable incease in hamonicity H 0 eesents the least hamonic entity wheeas H 4 eesents the most hamonic 441 Bi-dimensional Aay ehas it would be beneicial o comoses to identiy and utilize a limited numbe o usion aametes elevant to thei musical situation o sake o the agument, let us assume that hamonicity and synchonicity eesent the most imotant usion aametes o any seciic musical situation om this, we may then constuct a simle bi-dimensional timbe aay (as seen in ig 4 below) based on these two attibutes Inceasing usion H 4 H 4 S 0 H 4 S 1 H 4 S H 4 S H 4 S 4 H H S 0 H S 1 H S H 4 S H S 4 H H 1 H 0 H S 0 H 1 S 0 H 0 S 0 S 0 H S 1 H S H 4 S H S 4 H 1 S 1 H 1 S H 4 S H 1 S 4 H 0 S 1 H 0 S H 4 S H 0 S 4 S 1 S S S 4 Deceasing usion igue 4: Bi-dimensional timbe aay - hamonicity and synchonicity In igue 4, by lotting the two aametes o hamonicity and synchonicity on seaate axis, one ceates a bi-dimensional timbe matix wheeby each unit eesents vaying inteactions o hamonicity and synchonicity and theeoe usion On the Y- axis, moving om H 0 to H 4 eesents an incease in hamonicity On the X-axis, moving om S 0 to S 4 eesents an incease in the synchonicity o onset o equency comonents Within the matix the to ight unit, H 4 S 4, eesents a timbe stuctue with the highest amount o hamonicity and synchonicity and theeoe the highest amount o u- 66

76 sion Convesely, H 0 S 0 at the bottom let eesents at timbal stuctue that has the least hamonicity and synchonicity and theeoe the least used timbal stuctue 45 usion Aay The movement between the units within this matix may be consideed a usion aay, eesenting changing levels o usion uthe, this movement need not be linea since the aametes can be teated indeendently oeing vaious levels o usion A usion aay could be consideed a highe ode aay acting as an emegent oety om the maniulation o lowe level aametes Intevals o usion could be constucted so as to eesent a scale o usion units moving om least to highest level o usion and theeoe om a lowe to highe level o sensoy dissonance o the sake o the agument, tavesing linealy along the diagonal axis esents a ive-unit usion aay, as seen in igue 5 below, whee each aamete, hamonicity and synchonicity, incementally change in aallel: H 0 S 0 H 1 S 1 H S H S H 4 S 4 igue 5: usion Aay Convesely, non-linea movements though the matix would ceate ich and divese usion stuctues Moeove, the usion aay can eithe eesent intenal changes to the sectal stuctue o a single timbal stuctue, o changes to a gou o comlex timbes that one wishes to suggest usion Timbe stuctues in the usion aay essentially ceate a contextual gouing o timbes 67

77 451 usion ototye Also imotant o a comose might be the selection o a sychological ototye (osch 1999) Many ecetual categoies contain units that can be consideed the most cental, o the most eesentative unit o that categoy (Ledahl 197) A usion ototye would eesent the most eesentatively used timbe o sound object within a amily o timbes Moeove, we must be able to emembe and ecall this ototye so as to comae it to othe timbal stuctues within the usion matix In the usion aay o igue 5 above, 4 eesents this usion ototye and can be used as a cental, ivotal stuctue to ceate contextual elationshis within a musical wok 46 Comositional Imlications This model esents imotant imlications towads the contol o timbe within musical comosition Since music, howeve, also connects to cultual communication and aesthetics, one may question how this model unctions within these notions In one sense, because this model aises om ecetual ocesses, it deals with inciles that may be consideed indeendent o stylistic context, musical syntax, and aesthetics As such, the ecetual esults o this model may be egaded as a highe-ode incile that alies to all music, since it oeates on the auditoy mechanism itsel ndestandably, the manne in which a cultue esonds to the exeiences o highe o lesse amounts o sensoy dissonance vaies accoding to established cultual contexts and noms Thus, since I am witing this text and my music within a Westen musical esective, and since we have histoically associated highe ecetions o sensoy dissonance with inceasing ecetions o tension, I take the esective that this model may contibute to musical stuctues utilized mainly within Westen musical cultue 6

78 As a actical ste, howeve, with egad to ochestation and the comositional model, one would need to addess the elevant musical aoaches that aect each usion aamete usion attibutes must aly to both acoustic and electoacoustic esectives uthe, not all o these aametes must be contolled at the same time, since some may be moe elevant in dieent musical situations Hamonicity o equency comonents The contol o hamonicity with esect to timbe eesents a comlicated elationshi as the teitoy between a hamonic constuction, and the sectal constuction o a timbe may be blued This connects to the idea o timbe as object o caie One must conside i the intelay o timbe though instumentation and ochestation eesents the actual comositional mateial athe than a timbal coloing added ate hamonic and hythmic stuctuing o examle in a Beethoven symhony, ochestation actice elates moe with the coloing o common actice eiod hamony and the delineation o sonata allego om Convesely, Ligeti s Atmoshees (1961) eesents an aoach to ochestation wheeby the ochestal timbe is the mateial o the wok These categoies howeve may not be mutually exclusive avel s Boleo (19) may be thought o as eesenting both object and caie uses o timbe The distinctive melodic line eesents a om-beaing element whose ochestation may seem subsevient to the melodic constuction At the same time, howeve, the eetition o this melodic line allows o a geate ochestal / timbe intelay to occu, leading to both a timbe as object situation and a timbe as tajectoy situation, since a timbal cescendo encomasses the entie iece With timbe as a caie o itch inomation, hamonic and comositional lan- 69

79 guages whose stuctues all within the natual hamonic seies will have ochestations that omote usion This aises om a timbal einocement o the oot note o the hamonic stuctue Convesely, ochestating synthetic hamonic languages whose sonoities all outside o the natual hamonic seies might tend towads non-usion, since the equency elationshis between the hamonic language and the secta o the instumental timbes do not coincide om the oint o view o timbe as object comosition, the individual sectum o the instuments, and how thei hase elationshis suot o inteee with each othe, all aect the hamonicity o the oveall sectum and must be consideed o usion om an electoacoustic oint o view, the use o seciic signal-ocessing algoithms also aects the hamonicity o seaate sectal comonents Tyically, the timbe eects o distotion, hamonize / itch shite, and ing modulation, imact the hamonicity o an individual timbe s sectum As such the use o these signal-ocessing algoithms must be consideed om the oint o view o thei eect on the hamonic content o the sectum, inluencing usion Satial and Sectal oximity The oximity o equency comonents within eal sace and equency sace diectly aects the usion o equency comonents Within the equency domain, a lage seaation between equency comonents will tend towads disintegation o examle, an oten-deloyed comositional technique laces the soloist in an ensemble setting an octave o two octaves highe than the est o the ensemble By doing so, the satial distance will aid that laye to seaate sectally om the est o the ensemble With the concet o satial oximity, i an instumentalist can be laced in a distant osition sea- 70

80 ate om the ensemble, his o he secta will esist usion Moeove, in sound design actices, the manne with which one distibutes the sectum will have eects on the integation and disintegation o a sound Additionally, satial distances may also constain synchonicity in human eomance as extended satial distances may educe the ability o the eomes to execute in comlete synchony inally, inte-aual time dieences 7 might also aect the esulting auditoy image, since lage satial distances between souces will aect the timing o the signal to each eithe ea Similaity o sectal centoid The similaity o sectal centoid elates to the weighted sectal distibution within timbes In instumental music, instuments with simila sectal centoids use easie than instuments with dieent sectal weighting attens (Sandell 1995) One must also undestand how amlitude changes aect the sectal centoid o instumental timbes o examle, a ench hon becomes bighte as its volume level inceases Lembke and McAdams (01) ound that lowe eomance dynamics o a ollowe comaed to a leade in wind instuments inceases the amount o usion When designing sounds electonically, we must undestand the equency weighting distibutions whee mixing two sound objects is concened Emloying ilteing algoithms, o examle, can alte the sectal distibution o a sound Attenuating the lowe equency ange o boosting the highe equency ange will make a timbe aea bighte, theeoe changing its sectal centoid and tendency to use Synchonicity o onset o equency comonents The contol o synchonicity may be divided into two categoies: a comosed synchonicity and a eomed synchonicity Comosed synchonicities ceate intention- 7 The inteaual time dieence (o ITD) is the dieence in aival time o a sound between two eas 71

81 al attack oiles such that instumental onsets o sectal comonents commence at the exact same moment Since this eesents a temoal aamete, intevals o duation become imotant Dislaced attack tansients geate than 100ms might lead to hythmic eects not intended o a comosition eomance-elated synchonicities deal with metical lacement o attack onsets The highe numbe o eomes that one utilizes might educe the acility o synchonicity uthe, lacement o attacks on downbeats o on obeats within a metical stuctue might have an eect on synchonicity, deending uon the temo o the assage o examle, a downbeat attack within a 60 beats-e-minute time ame might be moe synchonous than i ity ochestal musicians ae equied to attack synchonously on the last quintulet beat o a measue with a temo o 10 beats-e-minute An advantage in electonic music might be the stict contol o temoal stuctues within mico-temoal dimensions aste temos can be eomed iesective o the hysical limitations o the eomes, allowing o a stict aametical contol o synchonicity Temoal-based signal-ocessing algoithms uthe aect the synchonicity o attack Delay and evebeation algoithms ceate time intevals between oiginal and evebeated sounds, ehas aecting the eceived synchonicity o the esulting auditoy image At the same time these algoithms also intoduce temoal smeaing which may actually enhance usion Synchonicity o onset o modulation o equency comonents Comosing synchonous onsets o modulation will suggest a usion o indeendent lines Moeove, a dieent onset o modulation maks the onset o a new souce These ae eatues that can be exloited atistically in both acoustic and electonic music 7

82 I a comose wishes to isolate a given voice, then modulation onset should occu at a dieent moment om the est o the ensemble Convesely, having synchonous modulation onsets will ush the timbal comonents towads usion Temoal conguency o modulation Obtaining conguency o modulation might be had to contol with instuments unless one diectly wites out vibato equency distances and hythms Theeoe conguency o modulation between equency gous should be stictly notated in ode to have a diect eect on usion Taditionally, vibato oes an intuitive exessive tool common to sting layes and vocalists With electonic music, modulation conguency might be easie to obtain since one has diect contol o aamete modulations ove time The use o automation o vibato equency allows the comose to stictly contol vibato elationshis between voices uthe, side-chaining allows signal-ocessing aametes o one tack to be diectly linked with anothe, establishing a synchonous modulation conguency 47 Didactic Examles In the ollowing examles, alication o the comositional model in vaious musical situations can be ound The goal was to demonstate the maniulation o usion aametes in ode to contol the integation and disintegation o equency comonents Examle 1a and 1b deal with the contol o synchonicity and equency seaation Examle attemts to contol usion aametes though symbolic notation stuctues inally, examle shows an electoacoustic examle dealing with satialization Side-chaining uses aametes om one sound o the aallel maniulation o anothe sound Oten this is done with comessos, gates, and limites, in ode to educe the amlitude o an audio inut waveom when anothe waveom is layed at the same time Moe ee uses o side-chaining allow one to ma modulation aametes (such as amlitude modulation), insuing modulation conguency 7

83 471 Examle 1a - Synchonicity and equency oximity aallel motion sing in a comosition the ollowing dissonant itch-class set (0,1,,,4), each tone will be assigned to a dieent comlex timbe (see igue 6a below) sing a quintulet hythmic stuctue, synchonicity can be contolled by eithe lacing the attacks o each timbe togethe on one beat o seaated on dieent beats o the quintulet Stating with ive seaate attack tansients, each subsequent measue in Examle 1a below coesonds to a eduction in the numbe o seaate attacks and theeoe an incease in the synchonicity o the comlex tones At the same time, equency oximity can be alteed by octave dislacement o the itches In Examle 1a, the ist measue contains all itches disesed within a seven-octave equency ange The distant itch oximities then move towads a mid equency ange using a wedge shaed atten esulting in all itches combining in a cluste Each subsequent measue eesents an incease in synchonicity and a decease in equency distance coesonding to an incease in usion Theeoe, in the inal measue, sensoy dissonance will be calculated on a single souce leading to a highe sense o tension in comaison to the ist measue 74

84 # o Gouings Synchonicity Aay equency Distance Aay S 0 S 1 S S S 4 D 0 D 1 D D D 4 Bi-Dimensional Aay S 0 D 0 S 1 D 1 S D S D S 4 D 4 igue 6a: Examle 1a 47 Examle 1b - Synchonicity and sectal oximity contay motion sing the same itch and hythmic stuctue, the equency oximity aay was evesed to oose the ocess o inceasing synchonous attack tansients ehas, the eect o this could be a lesse om o usion While the incease in synchonicity does gou the comlex timbes togethe, the incease in satial distance o the equency comonents esists usion This oints to a de-couling o usion aametes allowing o vaiations in the amount o usion, as seen in igue 6b below 75

85 # o Gouings Synchonicity Aay S 0 S 1 S S S 4 equency Distance Aay D 4 D D D 1 D 0 Bi-Dimensional Aay S 0 D 4 S 1 D S D S D 1 S 4 D 0 igue 6b: Examle 1b 47 Examle - Modulation Steams This examle uses the mono-timbal instumental setting o a sting quatet with a itch class set o (0,1,,) aanged in a close cluste uthemoe, I illustate the use o symbolic timbe maniulation signiies deloyed in instumental music to induce dieent levels o sequential steaming and usion Segegation o the sting timbes can be achieved though contolling dynamics, vibato, bow lacement, and temolo aticulation o examle, bow lacement on dieent aeas o the sting aects the equency distibution o the sting timbe, ehas changing sectal centoid A molto sul onticello (MS) bow osition, oduces less undamental equency and a bighte and thinne timbe, wheeas an odinay bow osition (odinaio) oduces a much ulle sectum A molto sul tasto (MST) osition oduces a moe hollow sound, with little ue atials Maniulating these sting aametes can aect the steam segegation and usion o the 76