CITATION OF SOURCES IN EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH.

Transcription

1 CITATION OF SOURCES IN EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH. Introduction It has been observed that student-researchers write research report without relating it to a body of knowledge consulted and without considering that a list of references is a vital element of a report. Such a list includes all relevant works which have been cited by the author or the researcher, and which have been consulted in the introduction, review of literature, research methodology, result and discussion sections of their research\ project report or thesis. A distinction should be made between a list of references and a bibliography. A list of references refers to list of materials cited in the research text, while bibliography is a comprehensive coverage of materials in an area even though this may not have been cited in the text (Osuala, 2001). There are different forms and styles of writing research report in different fields. Such include M. L. A., the Vancouber and the APA formats. APA format is more popular in the social sciences while the Vancouber style seems to be more popular in the Health sciences (Araoye,2003). The style employs by a studentresearcher must be consistent with the format adopted by the faculty. In educational research, APA style citation is favoured. The adoption of APA format in the educational research is premised on the fact that it has been found useful because of its clarity, conciseness and complete objectivity (Abdulkareem, 1995). Unfortunately, many student-researchers claim ignorance of APA format in spite of its usefulness. This chapter, therefore, exposes the students to method of writing references and bibliography using APA format. Sources of References in Educational Research. A researcher is expected to identify, locate and analyse materials containing information related to the research problem of interest. These materials include newspapers, periodicals, abstracts, monographs, research reports, papers presented by eminent scholars, books, the education index, research reports, dissertations or theses. These materials serve as the sources of facts and reference. Many student-researchers do find it difficult to identify, locate and analyse materials relevant to their students because of their inexperience and laziness in research activities. This leads such researchers to waste time searching for references

2 in an unsystematic manner. This may be the reason why research reports by such people are very disorganised and jittery. It is observed that students have difficulty in citing references in educational research. This is because they have no knowledge about APA format or because the students are lazy. Experience has shown that students, even post- graduate students, make references to studies or works that are not relevant or related to their works in their research report. For example in a study on The relationship between teacher s quality and pupil academic performance references to materials on financial flows model on education or leadership styles e.t.c. because they are research report in the same Department is totally irrelevant. Researchers are expected to source for materials relevant and related to their studies beyond their constituency (department, faculty, or college ) or even their geographical area. This is because, studies and research have no boundary or restriction on the basis of department, faculty, institution or geography. Ary, Jacobs & Razavieh (1979) gave a number of sources of related literature in education that can also serve as source of reference in educational research. These include: - Current Index to journals in Education which contain titles, authors and journal citations of journal articles related to education, with annotations where needed. - Resources in Education, which contain abstracts of, research reports and other documents acquired by ERIC clearing houses. - ERIC Microfiche Collection, which contains complete document, the abstracts of which are in Resources in Education. - Education Index. These contain titles, authors, and journal articles related to education. - Readers Guide to Periodical Literature, which contains titles, authors and journal citations of articles in popular journals. - Child Development Abstracts and Bibliography containing abstracts of journal articles in the field of child development. - Exceptional Child Education Resources, containing abstracts of journal articles in Special Education. - Psychological Abstracts. These contain abstracts of journal articles in psychology.

3 - Review of Educational Research, containing review of research topics in education. - Encyclopedia of Educational Research, which contains summaries and evaluation of research in education, published at the end of each decade. - Dissertation Abstracts International, which contains abstracts of doctoral dissertations in the United States and Canada. - Mental Measurement Yearbooks, containing information and evaluations of commercially available tests. - Scales for Measurement of Attitudes. These describe and illustrate attitudinal measures not listed in the Mental Measurement Yearbooks. - Smithsonian Science Information Exchange, containing information retrieval system for work currently in progress. - Social Science Citation Index, containing bibliographic information for cited authors and topics. In addition to these, due to improvement in information technology, Walker (1996) has listed; - Electronic sources as another source of literature. However, many of these sources are not available in the universities in Nigeria because of insufficient fund to procure the needed facilities. Infact, where they are available, most of them are not accessible to students. With the development of information technology via Internet and other sources, it is increasingly becoming easier for students to work. Many studies conducted in Nigeria and else where in the world are now available in many libraries in Nigeria especially now that the government is establishing and developing Virtual libraries and research institutions. Such libraries and institutions include libraries in the Nigerian Universities, Educational Research Centres, Nigerian Educational Research and Development Council, Nigerian Institute of Social and Economic Research, Institute for Policy and Strategic Planning. In spite of this development, many students that are lazy or have poor attitudes to research still find it difficult to identify and locate sources of references in their research work. Students need to be encouraged to cultivate positive attitude to

4 research and reach out for relevant and related sources of reference to their work, and cite these appropriately. Citation of References in Educational Research. It is important for researchers to dully acknowledge materials containing ideas, opinions, postulations, theories and findings of other people by citing them properly at the reference or bibliography section of the research report. Reference citation in text is covered on pages of the publication Mannual of the American Psychological Association-(5 th Edition). In the manual are the guidelines for referring to the works of others in a text. When using APA format, the writer should follow the author- date method in- text citation. In other words, the author last name and the year of publication for the source should appear in the text. When referring to an idea from another work but not directly quoting the material or making reference to an entire book, or article work, one has to make reference to the author and year of publication in the in- text reference. Purdue (2003) stated that when paraphrasing an idea from another work, one has to make reference to the author and year of publication and page number in the in-text reference, but APA guidelines encourage the provision of page number. However, Walker (1996) stated that it is not required. APA guideline requires that when making verbatim quotation from a work, it is necessary to include author s surname, year of publication, and the page numbers for the reference. The following examples are cited using APA format -AbdulKareem (2003) compared full-time and sandwich students performance in teaching practice. or -In a recent study of students performance (Yusuf, 2003), or - In 2003, Okanlawon compared students performance If there is no author to cite, for example, when citing a web page that lists no author, use an abbreviated version of the title of the page in quotation marks to substitute for the name of author as shown bellow:

5 -A similar study was done of students learning to write references ( citation of sources, 2003 ) As a researcher, when citing a work that has no author and no date, use the first few words from the title and add the, then abbreviation n.d. (for no date ). For example, In another study of student and research decision, it was discovered that student succeeded without tutoring ( Tutoring and APA, n.d). When using personal communications, such as messages, or private interviews conducted with another person, it should be referred to in the In-text citation but NOT in the reference list ( Using APA, 2001). To cite a personal communication, the initials and last name of the communicator, the words personal communication, but an exact date should be provided in the body of the paper. For example: A. Y. AbdulKareem claimed that many of his students have difficulties with APA style (personal communication, November 3, 2002). There are certain basic rules guiding citation in the body of a text as provided in the5th edition of the American Psychological Association publication manual. These rules should be followed when using APA format. The rules are as follows: 1.Always capitalise proper noun including author s names. 2 If you referred to the title of a source within the paper, capitalize all words that are four- letter long or greater within the title of a course. E. g, National Policy on Education. -3When capitalizing titles, capitalize both words in a hyphenated compound word. E.g. Post- graduate 4-After a colon or dash in a title, capitalize the first word. E.g Manager: The periscope. 5-Italicize the title of longer works such as books, edited collections, movies, documentaries or albums. 6-Put quotation mark around the titles of shorter workers such as journals, articles, articles from edited collections, television shows, and song titles. 7-If a work has two authors, cite both names every time the reference appears in your text. Join the authors name with the word and if a work has three, four or five authors, cite all the authors the first time you refer to the work in your text. The next time you refer to the work, shorten the citation to the last name of the first author plus

6 the word et al. join the author name with the word and if you are referring to them in the text. Join the authors name with an ampersand (&) if you are referring to them in a parenthetical citation. 8-if a work has six authors (or more), cite only the last name of the first author phis the work et al. Incorporating a Short Quotation Fewer than 40 words. To indicate direct quotation fewer than 40 words in a text, one should enclose the quotation within double quotation marks. The writer should provide the author, year and the specific page(s) citation in the text and a complete reference in the reference list should be included. Punctuation marks such as periods, commas and semi-colons, should appear after the parenthetical citation. Also to appear, include question marks and exclamation point within the quotation marks if they are part of the quotation but after the parenthetical citation if they are a part of your text. Examples: He stated, students often had difficulty using APA style (Yusuf, 2003, p. 199), but he didn t offer an explanation. Or According to Yusuf (2003), students often had difficulty using APA style especially when it was their first time (p.199). Long Quotation To indicate direct quotations longer than 40 words, place the quotation in a free standing block of typewritten lines and omit quotation marks. The quotation should be started on a new line, indented five-spaces from the left margin (writers Handbook, 2003). Type the entire quotation on a new margin and indent the first line of any subsequent paragraph within the quotation five-spaces from the new margin. It should be noted that, the writer should maintain double-spacing through out. The parenthetical citation should come after closing punctuation mark. Example Abdul Kareem s (2003) study found the following: Students often had difficulty using APA style, especially when it was their first time citing sources. This difficulty could be

7 traced to the fact that many students fail to learn APA style or to ask their teacher for help. ( p. 199). Choosing Double or single Quotation mark Using APA (2,003) states that when using quotation that uses quotation marks as a short quotation, it is advised to use single quotation mark to set up the material that was originally enclosed in quotation mark in a block quote and use double quotation mark to set up the material that was originally in the quotation mark. Compiling Reference Lists According to Walker (1996) and Using APA (2003), reference list should appear at the end of the text. It provides the information necessary for a reader to locate and retrieve any source cited in the body of the text. Reference list is the compilation of all references cited in the body of the text (journal articles, student research project, theses or dissertations). Writers are advised not to list references that were never cited in the text of their research reports. It is as unethical style of reporting research. It should be noted that bibliography is wider in scope than references, since references deal with only works that are specifically cited in the report. Reference list should begin on a separate page from the text of the report and should be labelled references or bibliography as the case may be (with no quotation mark, underlining e.t.c.), centred at the top of the page. References should be double-spaced just like the rest of the research report (Using A.P.A.,2003) Walker (2003) listed the following rules that should be followed when listing references 1-Authors names are inverted (last name first); give the last name and initials for all authors of a particular work. 2 -Reference list entries should be alphabetized by the last names of the first author of each work. 3 -If there are more than one article by the same author (s), single-author references or multiple-author references with the exact same authors in the exact same order are listed in order by the year of publication starting with the earliest. For example:

8 AbdulKareem, A.Y (1995). Sources, citation and compilation references in research. In S.A. Jimoh (eds) Research methodology in education: An interdisciplinary approach (pp ), Ilorin: University of Ilorin: Library and Communication Committee. AbdulKareem, A.Y. (1999). Issues in Nigerian education Ilorin: Haytee Press and Publishing Company Nigeria Ltd. When an author appears both as a sole author in another citation as the first author of a book, list the one author entries first as shown in the example provided by (Using APA 2001) Ibrahim, T. O, (1999). Friends influence and. Ibrahim, T. O. & Yusuf, A (1995). Influence of According to Walker (2003), references that have the same first author and different second, or the last name of the third author if the first and second author are the same. For example: Yusuf,A., Ajidagba, U. A., Oniye, O.A., Oladosu, A. G. A. S. & Jekayinfa, A. A. (2003). Attitude of students towards learning: Implication for instruction. Curriculum, Public Policy, 6,129-i39. Yusuf, A., Omosewo, E. O., Idowu, I. O., & Abdulkareem, A.Y., (2003). Work behaviour and students learning behaviour. Ilorin Journal of Education,5, When using more than one reference by the same author (or the same group of authors listed in the same order) published in the same year, the list should be arranged alphabetically by the title of the article or chapter. However, the year of publication should be assigned letter as follows: Fajemidagba, M. O., (1995a), Data analysis technique and procedure. Fajemidagba, M. O.,(1995b). Research design and their statistical implications.. When referring to these publications in a project report one should use the letter suffix with the year so that the reader knows which reference one is referring to For example: Several studies(fajemidagba, 1995a,1995b) have shown that

9 In referencing, use & instead of and when listing multiple authors of a single work. If no author is given for a particular source, begin with and alphabetize by using the title of the work which will be listed in place of the author and use a shortened version of the title for parenthetical citations. For example: Using A.P.A. (2003). Using American Psychological Association format. Personal communication, such as massages or private interview conducted with another person should not be cited in the place because they are not retrievable sources for any one. However reference should be made in this source intext citation. The writing centre 2003 noted that when referring to any work that is NOT a journal, such as book, article or WEB page, capitalize only the first letter of a tittle and subtitle, the word after a colon or the dash in the title, and proper nouns. Do not capitalize the first letter of the second word in a hyphenated compound word. When referring to any work that is in a journal title. do not underline, or put quote around title of shorter works such as journal article or essay in edited collection. Italicize title of order work such as books or journal. Basic Forms for Sources in Print: An article in periodical (e.g., a journal, newspaper, or magazine) Author, A.A., Author, B.B., & Author, C.C. (Year). Title of article. Title of periodical, volume number, pages. According Writing Centre 2003: For a magazine or newspaper article, you need to include specific publication dates (month and day, if applicable) as well as the year. For a journal article, you do not need to include the month or day of publication. See our example below for more explanations. It is also noted that only the volume number if the periodical uses continuous pagination throughout a particular volume. If each issue begins with page 1, then you should list the issue number as well: Title of periodical, volume number (Issue number), pages. Note that the issue number is not italicised. If the journal does not use

10 volume numbers, use the month, season, or other designation within the year to designate the specific journal article. A non-periodical (e.g., book, report, brochure, or audiovisual media) Author, A.A. (Year of publication). Title of work: capital letter also for subtitle. Location: Publisher. Writing Centre (2003) noted that for location you should always list the city, but you should also include the state if the city is unfamiliar or if the city could be confused with one in another state. Part of a non-periodical (e.g., book chapter or an article in a collection) Author, A.A. & Author, B.B. (Year of publication). Title of chapter. in A. Editor and B. Editor (Eds.), Title of book (pages of chapter). Location: publisher.) It should be noted also that when you list the pages of the chapter or essay in parentheses after the book title, use pp. before the numbers: (pp. 1-21). This abbreviation, however, does not appear before the page numbers in periodical references. Basic Forms for Electronic (Internet) sources Article in an internet periodical Author, A.A., & Author, B.B. (Date of publication). Title of article, Title of journal, volume number (issue number if available). Retrieved month day, year, from http: / / web address. Non-periodical internet Document (e.g., a web page or report) Author, A.A. & Author, B.B. (Date of publication). Title of article Retrieved month date, year, from http: / / web address. It should be noted that when an internet document is more than one web page, provide a UFL that links to the home page or entry page for the document. Also, if there isn t a date available for the document use (n.d.) for no date. Part of Non-periodical internet Document Author, A.A., & Author, B.B. (Date of publication). Title of article. In Title of book or larger document (chapter or section number) retrieved from http: / / web address. Basic Forms for Audiovisual Sources

11 A Motion Picture or Video Tape Producer, P..P. (producer), and Director, D.D. (Director). (Date of publication). Title of motion picture [Motion picture]. Count origin: studio or distributor. If a movie or video tape is not available in wide distribution, add the following to your citation after the country of origin: (Available from Distributor name, full address and zip code). A Television Broadcast or Television Series Producer, P..P. (producer). (Date of broadcast or Copyright). Title broadcast(television broadcast or Television series). City or studio or distributor. Basic forms for Audio visual Sources A motion picture videotape. Producer, p.p (producer), & Director, D.D.(Director). (Date of publication. Title of motion picture [motion picture]. Count origin: studio or distributor. If a movie or video tape is not available in the wide distribution, add the following to your citation after the country of origin: ( Available from Distributor name, full address and Zip code). A television broadcast or television series producer, p.p (producer).( Date of broadcast or copyright). Title broadcast (Television broadcast or television series). City or studio or distributor. A single Episode of a television series Writer, W.W.(Writer),& Director, D.D. (Director).(Date of publishing).title of episode (television series episode).in p.producer series title. City of origin: studio or distributor. Songwriter W.W.(Date of copyright). Title of song (recorded by different from song writer). On title of album [medium of record location: label. (Recording date if different from copyright date.

12 The following examples are provided to assist students to understand how to write reference list using the 5 th edition of APA publication manual which provide expanded coverage of the technological advances in publishing. Journal article Yusuf, A. (2002). Inter relationships among academic performance, academic achievement and learning outcomes. Journal of curriculum and Instruction, 6,(1&2) pp Journal article three to six authors Abdul Kareem.A Y., Yusuf, A., Yahaya, L.A., Yusuf, M.O.,Salimon,M.F., & Onasanya, S.A (2003). Influence of globalization on Nigerian educational system. Ilorin Journal of Education, 21, (5)214, Journal article, more than six authors Abdulkareem, A.Y., Durosaro, D.O., Lawal, R.A., Okorie, A. N., Yusuf A., Afolabi,.N.O., et al. (2001):Student difficulty in writing references.ilorinjournal of Education, 65,19-38 Note; the phrase et al. stands for and others. Work discussed in a secondary source. APA (2001) stated that when writing reference list of work discussed in a secondary source it is necessary to give the secondary source in the original work, and give a citation for the secondary source. For example, if Akangbou work is cited in Yusuf, et al., and in the list reference. In the text it can be listed as follows: In Akangbolu studies (cited in yusuf, Abdulkareem, Durosaro, 2003),.. Magazine article, one author Owolabi, W.A (1990, April 9). Improving education in Nigeria. The Tell,21, BOOK, Salami, A.A (1994) Trends and innovation in teacher education in Nigeria. Ilorin: Rubby Prints Production. An article or chapter of a book.

13 Jimoh,A. B (2003 ) Gender role and Nigeria development. In. A. Yusuf, (ed), Gender issues across the life circle (PP 20-35). Iiorin. Tade Publishers. A government publication National Institute of mental health. (1990). Clinical training in mental illness ( DHHS Publication No. ADM ). Washington D.C. Government printing office A brochure Agricultural and Rural Management Training Institute (1999). Guildeline for farm production (4 th ed ) (Brochure). Olawole, O: Author A book or article with no author or editor named The examples as taken from Using APA (2003) New drug appears to sharply cut risk of death from heart failure (1993,July 15). The Washington Post, P.A12. NOTE; For parenthetical citations of sources with no author named, use a shortened version of the title listed of an author s name. Use quotation marks and italics as of the one sources above would appear as follow: ( New Drug,1993). A translated work and / or a republished work Laplace, P. S. (1951). A philosophical essay on probabilities ( F. W. Truscott F. L. Emory, Trans.). New York:Dover. (Original work published 1814) & NOTE: when you cite this work in text, it should appear with dates: Laplace (1814/1951). A review of a book, film, television program, etc. Wasiu, R. F.(1993). Exposing the self-knowledge myth (Review) of the book The self-knower: A hero under control). Contempo Psychology, 38, An entry in an encyclopedia Bergmann, P. G. (1993). Relativity. In The new encyclopedia Britannica ( Vol. 26, pp ).Chicago: Las Press.

14 A print journal or newspaper article retrieved from online database When referencing material obtained from an online database (such as a database in the library), provide appropriate print citation information (formatted just like a normal print citation would be for that type of work). Then add information that gives the date of retrieval and the proper name of the database. This will allow people to retrieve the print version if the do not have access to the database from which you retrieved the article. You can also include the item number or accession number in parentheses at the end, but the APA manual says that this is not required. (For more about citing articles retrieved from electronic databases, see page 278 of the Publication Manual.) Smyth, A. M. Parker, A. & Peas D. L. (2002). A study of enjoys peas. Journal of Abnormal Eating,8(3). Retrieved February 20, 2003 from Psycarticles database. An online journal article Kenneth I. A.( 200). A Buddhist response to the nature of human rights. Journal of Buddhist Ethics, 8(4). Retrieved February 20, 200, from http: // cac. Pus. Edu/ jbe / twocont. Html Chapter or section of online document The Foundation for a Better World. (2000). Pollution and banana Cream pie. In great chefs cook with chlorofluorocarbons and carbon monoxide (chap.3 ). Retrieved July 13, 2001, from hittp :// bamn. Com/ pollution / bananas. htm NOTE: Use a chapter or section identifier and provide a URL that links directly to the chapter section not the home page of the web site. Message posted to an online newsgroup, forum, or discussion group Frook, b.d. (1999, July 23). New inventions in the cyberworld of toylandia [msg 25].Message posted to Note: if only the screen name is available for the author, then use the screen name; however, if the author provides the exact date of the posting, follow the

15 date with the subject line, the thread of the message (not in italics). Provide many identifiers in brackets after the title, as in other types of references. A Motion Picture or Video Tape with international or national availability Smith, J.D. (Producer), & Smithee, A.F. (Director). (2001). Really Big Disaster Movie [Motion picture]. United States: Paramount Pictures. A Motion Picture or Video Tape with limited availability Harris, M. (Producer), & Turley, M.J. (Director). (2002). Writing. A History [Motion picture]. (Available from Purdue university Pictures, 500 Oval Drive, west Lafayette, IN 47907) A Television Broadcast Important, I.M. (Producer). (1990, November 1). The Nightly News [Television broadcast]. New York: Central Broadcasting Service A Television Series Bellsario, D.L. (Producer). (1992). Exciting Action Show. [Television series]. Hollywood: American Broadcasting Company. A Single Episode of a Television Series Wendy, S.W. (Writer), & Martian, I.R. (Director). (1986). The rise and the falling ape. [Television series episode]. In D. Dude creatures and monsters. Los Angels: Belarus Studio. A Music recording Taupin, B. (1975). Someone saved my life tonight [Recorded by Elto On Captain fantastic and brown dirt cowboy [CD]. London: Music Limited. If your particular source is not listed, use the basic forms to determine the correct format, check the publication manual, or consult the APA style website, especially their Frequently Asked Questions about APA Style and their coverage of electronic references. Our additional resources section also has some links to examples and resources. A Note on Notes Because long explanatory notes can be distracting to readers, APA style guidelines recommend the use of endnotes/footnotes. In the text, place a superscript numeral immediately after the text about which you would like to

16 include more information (,e.g., Scientists examined the fossilised remains of the wooly-wooly yak.1 ) Number the notes consecutively in the order they appear in your paper. At the end of the paper, create a separate page labelled Notes (centered at the top of the page).