PIANO MUSIC OF NATIVE CHINESE COMPOSERS. WITH PARTICULAR FOCUS ON THE PIANO WORKS SINCE 1950: A LECTURE RECITAL, TOGETHER WITH THREE RECITALS OF

Transcription

1 37? AJ&U /VJ.Site PIANO MUSIC OF NATIVE CHINESE COMPOSERS. WITH PARTICULAR FOCUS ON THE PIANO WORKS SINCE 1950: A LECTURE RECITAL, TOGETHER WITH THREE RECITALS OF SELECTED WORKS OF J. S. BACH, L. V. BEETHOVEN, S. PROKOFIEV, F. CHOPIN, R. SCHUMANN, J. BRAHMS, M. RAVEL, AND A. SKRYABIN DISSERTATION Presented to the Graduate Council of the North Texas State University in Partial F u lfill ent of the Requirements For the Degree of DOCTOR OF MUSICAL ARTS By Shu-mei Yang, B.A., M.M. Denton, Texas Hay, 1988

2 Yang, Shu-mei, Piano Music of Native Chinese Composers, with Particular Focus on the Piano Works Since h.lecture Recital, Together with Three Recitals of Selected Works of J. S. Bach, L. V. Beethoven, S. Prokofiev, F. Chopin, R. Schumann, J. Brahms, M. Ravel, and ' Skryabin. Doctor of Musical Arts (Piano Performance), May, 1988, 56 pp., 14 examples, bibliography, 65 titles. This documents aims at the identification of the sources of influence upon the styles of selected 20th century Chinese composers. Personal influences are reflected as well as those general influences specific to the different stylistic periods discussed. Most important, however, is the description of the methods by which these composers employ contemporary compositional devices to project musical gestures that are uniquely Chinese: elements of culture which are fundamentally programmatic and intimately related to the lives of the Chinese people. The introduction of Western music and musical instruments to China in the early 17th century and cultural exchanges with Japan served to gradually westernize the musical environment and training. The establishment of decidedly Western schools was accomplished at the beginning of this century, with the founding of Peking University and Shanghai National Conservatory. Music theory was taught, as

3 well as history and composition, but with an emphasis on the practices of the 18th and 19th centuries. Compositions from this period reflect Western techniques from these eras, with some use of the pentatonic scale. In the 1930's, nationalism arose, a mirroring of the 19th-century European nationalistic trends. This philosophical conception has remained essentially unchanged to the present, as composers have aimed to utilize Western techniques to create artistic works and compositional styles which are uniquely Chinese. The musical works examined are limited to works for piano solo, as it is believed these are often more immediately revealing of compositional techniques and stylistic idioms.

4 Copyright by Shu-mei Yang 1988 in

5 Tape recordings of all performances submitted as dissertation requirements are on deposit in the North Texas State University Library. iv

6 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page RECITAL PROGRAMS LIST OF EXAMPLES Chapter vi x I. History An Account of Music in Mainland China Before 1950 A 1950 C Unt f M usic in Taiwan Before A Brief Summary of the'state'of'music in Mainland China After A Brief Summary of the State of Muiic an Taiwan After i-> II. A DEVELOPMENT OF COMPOSITIONAL STYLES IN PIANO WORKS OF REPRESENTATIVE NATIVE COMPOSERS IN RECENT DECADES... Composers and Piano Works in Mainland China Prior to Composers and Piano Works in Taiwan After 1950, Conclusion z? 51 BIBLIOGRAPHY 52 18

7 North Texas State University School of Music Graduate Recital SHU-MEI YANG, Piano Monday, April 15, :30 p.m. Concert Hall Prelude and Fugue E major Book II J. s. Bach Sonata Op. 57 f minor Allegro assai Andante con moto Allegro ma non troppo L. v. Beethoven Intermission Sonata Op. 29 c minor Allegro molto sostenuto Andante assai Allegro con brio, ma non leggiero Sergei Prokofieff Scherzo Op. 54 E Major F. Chopin Presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Musical Arts VI

8 North Texas State University School of Music Graduate Recital SHU-MEI YANG, Piano Monday, March 31, :30 p.m. Concert Hall Toccata in C Minor, c D. «. 5. oacn Sonata Op. 109 in E Major L. Van Beethoven Intermission Carnava1 P' 9 Robert Schumann Presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Musical Arts Vll

9 North Texas State University School of Music Graduate Recital SHU-HEI YANG, Piano Monday, July 6, :15 p.m. Recital Hall Orei 1ntermezzi Op. 117 Johannes Brahms Funfzehn Variationen, Op. 35 Eroica-Thema; mft Fuge L. Van Beethoven Intermission Valses nobles et sentimentales Maurice Ravel Sonata No. 4 Op. 30 Alexander Scriabin Presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Musical Arts Vlll

10 North Texas State University School of Music Graduate Lecture Recital SHU-HEI YANG, Piano Monday, February 15. I988 5:00 p.m. Recital Hall PIANO MUSIC OF NATIVE CHINESE COMPOSERS. WITH PARTICULAR FOCUS ON THE PIANO WORKS SINCE 1950 K ' * X * r e P - 3S - NO ' 1 " 973) ha Lento ed espressivo scherzo ail6gro vivac6 BiIder aus der Kinderzeit (1984) u t Gedenkfeier # ' ' ' ' Hwan 9"'ong Pan Tempelfest ^ "f" Puppenspiel ^ iv Suffei-Krahe-Silberreiher «i- * Fruhiingsfest ^ T Presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Musical Arts JLX

11 Example LIST OF EXAMPLES 1- Tzu Hwang, Our National Flag Is Flying Measures 1-47 JT- Ln g' Page 2. 3Tu-mei Hsiao, Little Nocturne. Measures Ro-din Ho. Buffalo Boy's Flute. Measures ' Wen i:as«es in?: 4 5i2 ^;. 0p ;, 8 ;, No : 6 ' 5 ' Wen "^assres n?: 4 5 2i ii^' P ' 8 - N Su-ti Chen, Dragon Dance. Measures Chih ;r, in - U : Fu 9"«fron Variations and Fugue 22 Ancient Taiwan Music. Measures -!^? -??? T " n 9-houei Hsu Toccata from One Night at Hellene s. Measures ** «J / 9. Mao-shuen Chen. Piano Sonata No. 1, First Movement, Measures^l ~ Eight-note Scale by Mao-shuen Chen 41 U. Shui-long Ma, Temple from Taiwan Suite. Measures ShUi Me«2res'l?? 222. S ~ ;. Fir " Movement. 13. Sung-jen Hsu, Drei Klavierstiicke.» Measures 1-4 ' 14 Hwang-long Fan. Bilder aus der Kinderzeit. No. 4, Measures

12 CHAPTER I HISTORY An Account of Music in Mainland China Before 1950 in The History of New Music in Taiwan, it is mentioned that an exchange of cultural and scientific information between East and West began to take place in the early 17th century.1 Western missionaries to China brought with the* not only such sciences as astronomy and geography, but also representatives of the visual and aural arts. As reported by Hsiang-hsiang Wu in Modern Historical Events, the missionary Matthaeus Ricci who arrived in Peking in 1600 presented an instrument called the hsi-chin* as a tribute to the Emperor. This is presumed to be the harpsichord or clavecin which was prevalent in the West at that time. Similarly, around 1656, Johannes Adam Schall von Bell and a Dutch Ambassador brought a keyboard instrument called the kang-szu-chin as a tribute. It is believed that, from the time of Matthaeus Ricci up to 1656, most of the keyboard and 1 ' (T"Iei Ue chini;. I!r Si5 2 2 of New Music in Taiwan \Taipei. Chinese Music Book House, 1986) 2 " "J s " l l e d ya-chin by Matthaeus Ricci 4M) n dejciib«! S inese ' ShZH-Wen-Hsien-Tunq-Kao c * described it as an instrument, 3 feet in «?i«d iron " " h ' " ith 72 " r i n 9 s made f 9old or

13 string instruments 0 the Western world had been introduced The influence of Western music was such that, in 1730 (about the time of the Kang si era of the ching Dynasty). western theoretical ideas were presented in Chinese trough a treatise called Lu-Lu-cha^.^p^ <df -6 Western music, however, was performed primarily i the courts, and only occasionally in Christian churches. Therefore, the common people had little or no exposure to its possible influences, with the result that Western music did not have a profound effect on Chinese musical education at that time. Western music was embraced more fully in china with the end of the Ching Dynasty and the advent of the Republic at the end of the 19th century "uuxy. Thi* this acceptance was largely the result of Japanese influences. After the Meiji Westernization campaign in Japan became a -ore wealthy and powerful nation.* chin, followed Japan in absorbing this new culture in an attempt to emulate this rise to power. This suggests that it was at this time Western music was conveyed to chin, via Japan. In addition to the quest for power, the acceptance of Western music into Chinese musical education and history was affected by three factors, namely, (i) the renaissance of Christianity; (2) 3. Hsu, o. cit., Hsu, og. cit., 11.

14 the establishment of the Western ef i.. tne western-style military band; and (3) the establishment of a Westernized school.. The 3 Christian church in China, an outlet for for the outlet Performance Western music, had been boycotted and. ultimately. prohibited during the Opium War in the 1840's. The of resurgence of the Church in 1896 brought with it the remergence of western music. At approximately the same time. Shih-kai Yuan established the first Western-style military band in Tientsin, a city in Hopei Province. At the suggestion of his advisor. Goestat of Germany, yuan abolished the traditional Chinese band of wind instruments and adopted Western brass, woodwinds and percussion to form a military band., m the acceptance of Western music entered the educational system. Teaching material was translated from Japanese textbooks, but was injected with Chinese patriotic ideologies, and. following Japan's lead, schools Offered courses in Western music.* Prior to 1930, Peking had become firmly established as the center of Western music in Mainland China. This was due largely to the growth of China's premiere post-secondary educational facility. Peking University (founded in 1898). Han, Ibid., Chin-hung Chang, "Chinese Music Durina Pa«s+- cn v Science in the 20th Century-Art?? S Years -" Yeh (Taipei: ChiHi-Chung Book Co. Ills)', xt ^ 9 _ c h a o

15 A music society was established there in 1 919, 5 an eittrl _ curricular association. The society had two divisions, one for Western music and one for Chinese music. Each offered a curriculum ranging from private instrumental instruction to lessons in harmony, theory, and history. i addition to educational activities, scholarly research was presented via the organization's publication, Music Magazine (ij jjyj,) (1920). which is considered to be the first music periodical published in China.. The society was accepted for affiliation by the University in and became the first official music institute. At the time of its establishment, the directors of the institute included some very distinguished music educators whose contributions continue to be felt, today. They include Yuan-pei Tsai, Yu-mei Hsiao, chung-tzu Yang (, pianist), and Tien-hua Liou. Perhaps the most important of these is Yu-mei Hsiao, who lectured in the history and theory of Western music and copducted the first Westernstyle orchestra. He is considered to be the first to have introduced Western music theory and harmony systematically.. His dedication to education in Western music resulted in many achievements, including the incorporation of music into 8. Han, og. cit., " ShuIhsifn a S'- FU " ShU J Lla '? sa n?-houei Hsu, Hsi-liu Wu Education itcoatesporarr^^ Composers League R/O. C! NitlSnil cssittee 1982), 11.

16 th. curriculum of elementary school,, the establishment of»u,ic departments, the standardization of curriculum guides for music courses, and the establishment of the first music conservatory i china.- Because of his efforts, which were at the building of a musical education system. Hsiao». considered to be the father of modern Chinese music education. Under the supervision of Yuan-pei Tsai and Yu-mei Hsiao, the first National Music Conservatory was founded in Shanghai in November of Hsiao was appointed president in under his direction, the conservatory was renamed «the Shanghai National Music College in and offered instruction in Western as well as traditional music. Tzu Hwang, who travelled to the United states to study theory and composition, returned to assist Hsiao in his efforts in cultivating well-rounded musicians. Their efforts met with success, and the college became the new center for Western Busic in China, surpassing Peking University. Undoubtedly, the establishment of the Shanghai National Music College was a milestone in the history of contemporary Chinese music.n The importance of Tzu Hwang in both the development Of a musical education system and a national composition style should not be overlooked, m he travelled to

17 the United States to study at oberlin College and Yale University. After his return in he lectured in Western music theory and composition at the newly established Shanghai National Music College. Although his studies in America included the new music of the 20th century, his courses were designed primarily to introduce 18th- and 19th-century practices.12 Upon his return to China. Tzu Hwang's compositional efforts were focused toward vocal music. This was due. in part, to the musical environment: at that time. Western music education was in i ts initial stage, and no forces were available to organize an orchestra to perform instrumental works. The traditional music of China affected his orientation as well, for vocal music could best express the superiority of the melodic line as found in folk music.- Indeed, T*u Hwang's chief compositional aim was "to blend the Chinese folk music with Western scientific compositional techniques.-i- In an article written for the shanohai «nina Post in he attempted to explain his technique: SFfr T - * Russia had n o ' p i a c e V K ^ ' m u L c ^ d? thlt 12. Hsu, op. cit., 22. " 13. Chi-jen Chang, Talking About Music «Cultural Promotion Publication Co.', 1986),* Ibid.

18 However, in recent 50 or 60 vears i+- j *.new phenomenon. Why' Although' soared up with folk songs, it seldo^ot " ^ c h ^ " countries' music. Until th* IZx\i? 1 he other? h great volume of music was imnnrf 2 * century, a France such t ""Ported from Germany and the Russian.»us?c^s»»«>tu» for The Russian musicians refined their *7"* erritor Y means of the German scienslfr- ^ n *^Ve folk son * s *>Y Eventually, they created a special^ix 1 our native music will naturally follow S s pa h Tzu Hwang's ideas were a direct result of his study of 19th century Western practice, for he aimed at creating a Chinese national music which blended folk elements with styles. Compositions of this period attempted to fuse Western diatonic harmony with Chinese pentatonic scales. During the Sino-Japanese War ( ), this fusion became more apparent as the need for a national music arose. The patriotic songs produced at this time (i.e., Our Nati nal ^ (MJJSJL) by Tzu Hwang) were an expression of nationalism in an attempt to survive the invasions (Example 1). Example^. T 2u Hwang, our National Flag Is Flying, measures 15. Chang, Ibid., 73

19 The process of -Westernizing- Chinese music through the study of Western musical instruments, composition, harmony, and educational systems took some 300 years." Prom the first acceptance of Western music to the founding of the National Music College, Chinese musicians aspired to fuse Chinese folk elements with Western music. All chines, musicians, regardless of whether they studied abroad or in China, put their efforts into creating a national style of music Account of Music in Taiwan Before 1950 The development of modern music in Taiwan reflects a similar process as in Mainland China.i' Western music was first brought to Taiwan by missionaries in the 17th century. The missionaries played a significant role in the popularity of Western music in Taiwan, owing to the success of Christianity. In order to fully understand their importance, it is necessary to explore Taiwan's cultural history and political background. Taiwan was occupied by the Dutch ( ) and the Spanish ( ) in the 17th century." Missionaries from 16 ' (T^in»? Ue rv," SU ' Histor v f New Music in Taiwan (Taipei. Chinese Music Book House, 1986),~~17~ 17 ' ftaicci Ya n 9 '-^ Development of Western Music in T niwtm.(taipei: Christian Foundation^ubHHi^oJr^^ffTT^ 18. Yang, Ibid., 2.

20 th.se countries established churches and schools in order to educate and convert the natives to Christianity, singing was of great importance in these institutions and in effort, at proselytizing. From this period, a tradition of Christian music began in Taiwan. It i s as5uined thit Western music was first introduced to Taiwan via the Christian churches.is in 1662, the spread of Christianity was halted by Cheng-kung Cheng who, after the fall of the Ming Dynasty, ousted the Dutch from Taiwan and instigated a ban on the churches and schools which lasted until the mid-19th century. Taiwan reopened its harbors with the signing of the Tientsin Treaty in Western music was reintroduced to Taiwan via the English and Canadian missionaries Montgomery and Gauld, who presided over the Taiwan seminary in southern Taiwan and the middle school in Tamsui in northern Taiwan, respectively. Christian schools were soon re-established, offering instruction in musical instruments and theory. Music in Taiwan experienced a renaissance during this period, which resulted in oldgeneration composers' musical style being affected by church music,21 such as the styles of Su-ti Chen and Chuan-sheng Lu. 19. Yang, Ibid., Ibid. 21. Hsu, 02- cit., 38

21 10 After the Sine-Japanese War, Taiwan became. colony of Japan. The development of Western music was greatly affected, for this meant that it was now introduced by Japanese education as well. Japanese colonial rulers imported their educational system to Taiwan. Any talented Taiwanese student interested in studying music, however, was sent to Japan. The first musician to do this was Fu-shing Chang who, in 1907, was sent to study violin and organ." Other important musicians sent to Japan were Chi-chuan Lee and Chih-yuan Kuo. Both returned to Taiwan after completing education, bringing with a strong Western musical foundation which paved the way for Taiwan's future musical development. In 1919, the May Fourth Cultural Movement firmly established itself on Mainland China, m an attempt to emulate this, intellectuals in Taiwan launched a new cultural movement. Literary works were being written in the language of the common people. Music reflected the ideas of the movement as well. Wen-yeh Chiang and Su-ti Chen are especially noted for their contributions. From 1937 to 1945, the Japanese tried to repress the national consciousness of the Taiwanese and absorb it into Japanese culture through the Hwang Ming Movement (AMAH)' 23 Japanese was designated the official language, 22. Ibid. " 23. Chin-hung Chang, "Chinese Music During Past 60 Years,"

22 SO Taiwanese folk tunes were sung with Japanese words. The music was referred to as the -New Taiwanese Music" in order to placate the people. Musicians, in compliance with the edict, began to collect traditional folk music and incorporate it into their works. For example, Chuan-sheng LU Pr Vided Wen "huan Chang's play Yen-chi (1943) with Mandarin tunes and northern and southern Taiwanese tunes for interludes (i.e., the I-Lan folk tune Tu-Tu-Tuna and the Chia-I folk song Field Wat«in June,.*, Consequently, the style of composition in this period reflects an attempt to blend the essence of folk song with Western diatonic harmony, and yet retains a very national style. The development of modern music in Taiwan is similar to that in Mainland China. As in Mainland China, the political environment influenced the acceptance of Western music. An important difference, however, was the period of Japanization during which the Taiwanese were more nationally aware of their Chinese heritage. 24. Ibid. 3Si: 2: SST^

23 A grief Summary of the State of Music 12 in Mainland China After 1950 The development of contemporary music in Mainland China can be divided into three periods:,1, f rob 1949 to 1966; (2) the ten years of the Cultural Revolution to 1976; and (3) from 1976 to the present. The first period is characterized by extensive cultural exchanges with Russia. Russian musicians were sent to China to offer instruction on instruments and in composition. Russian folk songs were included in music courses in the schools, and Chinese students were transported to Russia for further study. Before Chinese music education emulated that of Russia-only the music of the classical and romantic periods were taught. However, political differences soon led the Chinese government to reconsider these decisions and nationalistic music was restored.25 During the Cultural Revolution, Western music education was completely negated. Only the music from the eight Yan-Pan-shih ( &, repertoire could be performed or taught. This repertoire consisted of four categories; ballet, Peking drama, symphony, and song with piano accompaniment.2e o"lb«5? j987 Satl0n betueen Sh - h -ei a and a u T ^ ~ 26. Ibid.

24 After the Revolution, the Chinese were faced with the task of restoring their culture. However, the country suffered fro. a lack of trained music teachers and musicians to carry out this task. The government responded by organizing various committees to promote music education. The most recent Committee was the Art Education Committee of 1986 = Brief Sui "roarv of the State of Music in Taiwan After 1950 Since 1950, Taiwan has undergone a difficult growth process in its political and economic development. Presently it offers a stable and wealthy environment. Its educational system, including music, has attained a significant level of accomplishment. Major achievements are seen in the fields of music education, organization and ctivitie., and theory and publication." The following is a summary of these achievements. (1) Music Education The post-war educational system of Taiwan is largely an imitation of the system used in the United States, it consists of two categories: education of all students and citizens, and education of the musically talented, m recent years, a network has been formed between experimental 27. Hsu, ojg. cit., 42

25 14 classes in primary and high schools and the music departments in colleges, to best accommodate young musicians. since the inception of the first music school, in a total of twelve music institutions have been established, including the National Taiwan Normal University. Soochow University, and the National Arts institute in with two schools offering graduate study. The two graduate schools offer master's degrees in musicology. conducting, and theory and composition, m the Ministry of Education organic a program to encourage talented students of the arts to study abroad. (2) Musical Orqanizatin.., n d Activities In order to promote both Chinese and Western music. Taiwan's musical organizations are structured to provide a beneficial musical experience for amateurs and professionals. The performance of both Western operas and Chinese dramas is promoted. Music festivals are sponsored by the government and civic organizations, such as the New Aspect Promotion Corporation founded in 1979 by Po-yuan Hsu. which provide, on a volunteer basis, outlet for the performance of modern, Western, folk, and traditional music. Musical contests and foreign cultural exchanges are also encouraged. Because of these efforts, the popularity of urnsic and the level of musical experience have been greatly heightened.

26 (3) Music Research 15 Prior to the I960's, there was little interest in preserving the rich heritage found in Taiwan's folk music. On Mainland China, two scholars, Kuang-chi Wang and Yin-liou Yang, undertook the task of researching music history, but experienced little support. Neither did the scholars in Taiwan take notice of their achievements. From 1966 to 1967, however, Tsang-houei Hsu and Wei-liang Shih led a folksong collection movement in which some 3,000 songs were collected.28 Many of the tunes were from the aboriginal peoples and the plains areas of Taiwan. In the 1970's the two researchers organized the Chinese Folk-Song Research Center, and in 1979, a special recorded collection of folk songs (edited by Tsang-houei Hsu and Ping-chuan Lu) was issued. This consisted of Taiwanese folk narration, instruments and singing, aboriginal folk songs, songs from northern Taiwan, and the Soochow story-rhyme, with traditional instrumental accompaniment.29 This publication represents the most outstanding achievement to date in the study of Taiwanese folk songs. 28 ' Tz sic in T a l - A s 29. Ibid.

27 (4) Musical Composition 16 The early stage of modern Taiwanese composition was influenced by composers such as Ou Kang from Mainland China. Two others, Era-hua Hsiao and Ching-hong Chang, taught Western harmonic and theoretical practices and ideas of the 18th and 19th centuries in Taiwanese schools.3. The Chinese practice of blending Western diatonic harmony with Chinese pentatonic scales was adopted by Taiwanese composers such as Chuan-sheng Lu, Su-ti Chen and Chih-yuan Kuo. The most important concern of these composers was the expression of national consciousness. 31 The style of composition changed after 1960, with a concert of the music of Tsang-houei Hsu as the turning point. 3 2 The concert, which included his works "Came from the Sea Yesterday- for soprano and the string quartet, op. 5. no. 2 (1958), presented to the people a new musical vocabulary which incorporated the language of Debussy, Stravinsky, Berg and Bartok.33 Twentieth-century Western practices were introduced in Taiwan very gradually, but composers such as Loong-hsian Wen, Shing-kuei Cheng and 30. Hsu, op. cit., Hsu, op. cit., Ibid. 33. Chen, op. cit., 36

28 Hwang-long Pan were quick to utili2e the techniques and 17 adopted a "modern" aesthetic toward composition. Following the modernization of Taiwanese music ( ), a reaction took place which was in the form of folk song arrangements." This was influenced, in part, by three events, the folk song collection movement in 1966, the establishment of the Modern Chinese Music Association which encouraged new compositions based on folk songs, and the organization of the Asian Composers League (1973).3s The Asian Composers League also promoted the composition of music using traditional songs. In order to blend the efforts of the reactionary movement with avant-garde compositions, and at the same time publicize their efforts, other organizations were formed. These included (1) the Composers Forum (1961); (2) the Group of Five (1965); (3) the Sunflower Group (1968); and (4) the Modern Chinese Music Research Institute (1969). The main concern of composers in Taiwan today is one of adapting to world-wide musical trends while preserving and inventing a distinctly Oriental musical language. 34. Hsu, og. ext., Ibid.

29 CHAPTER II A DEVELOPMENT OF COMPOSITIONAL STYLES IN PIANO WORKS OF REPRESENTATIVE NATIVE COMPOSERS IN RECENT DECADES Composers and Piano Works in Mainland China Prior to 1950 The introduction of Western music to China included elementary theory and instrumental instruction. The instructional materials used had no Chinese nationalistic flavor or artistic value. Despite the weakness. Chinese music education was continued with these emphases. After the founding of the Republic of China, the government gradually formed departments of music in colleges and universities. The most important ones were at Peking University (1922) and the National Music College in Shanghai (1927). At that time, many teaching materials were imported from Japan and translated into Chinese. The first method book written in Chinese was for organ and piano and was written by Yu-mei Hsiao (1926)." A third book was written 36 wu> _ sical Education in Contemporarv china Asian Composers Leacrue R o r u.l i - aipei. The 57 # " R.O.C. National Committee, 1982), 18

30 19 in 1927 for violin instruction.37 Compositions from this period were primarily vocal, with few solo piano works. Yu mei Hsiao ( ) studied in Japan ( ) and then at Leipzig University ( ). where he majored in theory and composition. After he returned to China, he contributed to the furthering of music education, of his many works written expressly for teaching purposes, m-n, WUSIC <Ulii)(1934). which included a study of music history and counterpoint, was perhaps the most valuable.3, A survey of his total output reflects his primary interest in vocal music. discovered: However, three pieces for piano have been Little Nocturne, op. 19 ( in A iat Bajor _ written in 1916), Sorrow March, op. 24 (in C minor, written in 1916), and Hsin-Ni-shanq-Yeu-I-Wn (i n <3 f l a t maj or _ written in 1930).From these miniature pieces, it is apparent that Hsaio absorbed the language of the Classical and Romantic eras while in Europe, especially the formal structure of the Classical style. Hsiao's reliance on the traditional Western musical conventions showed that, although Western music had entered the modern age, the early stages of Chinese music remained unaffected by it. 37. Chao, Ibid., Chao, Ibid., Fu-mei Liu, Study on Contemporary chin*«o x>i anr Pirrr- (Taipei: Han-Chia Book Co )7~33^ f Flece *

31 20 The Little Nocturne, written in i 9 l 6, is i the style of John Field nocturnes, with a simple ornamented melody in the right hand, accompanied by simple chords (Example 2). Example 2. Yu-mei Hsiao, Little Nocturne. measures 1-4. Adagio ISft & P. f iffr TO) «Alexander Tcherepnin ( ), a Russian composer and pianist, resided in China from 1934 to 1937 and contributed much to the development of Chinese music. He requested that Hsiao arrange a composition competition in which the works exhibit a Chinese style. The award-winning composition was Ro-din Ho's Buffalo Boy's Flute, from which can be studied the so-called Chinese national style of the time. Most importantly is the fact that, although a Chinese

32 21 musician had studied Western theory and instruments, he was nontheless encouraged to express his Chinese musical language within this medium. This trend was similar to the nationalistic tendencies in Europe in the late 19th century. m 1935, Tcherepnin established publishing houses in Peking and Tokyo for the publication of young Chinese and Japanese composers' works. The first work published was Rodin Ho's Buffalo Bo _s Flute, which also provided the inspiration for the trademark (a Chinese shepherd who plays the flute while riding a buffalo), other works published by Tcherepnin's press in that seminal year were by Wen-yeh Chiang who is discussed later. These publications were disseminated to Europe. Ro-din Ho (b. 1903) studied harmony and composition with Tzu Hwang, who introduced the compositional techniques and music theory of 18th- and 19th-century Western Europe to China. H is composition, Buffalo Boy's Flute (1934) presents a blending of Western and Chinese features in its ABA structure. In the A section, he utilizes the Chinese pentatonic scale in two-voice free counterpoint. In the B section. Western harmony is used, accompanying a small range 40 ' Pao M? sic ' Pers onacre and Concept (Taipei: Cultural Promotion Publication Co., 1985), Hsin-lin Wu, "Tcherepnin," ed. Chi-jen Chang, Music Personaqe and Concept, (Taipei: Shih-Pao Cultural Promotion Co., 1985),

33 22 melody which encircles the tonic. The contrast between the sections, each exhibiting a different means of blending the Western and Chinese musical languages, constitutes the success of this piece (Example 3). Example 3. Eo-din Ho, Buffalo Bc^s Flute, measures 1-8. Wen-yeh Chiang ( ) was another pioneer of modern Chinese music. He studied in Japan beginning in A scholar of Chiang's music, Kuo-huang Han has divided his works into four major periods: (1) Vocal period, , encompassing his study in Japan. (2) International period (initial), During this period, Chiang won several prizes in Japan and Europe. He attainted world renown when his orchestral work Formosan Dance won a special prize in the fine arts division of the

34 llth Olympic Games (Berlin. 1936). The works from this 23 period are predominantly for piano, and in such works as the Bagatelles op. 8. are quite avant-garde in character." (3) National period (middle), Chiang moved to Mainland China and taught in Peking Normal University. While there, he immersed himself in the classical Chinese works, therefore absorbing into his own compositions the language of traditional Chinese music. His orientation changed to vocal music, and he produced many songs based on the poetry of the Tan and Sung Dynasties as well as cathedral hymns in the Chinese tradition. His thesis, entitled A studjr of Chinese Formal Music on Confucius gsais<twfw**m»-y*tt»(l»42>, was also published during this period. 43 (4) Rural period (later), after Chiang focused his efforts on researching Taiwanese folk songs. There is one piano works from this period. Hsiang-Tu-chieh-Lino-sM.,- Chu- It is a set of twelve pieces, with a descriptive title ( g Lantern Festival).44 In the 1930's, contemporary Chinese composers were still experimenting with styles of expression. Wen-yeh 42. Kuo-huang Han, Music Master-W.Y. Chiano. m Book Co., 1984) 72~; a ng (Taipei: Tun-Li 43. Ibid. 44. Han, Ibid., 73.

35 24 Chiang, however, had already created a personal style. This was due, in part, to his musical background. At age twentythree, he began his studies in composition and was schooled the language of 20th-century European music, as well as the German academic theory of the 18th and 19th centuries." This was quite different from his contemporaries who were instructed only in the 18th- and 19th-century styles, when he moved to Mainland China, he was concerned with creating a Chinese style of modern music. His works blend effects found in works of Bartok. Stravinsky. Prokofiev and Japanese composers with Chinese traditions. He wrote fourteen compositions for the piano, including the Bagatelles. Sketch, and several sonatas. The style characteristics of the piano works can be divided into two periods, an avantgarde period followed by a nationalistic phase." The Bagatelles, op. 8, written in 1936, represents a blending of these two styles. This set of sixteen pieces shows many of the characteristics which became part of Chiang's personal style. Interestingly, almost all of his works have titles or subtitles which depict such things as scenery (the third sonata: Natura e vita a Mezsodi). instruments (Pi'ha from the Bagatelles), festivals, and places ( Peking Gate from the Bagatelles). 45. Han, Ibid., Chang, og. cit.,

36 25 The compositional devices found in the Bagatelles can be summarized as follows: (1) Harmony: the use of dissonance with short chromatic or pentatonic figuration is characteristic. One of his harmonic gestures is a chord based on an open fifth with an added fourth, so that the fourths and fifths found in the melodic line are represented in the harmony (Example 4 and 5). 4 ' Example 4. Wen-yeh Chiang, Bagatelles, on. R «<-* c measures * no * b ' Allegro lerooe Example 5. Wen-yeh Chiang, Bagatelles, on. r 11 F measures 1-4. ' * - LJ " Lento fatigamente (2) Melody: skips of fourths and fifths in the melodic line and short melodic phrases are predominant. 47. Han, cit., 10.

37 (3) Rhythm: the meter changes very often, with few of 26 the pieces staying in one meter throughout. For example, the sixteen-measure "Charamela- (no. 4 of the Bagatelles) has twelve meter changes. From Ro-din Ho and tfen-yeh Chiang it can be seen that the compositional trend in the first half of the 20th century was gradually transformed from predominantly Westernized character to a blending of East and West. In addition to traditional music, the exotic sounds of Chinese music were used to raise the national consciousness. Composers and Piano Works Taiwan After 1950 According to an article in Music and Audioohile. the Taiwanese school of composition extends back four or five generations.is The primary composers of the first generation, around the time of the retrocession of Taiwan, were cheng-ho Kuo, su-ti Chen, Wen-yeh Chiang, Chen-sheng Lu, and Chih-yuan Kuo. They all received their training in Japan and composed predominantly in the vocal idiom, although Su-ti Chen. Wen-yeh Chiang and Chih-yuan Kuo wrote some piano pieces. The second generation came from Mainland China after the retrocession of Taiwan, and included Era-hua Hsiao, Ching-hung Chang, and Ou Kang. 48. Wei-chen Wang, "Recognize Our Composers Series 1 h*,, Tsang-houe,.- Music and Audiophilg CLII ^bruary 1986),

38 The second generation composers taught theory and 27 composition in 18th- and 19th-century styles, and contributed greatly to the development of professional musicians of the highest calibre. Wei-liang shih, Tsanghouei Hsu. and Yien Lu are among the third generation of Taiwanese composers who gradually developed into the first exponents of modern music. They succeeded the first generation in teaching theory and composition. The fourth generation, most of whom were students of Tsang-houei Hsu, emerged in the 1960's and represent another stage of contemporary music in Taiwan. Simultaneously, a fifth generation emerged, stylistically parallel to, and influenced by, the fourth generation. The last two generations show a high degree of exchange of ideas. These composers, especially shui-long Ma. Sung-jen Hsu. Mao-shuen Chen, and Hwang-long Pan, imparted a new vitality to music in Taiwan after the 1960 s. Although their piano works represent only a small portion of their total output, these composers, works are especially revealing of the stylistic transformations taking place at the time. Prior to 1960, music in Taiwan was primarily vocal, as the piano was not a popular instrument in the musical environment of that time. The majority of pianists received their training in Japan, with the repertoire consisting mainly of classical and Romantic works. The few new compositions written during this period were expressive of

39 the feeling of nostalgia felt by those musicians who had 28 left relatives and friends in Mainland China. This nostalgic quality is also revealed in the literature and vocal music of the period and, indeed, can be considered the most outstanding feature of Taiwan's musical creation.49 This nostalgic style hearkens back to the music of Yu-mei Hsiao, Yuan-jen Chao, and Tzu Hwang, who comprise what is known as the May Fourth period of art song, in the 1930's and 1940 s.so Th e primary feature of music from this period is a blending of Western diatonic harmony with Chinese scales, a technique common to earlier composers of Taiwanese music. The piano works in this style were influenced by the accompaniment of the contemporary art songs expressing patriotic sentiment, such as Man-Chiana-Hun? by Sheng-hsi Lin, from which native composers developed their own styles. The main focus of the following discussion is the identification of the sources of influence upon various composers' styles, personal as well as general, which pertain specifically to the stylistic period. More important, however, is the identification and description of the ways in which native Chinese composers utilize contemporary compositional devices to project musical 49. Lin-chun Chen, "Contemporary Music in Taiwan A Survey," The Art of Music IV (1986), Ibid.

40 gestures which.re uniquely their own: elements of culture which are fundamentally programmatic and intimately related to the lives of the Chinese people. Program music was regarded as one of the important factors in Chinese rasical expression, just as it was in music of the European Romantic era. Frederick Weeks states that Program music should embrace all possible kinrie He divides the various types of programs into three categories: the descriptive, the symbolic, and the emotional, but suggests that the descriptive program is best used in combination with, and in subordination to. one of others. Native Chinese composers drew from local drama and folk traditions for their programs. Literary programs, however, were molded after Western sources, including many used by the European Romantic composers. This attitude echoed the nationalist schools in Europe, for Chinese composers found that they could more easily establish their style by cultivating their own folk-lore and traditions 51. Frederick Niecks, Programme Music -e (New York: H.W. Gray Co., UiT^ Centuries 52. Niecks, Ibid., 4.

41 rather than pursuing foreign tradition. Although composers such as Mao-shuen Chen declared his compositions to be devoid of programmatic content, he confessed to having nationalistic tendencies. 5 3 The titles used reflect native and provincial Chinese concerns and traditions (i.e.. Draaon Dance, M d Templel, Because of this, a further explanation of the background is necessary to understand how Chinese composers conceived their music in order to intensify the meaning of the music itself and to convey this meaning to the audience. This raises another aspect of program music: "The essence of program music is that the sounds should be significant: they should convey some meaning beyond the sounds themselves."54 chlnese composers solved ^ ^ exploiting sonorities very imaginatively to portray the meaning. Therefore, the content of Chinese piano literature resides in the essence of program music, combining with nationalistic idiomatic gestures. In.the earlier stage, in the emergence of nationalistic style, composers endeavored to blend the pentatonic scale with Classical harmony. Because Chinese»usic is characterized by a melodic line, devoid of harmony. interview between Chen and l?"?987. author. September 54 ' 1975)??92 Y ' Pr 9 ramm Music (London: Davis-Poynter.

42 this concept was totally the product of Western thinking. 31 The result of this experimental combination is a new vocabulary in Chinese music. These new devices were incorporated with specifically Chinese ideas such as folk or local drama and the tuning system of the pi-pa. Composers were able to create their own harmonic language through this practice. ti Chen (b. 1911), a composer and pianist, studied piano with Margaret Gauld and Isabel Taylor, Canadian missionaries to Taiwan, m the 1930's. Chen studied composition in Japan and then in the 1950's in Canada with Oscar Morawetz. e wrote seven pieces for piano solo, most of which had a descriptive title: Fantasie-Tamsui (1945; Tamsui is a place in northern Taiwan.) Taiwan Sketchs ( ) Dragon Dance (1959) Etude in D flat-divertimento (1959) Preludes-Playful Keyboard (1968) Deep Valley (1978) Memories (1978) While the programmatic titles belong to Chinese expression, many of his works show a tendency toward blending Classical harmony with Chinese melodic ideas, other works are more specifically Chinese in character with their use of the

43 pentatonic scale, such as Dragon Dance and the Ten Preludes. The Dragon Dance is a festival dance for the celebration of the new year, accompanied only by percussion instruments. Chen portrays this with a specific rhythmic pattern in the left hand: fti or long, short, short (Example 6). Example 6. Su-ti Chen, Dragon Dance, measures j The composition Ten Preludes is a theme with variations based on the pentatonic scale found in the first prelude. Each variation is entitled -prelude" and each explores one idea, technique or musical figuration. This is similar to the concept of the character piece in the Romantic era. Chih-yuan Kuo's (b. 1921) musical roots were in traditional Taiwanese folk songs and drama (i.e..ko-tzu-hsi,

44 Nan-Kuan and Pei-KuanJ.ss Although he studied in Japan 33 during the time of the Japanese occupation of Taiwan, these traditions of his childhood left a deep impression.** He studied in Japan at two separate times, and , during which he learned the compositional techniques of the Impressionist and the European Nationalists. 57 While in Japan, he came into contact with such Japanese nationalist composers as Araka, Ifuke and Wenyeh Chiang. Although influenced by these composers, he created his own style of modern Chinese music. Kuo is a prolific composer in all mediums. His works include Taiwanese folk songs and a piano concerto. From 1954 to 1974, he wrote some eight pieces for the piano, such as a piano sonata and the Variations and Fugue on Ancient Taiwan Music. Because of his childhood impressions, he often incorporates scenes from daily life (as in folk drama) into his works. Indeed, titles of various folk dramas appear as titles or subtitles to his piano works. Western programmatic titles, such as Imagine and Burlesque are also used, suggesting an influence of his study of the Romantic 55. They are names of local dramas. 56 " Un«7 Chen I x^' T h f Tale f Ni g ht ingale Series 23," Music and Audiophile CLVII (July 1986), 32. 5? ' Personal interview between Kuo and author via telephone, September 18/ 1987.

45 composers In general, one can say that his distinctive 34 use of folk songs and programmatic titles reveals his own approach to the manifestation of nationalism. The theme of the four-voice fugue from the Variations «2d FU2HS H Ancient Taiwan Music was borrowed from a Pei- Kuan tune and incorporated with Western compositional techniques (Example 7).ss Example 7. Chili-yuan Kuo, Fugue from Varist-inne on Ancient Taiwan Music^asuresTrffr 225 a & /1<nda.titA. Personal interview between vim an/a _._, i September 18, uthor via telephone 59. Ibid.

46 Since I960, music in Taiwan has emphasized the 35 compositional techniques and harmonic language of the 20th century. The beginning of modernism has prevailed in the creation of all the arts from the 1960's on, including their medium of expression and research techniques, m music, composers organized groups to perform contemporary music. This new generation of composers has adopted a wider variety of style devices, including polytonality and atonality. The pioneer composer of the new music is Tsang-houei Hsu who was born in 1929 in Changhua, Taiwan. After the completion of his musical studies with Chin-hung Chang and Era-hua Hsaio at the National Taiwan Normal University, he left for Paris in 1954 where he studied music history with Jacques Chailley and composition with Andre Jolivet. After returning to Taiwan in 1959, he devoted himself to the creation of contemporary music and the study of folk music. He founded such musical organizations as the Chinese Composer's Forum, Music Premier, the Chinese Folk Music Research Center, and the Asian Composer's League. He also helped young musicians form such contemporary music organizations as the Chiang Lang Group and the Group of Five in 1963 and 1964, respectively. Tsang-houei Hsu's devotion to both contemporary music and Chinese folk music has influenced his compositional style. His works can be divided into these two stylistic

47 categories of his forty works, five are for piano: fugues, op. 9 ( ) live Episodes, op. 30 ( ) "Jffio Pieces from Chinese Folk Sonas for children, op. 34 (1980): each piece has a subtitle. For Youngsters, op. 35 (1981) SETina for All, op. 36 (1981): this work is a concerto for piano and traditional Chinese orchestra. The first two pieces, though decidedly contemporary in nature, do exhibit Chinese flavor. For example, the Fugues, which consists of three movements: 1. Prelude and Fugue. XI. Fantasia and F^igue, m. Fugue and Toccata, is an integration of the composer's experience with contemporary European music and traditional musical idioms." The Fugue theme takes on a different character in each movement, corresponding somewhat to the character of the prelude, fantasia and toccata. The subject of the first fugue, using twelve notes, presents a very dissonant, contemporary sound, while the subject of the second fugue is based on the pentatonic scale. The last fugue displays the lyrical mood 61. Tsang-houei Hsu, Fugues (Taine-i v«r- «Co., 1970). ipei. Yo-Fu Music Publisher

48 Of the ancient Chinese chin music." The prelude, fantasia 37 and toccata also reveal very distinct characteristics. The prelude depicts the sound of Chinese gongs, which are indicated in the musical notation, m the toccata, the technique of the Chinese lute. pi- pa, is imitated on the piano, thus expressing Chinese flavor. The work represents a delicate blend of contemporary European music and traditional Chinese music, through which the fugue and other forms and processes have found new life (Example 8). Example 8. Tsang-houei Hsu, Toccata from One Night at Hellen s, measures 18-27~ Si The new trends of the 1960's gradually took shape, and greatly affected such fourth generation composers as Maoshuen Chen, Shui-long Ma, and Sung-jen Hsu. These composers have several features in common, viz., (l) they all graduated from music schools in Taiwan and then studied in 62. Ibid.

49 Europe rather than Japan; (2) they adopted various 38 compositional techniques from the Classical to the Impressionistic styles; (3) they each experimented with 20th-century styles of composition in an attempt to create a new Chinese music, but nontheless remained fairly conservative in their approaches to composition; and (4, each blended Western techniques with nationalistic style.«a fifth generation emerged simultaneously with the fourth. Its composers, namely Tei-ho Lai and Loong-hsin, Wu. have the same goals as the last generation-to create contemporary Chinese music. A difference is found, however, for these composers also apply post-world War II techniques, such as electronic devices and modified sound effects. Therefore, different trends in the Chinese school of composition are not developing successively, but rather simultaneously. Although the piano has gained popularity over the last few decades, the total output of music written for it is Still relatively small in comparison to vocal and orchestral works, one reason is the widespread acceptance and prevailing interest in piano music of Western composers, leaving little room for native piano music. This is also 63. Tsang-houei Hsu, The History of New Music in ( aipei: Chinese Music Book House, 1986),~~56~ 64. Ibid.