Notes. 2 Strategic Setting. 1 Introduction

Transcription

1 Notes 1 Introduction 1. Quoted in Friends Not Masters by M. Ayub Khan (Lahore: Oxford University Press, 1967), pp Documents relating to constitutional relations between Britain and India have been published in thirteen volumes. Each volume covers a certain span of time and each document is dated. These volumes were published under the title The Transfer of Power (London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office (hereafter referred to as HMSO ). The editor in chief was Dr Nicholas Mansergh assisted by many editors and assistants including Penderel Moon, David M. Blake and Lionel Carter. This series will hereafter be cited as TP and the appropriate volume number, the document number, date of the document (month and year) and pages will be provided in each case. TP , Document No. 309 June 1947, Vol. 11, HM Minister at Kabul to Government of India pp Lord Mountbatten in!lis personal report No. 14 to the British Government sent the details of results. For details see TP , Document No. 288 July 1947, Vol. 12. Viceroy's personal report No. 14, pp S.M. Burke, Pakistan's Foreign Policy: An Historical Analysis (Karachi: Oxford University Press, 1973), pp See Maj. Gen. Fazal Muqeem Khan, The Story of Pakistan Army (Karachi: Oxford University Press, 1963), pp Also see 'The Formative Phase of Pakistan Armed Forces' by Hasan Askari Rizvi in The Journal of History and Political Science, Vol. 1, No. 1, , pp Also see 'The Indian Army Before and After 1947' by Maj. Gen. Sir Dashwood Strettell in Journal of the Royal Central Asian Society, Vol. 35, 1948, pp Khan, ibid., pp Burke, op. cit., pp Ibid. 9. See Edward A. Kolodziej and Robert E. Harkavy (eds), Security Policies of Developing Countries (Lexington, Mass.: D.C. Heath and Company, 1982), p Ibid., pp For a detailed analysis of vital interests see Bernard Brodie's article on 'Vital Interests: By Whom and How Determined?' in National Security and American Society, edited by Frank N. Trager and Philip S. Kronenberg (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1973), pp See Shahram Chubin, The Nature of Security Problems of Developing Countries: Intra Regional Relations (PSIS Occasional Paper No. 2/84. Graduate Institute of International Studies, Geneva, June 1984), p See 'Pakistan' by Stephen Philip Cohen in Kolodziej and Harkavy, op. cit., pp Strategic Setting 1. See K.M. Panikkar, Problems of Indian Defence (New York: Asia Publishing House, 1960), p

2 184 Notes 2. Ibid. See also Shelton Kodikara, Strategic Factors in Interstate Relations in South Asia Canberra Papers on Strategy and Defence No. 19 (Canberra: The Strategic and Defence Studies Centre, The Australian National University, 1979), p Panikkar, op. cit., p. 26. For a detailed study of sea power's significance, see Alfred Thayer Mahan, The Influence of Sea Power Upon History (New York: Hill and Wang, 1957), pp Panikkar, ibid. 5. Ibid., pp For details see Lome J. Kavic India's Quest for Security: Defence Policies (Berkely and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1967), p Ibid. 8. Ibid. 9. Kodikara, op. cit., p Ibid. 11. See Panikkar, op. cit., p. 23; also see Louis Dupree, Afghanistan (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978), p Leo E Rose, Nepal: Strategy for Survival (Berkely: University of California Press, 1971), p See Kovic, op. cit., pp For an interesting analysis of close border policy which is attributed to Lord Lawrence see Olaf Caroe, The Pathans 550 B.C. -A.D (Karachi: Oxford University Press, 1976), pp For forward policy see Richard Issaq Bruce, The Forward Policy and its Results (Quetta: Gosha-e-Adab, 1977). 15. See Roger Beaumont, Sword of the Raj (New York: The Bobbs-Merrill Company, Inc., 1977), pp See the translation of Prince Gorchakov's Memorandum in W.K. Fraser- Tytler, Afghanistan: A Study of Political Development in Central and Southern Asia, (London: Oxford University Press, 1958), Appendix II, For Lord Roberts see his autobiography entitled Forty one years in India by Field Marshal Lord Roberts of Kandahar (London: Richard Bentley and Son, 1898), pp. vii-x. 17. Yaghistan (the land of the unruly) was the term commonly used not only by the British but also by the rulers of Kabul- the Amir Abdul Rehman used it in his autobiography. See The Life of Amir Abdur Rahman: Amir of Afghanistan, edited by Mir Munshi Sultan Mohammad Khan (London: John Murray, Albemarle Street, 1909), Vol. II, p Through the intermediaries the British official secured written agreements and offered allowances and subsidies to the tribesmen as the price of peace and stability on the borders. Caroe, op. cit., pp Caroe, ibid., p See Beaumont, op. cit., pp Also see Caroe, op. cit., pp Caroe, ibid. 21. Beaumont, op. cit., p Kovic, op. cit., p Ibid. 24. Ibid., p Ibid., p Ibid., p The war office actually worked out a plan to counter perceived Russian attack on Afghanistan. Ibid., pp Also see B. Prashad, Defence of India: Policy and Plans (London: Orient Longmans, 1963), pp

3 Notes See Kovic, ibid., pp Ibid. 30. Ibid., pp See S. Woodburn Kirby, The War Against Japan, Vol. 2 (London: HMSO, 1958), p. xvi. Also cited in Kovic, op. cit., pp Kovic, ibid., pp See also Pannikar, op. cit., pp See 'Armies of the East India Company' by Sir Wolesley Haig in The Cambridge History of India, Vol. 6, edited by H.H. Dodwell (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1932), pp Dumas, the predecessor of Dupleix was the first French official who employed Sepoys. Also see Stringer Lawrence: The Father of the Indian Army by Colonel J. Biddulph (London: John Murray, 1901), p. 13, 'The Indian Army Before and After 1947' by Major General Sir Dashwood Strettell in 'The Journal of the Royal Central Asian Society' Vol. 35, 1948, p See also Sword of the Raj by Roger Beaumont (New York: The Bobbs-Merrill Company, Inc. 1977), p Strettell, op. cit., p The word 'Sepoy' is the anglicised version of a Persian word 'Sipah', meaning an army. 'Sipahi' means a soldier. 36. See Area Handbook For Pakistan, co-authored by R.N. Nyrop, B.L. Benderly, Co. C. Conn, W.W. Cover, M.J. Cutter and N.B. Parker (Washington DC: US Government Printing Office, 1975), pp Ibid., see Col. Biddulph's book on Stringer Lawrence, op. cit. 38. See Tradition Never Dies: The Genesis and Growth of the Indian Army by B.S. Singh (Bombay: Lalvani Publishing House, 1972), pp For example Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan were two good military commanders. See Philip Mason A Matter of Honour (Harmondsworth, U.K.: Penguin Books, 1974), pp , Beaumont, op. cit., pp Indian Military: Its History and Development by S.T. Das (New Delhi: Sager Publications, 1969), p Ibid. Also see Haig, op. cit., pp Ibid. 44. Mason, op. cit., p Area Handbook for Pakistan, op. cit., p. 37. Also Das, op. cit., p. 84. Also see Dodwell, op. cit., pp See The Cambridge Shorter History of India by J. Allan, T.W. Haig and H.H. Dodwell (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1934), pp Also see 'The Mutiny' by T. Rice Holmes in The Cambridge History of India, Vol. 6, op. cit., pp Das, op. cit., p. 89. Mason, op. cit., p See also Sir Wolseley Haig's Chapter on 'The Indian Army ', in Dodwell, op. cit., p Strettell, op. cit., p Singh, op. cit., p Ibid., Haig, Mason. 49. See Mason, op. cit., pp Also see Haig, op. cit., p For details see Mason, op. cit., pp Strettell, op. cit., p Ibid. 53. Area Handbook for Pakistan, op. cit., pp See Strettell, op. cit., pp Area Handbook for Pakistan, op. cit., p See Strettell, op. cit., p Das, op. cit., p. 91.

4 186 Notes 58. Ibid. Also see Strettell, op. cit., p See V. Longer, Red Coats to Olive Green: A History of The Indian Army (Bombay: Allied Publisher, 1974), p Ibid., pp Ibid. 62. Ibid., p See Longer, op. cit., p Also see H.H. Dodwell's Chapter on 'The Relations of the Government of India with Indian States ' in Dodwell, op. cit., p (The Cambridge History of India, Vol. VI). 64. See Kitchener: Portrait of an Imperialist by Philip Magnus (London: John Murray, 1958), pp Also see Soldier, Artist, Sportsman: The Life of General Lord Rawlinson of Trent, edited by Major General Sir Frederick Maurice (New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1928), pp See Longer, op. cit., p Haig, op. cit., p Longer, op. cit., p Ibid., p See also Das, op. cit., pp For an interesting and full account of the Curzon-Kitchener controversy see Longer's chapter on the Kitchener era, op. cit., pp See also Magnus, op. cit., pp Also see Stephen P. Cohen's article on 'Issue, Role and Personality', 'The Kitchener-Curzon Dispute' in Comparative Studies in Society and History, Vol. 10, No.3, April1968, pp Also see Vincent A. Smith The Oxford History of India, revised by Sir Mortimer Wheeler and A.L. Basham (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1958), pp Also see An Advanced History of India, by R.C. Majumdar, H.C. Raychaudhrui, and Kilikinkar Datta, (London: Macmillan, 1953), pp See Haig, op. cit., p Longer, op. cit., p Haig, op. cit., pp Strettell, op. cit., p Ibid. 74. Area Handbook for Pakistan, op. cit., p Also see Smith, op. cit., p See Stephen P. Cohen, The Indian Army (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971), p Ibid. Also see Maurice, op. cit., pp Majumdar et al., op. cit., p See Matlubul Hasan Saiyid Mohammad Ali Jinnah (A Political Study), (Lahore: Saikh Muhammad Ashraf, 1945), pp , , Also Selected Speeches and Statements of Quaid-i-Azam Mohammad Ali Jinnah ( and ), edited by Rafique Afzal (Lahore: Research Society of Pakistan, 1976), pp Majumdar, op. cit., p. 37. Also see Cohen, op. cit., pp Ibid. 81. See Majumdar et al., op. cit., p See the Report: All Parties Conference, Report on the Committee appointed by the Conference to determine the principles of the constitution of India (Allahbad, All India Congress Committee, 1928), pp Also see the Supplementary Report of the Committee, SeeP. Hardy, The Muslims of British India (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1972), p See point No. 11 quoted in Chaudhri Muhammad Ali The Emergence of Pakistan (New York: Columbia University Press, 1967), pp

5 85. Smith, op. cit., p Majumdar et a/., op. cit., p Ibid., pp Ali, op. cit., p Ibid., p. 45. Notes Longer, op. cit., pp TP Document , No. 297 March 5, 1945, Vol. 5. See the enclosure No. 297, pp Ibid. 93. Ibid., pp TP , Document No. 423,27 April, 1945, Vol. 5. Report by the Indian Committee, pp TP , Document No.104 September 11, 1945, Vol. 6. Cabinet Meeting C.M. (45) 30th Conclusions, pp TP , No. 94 and 135: April 7, 1947 and April13, 1947, Vol. 10. Also see TP , Document No. 180: February 25, 1942, Vol. 1, Notes by Major General Lockhart, p TP , Document No. 106, Apri/9, 1947, Vol. 10, Mountbatten's letter to Liaquat Ali Khan, p See Rizvi, op. cit., p TP , Document No.138, Apri/14, 1947, Vo/.10. Recorded Interview between Mountbatten and Auchinleck. pp {) Ibid. Also see TP , Document No. 138, April 14, 1947, Vol. 10. Recorded Interview between Mo3 Staff Meeting, pp TP , Document No. 135, April 13, 1947, Vol. 10. Liaquat, second letter to Mountbatten, pp TP , Document No. 215, April25, 1947, Vol. 10. Paper 2 Remarks by H.M. Defence, pp Ibid. See also TP , Document No. 401, May 10, 1947, Vol. 10, Lord Ismay, telegram to Mountbatten, p However, even Baldev Singh announced that the armed forces would be divided if India were partitioned. This announcement came on 2 May See The Statesman, 26 May Ibid TP , Document No. 221, April 25, 1947, Vol. 10, Defence Committee India Minutes of Third ( 47) Meeting, pp Ali, op. cit., p The Statesman, 17 June Rizvi, op. cit., p. 29. Also see TP , Document No. 210, June 15, 1947, Vol. 11, Enclose 2 to No. 210 C-in-C Paper No. 1/47, 11 June 1947, pp TP , Document No. 54 June 3, 1947, Vol. 11, Mountbatten to Sir F. Burrows, p TP , Document No. 416, May 12, 1947, Vol. 10, Chiefs of Staff Committee C.O.S. (47) 62nd Meeting pp TP , Document No. 41, July 9, 1947, Vol. 12, Chiefs of Staff Committee C.O.S. (47) 86th Meeting Minutes 2, pp Also see The Statesman, 2 July Ali, op. cit., p Source: TP , Document No. 416, June 30, 1947, Vol. 11, Meeting of Partition Council Case No. P.C. 7/2/47, p Also see Rizvi, op. cit., pp. 30-1, Longer, op. cit., pp The Statesman, 12 July TP , Document No. 425, August 11, 1947, Vol. 12, Notification of the Governor General's Order, pp See also Ali, op. cit., p Also see

6 188 Notes selected Documents on Asian Affairs Series, India I947-50, Vol. I, International Affairs, edited by S.L. Poplai (Bombay: Oxford University 1959), pp Ibid Fazal Muqeem Khan, op. cit., p A third tactic was to launch a wave of systematic attacks against Auchinleck as the Indian leaders saw their strategy endangered by his honesty. See Ali, op. cit., p See the letters written to Mountbatten by Nehru and P. Patel. TP I942-47, Document No. 247, July 26, I947, Vol. I2. Also Nehru's letter to Mountbatten, pp See TP , Document No. 312, August 2, 1947, Vol. 12, Patel's letter to Mountbatten, pp See John Connell, Auchinleck (London: Cassell, 1959), pp Ibid., pp Fazal Maqeem Khan, op. cit., pp Ali, op. cit., p Sardar Patel was once a close friend of Auchinleck but after partition he became not only the most vociferous critic of Auchinleck but also openly challenged his impartiality and integrity. See Muqeem Khan, op. cit., p. 33. Again it seems particularly strange that Auchinleck was too hopeful about the Indian officers despite the fact that intelligence reports had given him a somewhat sceptical picture about the reliability of Indian officers. Perhaps he thought that he himself had done so much for their uplifting and, perhaps, in gratitude, they would stand by him. See TP , Document No. 186, May 3, 1948, Vol. 13. Enclosure to No. 86 Director of Intelligence Report pp Fazal Maqeem Khan, op. cit., p. 40. Also see Das, op. cit., p TP , Document No. 80, August 30, 1945, Vol. 6. Cabinet Paper C.P. (45), 137, p TP , Document No. 297, March 5, 1945, Vol. 5, Field Marshal Viscount Wavell to M.R. Amery. See Enclosure to No. 297, Proposal, for the future officering of the Royal Indian Navy, Indian Army and Indian Air Force, pp TP , Document No. 159, June 12, 1947, Vol. 11. Auchinleck of Mountbatten, pp TP , Document No. 312, June 23, 1947, Vol. 11. Note by Auchinleck - Partition Committee Paper Rizvi, op. cit., p See TP , Document No. 564, July 7, 1947, Vol. 11. India and Burma Committee LB. (47), 41st Meeting pp TP , Document No. 335, June 24, 1947, Vol. 11. Mountbatten to Earl of Listowel, pp Ibid TP , Document No. 511, July 4, 1947, Vol. 11. Mountbatten to Earl of Listowel, pp Ibid Longer, op. cit., p Ali, op. cit., p M.A.K. Azad, India Wins Freedom (Calcutta: Orient Longman, Green, 1960), p Such optimism continued to be displayed by important Congress leaders like Sardar V.B. Patel and Acharya Kriplani who stated respectively that 'neither

7 Notes 189 the Congress nor the nation has given up its claims of a united India'. Quoted in M. Ayub Khan, op. cit., p To assess Nehru's feelings see also Leonard Mosley, The last Days of the British Raj (London: Weidenfeld and Nicholson, 1961), p Ali, op. cit., pp Russell Brines, The Indo Pakistani Conflict (London: Pall Mall Press, 1968), pp G.W. Choudhury, Pakistan's Relations with India I (London: Pall Mall Press, 1968), pp 'The violence has been organized from the highest levels of Sikh leadership and it is being done systematically' wrote The Times, 25 August Also see, the Daily Mail, 9 September 1947; Ali, op. cit., pp ; Choudhury, op. cit., pp Also see Sir E. Jenkins (the Governor of Punjab) Communication to Lord Mountbatten TP , Document No. 109, 9 April1947, Vol. 10. Jenkins to Mountbatten, pp TP , Document No. 45, June 3, 1947, Vol. 11. Statement of 3 June 1947, pp Also see Ali, op. cit., p See Keesings Contemporary Archives, Vol. VI, , June 21-28, 1947 (Bristol: Keesing's Publications Limited), p Ibid Keesings Contemporary Archives, op. cit., June 28-July 5, 1947, p Ali, op. cit., p. 204; Choudhury, op. cit., p. 53. Also see Alan Campbell Johnson, Mission with Mountbatten (London: Robert Hale, 1953), p Ali, op. cit., p Ibid Richard Symonds, The Making of Pakistan (London: Faber, 1949), p. 85. Also see Ali, op. cit., pp Keesings Contemporary Archives, op. cit., June 28-July 5, 1947, p Muhammad Zafrullah Khan, Servant of God (Surrey: Unwin Brothers, 1983), pp Brines, op. cit., p. 43. Also see Ali, op. cit., p Choudhury, op. cit., p Choudhury, ibid Ali, op. cit., p Ibid Ibid., pp Ibid., p Campbell-Johnson, op. cit., pp Also see Ali, Ibid Lord Ismay, Memoirs (London: Heinemann, 1960), p. 42. Also see Ali, op. cit., p Ian Stephens, Pakistan (London: Ernest Benn, 1963), p Also quoted in Ali, op. cit., p The Hindu, 16 January TP , Document No. 487, August 16, 1947, Vol. 12. Minutes of a meeting between Mountbatten and representatives of India and Pakistan, pp Also see The Times, August 1947; The Pakistan Times, 19 August Donald N. Wilber, Pakistan: Yesterday and Today (New York: Hold Rinehart and Winston Inc., 1964), p Choudhury, op. cit., pp L.F. Rushbrook Williams, The State of Pakistan (London: Faber and Faber 1962), p. 48.

8 190 Notes 165. The Times, 19 August Also see Ali, op. cit., pp Choudhury, op. cit., p Lord Birdwood, A Continent Decides (London: Robert Hale, 1953), pp and Two Nations and Kashmir (London: Robert Hale, 1956), p Ali, op. cit., Also see Stephen, op. cit., p. 176; Choudhury, op. cit., p Government of India Records, quoted in Mosley, op. cit., p Also see Ali, op. cit., p Ali, ibid Ibid., p Ibid., pp Zafrullah Khan, op. cit., p The Pakistan Times, 22-24June Also see Choudhury, op. cit., pp Ibid The Times, 18 August Also see The Pakistan Times, 19 August TP , Document No. 487, August 16, 1947, Vol. 12, pp Mohammad Ali Jinnah: Speeches As Governor-General (Karachi: Pakistan Publications, 1963), pp Ali, op. cit., p Ibid., p Ibid J.B. Das-Gupta, Indo-Pakistani Relations (Amsterdam: Djambatan, 1960), p Ibid Ali, op. cit., p Das-Gupta, op. cit., pp Also see Ali, ibid Sir Percival Griffith, Modern India (London/New York: Benn/Praeger 1965), p Stephen, op. cit., p Also see Choudhury, op. cit., p Burke, op. cit., p. 13. Also see Choudhury, op. cit., p Das-Gupta, op. cit., p Ibid Ibid. Also see Dawn, 9 January 1948; Burke, op. cit., p. 13; Choudhury, op. cit., p The Statesman, 13 January Choudhury, op. cit., p Ibid Ali, op. cit., p D.G. Tendulkar, Mahatma (8 volumes, New Delhi: Government of India, ), Vol. 8, p The Times, 16 January The Statesman, 16 January Das-Gupta, op. cit., p Ibid Tendulkar, op. cit., pp. 252, Kewal L. Panjabi, The Indomitable Sardar (Bombay:,Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1962), p Also see Burke, op. cit., pp Choudhury, op. cit., p. 60; Ali, op. cit., p Ali, ibid Choudhury, op. cit., p John Connell, Auchinleck (London: Cassell, 1959), p Ibid., pp Quoted also in Ali is part of the report which Auchinleck sent to the British Government. See Ali, op. cit., pp

9 Notes Dawn, 13 November Ibid Connel, op. cit., p India News, 20 November Burke, op. cit., pp See Sir Mohammed Zafrullah Khan's speech at the Security Council Official Records, Third Year Nos (Meetings ). Quoted in Choudhury, op. cit., p Fazal Muqeem Khan, op. cit., p The Times, 1 August Choudhury, op. cit., p Ibid., pp Ali, op. cit., pp Choudhury, op. cit., p 'Another Korea in the Making' by David E. Lilienthal in Colliers Magazine, No. 4, August Quoted in Pakistan News, 8 September Also quoted in Choudhury, op. cit., p Ali, op. cit., pp Choudhury, op. cit., p David Lilienthal toured the region extensively and on his return wrote an article in which he suggested that the ongoing unnecessary controversy could be resolved by common sense and engineering to the benefit of the people who live by the waters of the Indus River provided both Indians and Pakistanis jointly work towards this end and the World Bank undertakes to assist in financing the necessary work. See the Press Release No. 650 of International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, Washington DC, September Burke, op. cit., p Choudhury, op. cit., p For details see A.A. Michel, The Indus Rivers (Princeton, N.J: Yale University Press, 1967), p The number of states vary from one source to another, some put the number at 600, others quote 562. What I have done is to put the average number. See Report of the India Statutory Commission, Vol. 11, Government of India, Command 3568 of 1930, p Also see Choudhury, op. cit., p. 65 (who puts the number at 562); Ali, op. cit., p. 222 (who puts the figure also at 562) The Times, 20 January Burke, op. cit., p Ibid. Also see Choudhury, op. cit., p. 66; Ali, op. cit., pp Stephen, op. cit., p Ali, op. cit., p Ibid., pp Ali mentions the case of Travancore which opted for independence and how Mountbatten managed to bring about the accession. By contrast he did nothing for Pakistan, although as a Crown representative he owed an equal duty to both the dominions. In many disputed cases he threw his weight in favour of India. See Ali, ibid., pp The Maharaja of Jodhpur also expressed his wish to join Pakistan but Mountbatten warned him that his subjects, being predominently Hindu, would seriously oppose it and the accession would surely be in conflict with the principle underlying the partition of India on the basis of Muslim and non-muslim majority areas. As a

10 192 Notes result of Mountbatten's efforts Jodhpur joined India eventually. See V.P. Menon, The Story of Integration of the Indian States (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1957), pp Choudhury, op. cit., p. 66; Ali, op. cit., pp ; Stephen, op. cit., p Lord Mountbatten, Time Only to Look Forward (London: Nicholas Kaye, 1949}, p Ali, op. cit., p The Pakistan Times, 25 September Also see Choudhury, op. cit., p Talukas were estates owned by landlords having special privileges. All of those were under the feudatory control of Junagadh- Choudhury, ibid., pp The Times, 8 October Security Council Official Records Nos , 64, 1948, quoted in Choudhury, op. cit., p. 69. Also see Dawn, 7 October Choudhury, ibid., p The Times, 10 October Choudhury, op. cit., p In fact, a battalion of Indian troops, with few medium tanks, entered the Junagadh city, and took over the administration. See The Times, 10 November Also see Ali, op. cit., p Ibid Quoted in Choudhury, op. cit., p. 73. Also see 'The Rape of Junagadh' in Dawn, 12 November The New York Times, 11 October 1948; Manchester Guardian, 21 October 1947; Dawn, 9 October Ali, op. cit., p Ibid., pp Also see Stephen, op. cit., p Burke, op. cit., p See TP , Document No. 135, October 9, 1945 Vol. 6, Field Marshal Viscount Wavell's communication to Lord Patrick Lawerence, pp Also see Security Council's Official Records No. 29, The Times, 20 April The Times, 10 October Also see 22 November For details of the agreement see the actual agreement in India : Selected Documents on Asian Affairs, edited by S.L. Poplai, Vol. 1, Internal affairs (Bombay: Oxford University Press, 1959}, pp Ali, op. cit., p Also see Menon, op. cit., p See Mountbatten's letter in Poplai, op. cit., pp The Times, 28 July Quoted in Ali, op. cit., p Choudhury, op. cit., p Ali, op. cit., p Anthony Eden said that 'India has committed a flagrant and inexcusable breach of its own agreement' and regarded the invasion as 'an act of aggression'. The Times thought India had violated the moral principles upon which the hopes of the international community rested - The Times, 16 September Choudhury op: cit., pp Sisir Gupta, Kashmir (London: Asia Publishing House, 1966}, p Burke, op. cit., p Campbell-Johnson, op. cit., p Ali, op. cit., p Ibid.

11 Notes Ibid In viceroy's personal report, Mountbatten wrote that both Nehru and Gandhi were pathological on the subject of the states and both insisted that they wanted to get to Kashmir. Mountbatten preferred Gandhi's visit over Nehru's as he regarded Gandhi as very much the lesser evil and consequently arranged only Gandhi's visit to Kashmir. See TP , Documeni No. 369, June 27, 1947, Vol. 11. Viceroy's personal report No. 10, pp Ali, op. cit., p Prem Nath Bazaz, The History of Struggle for Freedom in Kashmir (New Dehli: Kashmir Publishing Co. 1954), p Birdwood, Two Nations and Kashmir, op. cit., p According to Prime Minister Banerjee, Maharaja Hari Singh had no sympathy with the Muslim wants or grievances. See William C. Johnston's chapter on 'Jammu and Kashmir ' in Challenge and Response in Internal Conflict, edited by D.M. Condit, Best H. Cooper Jr. and others (Washington DC: Centre for Research in Social Systems, The American University, 1968), p See The Pakistan Times, 6 September 1947 and 7 September Also see Stephen, op. cit., p RSSS (Rashtriya Swayam Sevak Sangh), INA (Indian National Army, the Japanese supported guerrilla force organised during the Second World War by Subhash Chandra Bose). See Birdwood, A Continent Decides, op. cit., p Bazaz, op. cit., p Johnston, op. cit., pp Ibid., p See Josef Korbel 'New Hopes for Kashmir', in Foreign Policy Bulletin, Vol. 34, 1 March 1955, p This figure is on the maximum side- Johnston, op. cit., p 'The Commonwealth Conference and the Kashmir Imbroglio' in Foreign Affairs, No. 30., February 1951, p See Jawaharlal Nehru, Independence and After: A Collection of Speeches (New York: The John Day Company, 1950), pp K. Sarwar Hasan (ed.), Documents on the Foreign Relations of Pakistan, The Kashmir Question (Karachi: Pakistan Institute of International Affairs, 1966), p Johnston, op. cit., p Choudhury, op. cit., p Mr Philip Price writing in Manchester Guardian, 11 November 1948 stressed non-involvement of Pakistan, quoted in Choudhury, op. cit., p. 96. Mr J. Spain is of the opinion that Jinnah wanted absolutely clean hands, the Government of Pakistan did not know anything about the tribal invasion and were not really involved in its organisation. In fact, when they came to know about it, Jinnah even tried to stop them- interview with James Spain Ibid., Choudhury Ali, op. cit., p See Sir William Barton's article 'Pakistan's Claims to Kashmir' in Foreign Affairs, January Also see Ali, op. cit., p See 'The Kashmir Conflict' by Alice Thorner in The Middle East Journal, Vol. 3, No. 1, January 1949, pp Interview with James Spain Burke, op. cit., p Ibid The Times, 25 October The Times, 28 October 1947.

12 194 Notes 295. Ibid See The Times, 3 November Also The Pakistan Times, 4 November Ali, op. cit., p Ibid Burke, op. cit., pp. 27-K 300. Nehru, op. cit., pp Choudhury, op. cit., p The Statesman, 5 January The treaty revealed that India would not only build a communication network from Pathankot to Jammu but also agreed to station its troops at Gilgit. In addition, India would also build new airfields at strategic points and station its airforce in the state. See The Daily Telegraph, 7 October Also see Daily Mail, 7 October 1947 and The Pakistan Times, 13 September The Pakistan Times had already referred to the Dehli-5rinagar axis much before the discovery of the secret treaty Choudhury, op. cit., p Lord Birdwood, The Two Nations and Kashmir, op. cit., p Josef Korbel, Danger in Kashmir (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1954), pp Documents relating to foreign affairs of the United States are now published up to Each volume covers a certain area and time span. These documents are published under the title of Foreign Relations of the United States. Each volume carries its number and the years it covers. These volumes were published by the US Government Printing Office in Washington DC. This series would be hereafter referred to as FRUS with volume and year specified. See FRUS, 1947, Vol. Ill, Grady to Secretary of State, 8 November 1947, pp See Ali, op. cit., p Ibid Choudhury, op. cit., p Ali, ibid., pp Foreign Affairs, No. 30, February 1951, p Quoted in Ali, op. cit., p See Dawn, 6 November Also see The Times, 31 October The Times, 10 November Choudhury, op. cit., p Ali, op. cit., p The Times, 13 January Ibid Ibid Ibid., 19 January Ibid Burke, op. cit., p Zafrullah Khan, op. cit., p Choudhury, op. cit., p Zafrullah Khan, op. cit., p Ibid Manchester Guardian, 6 March Choudhury and Burke have both given details of this episode. Burke believes that there is sufficient circumstantial evidence to support this contention. Mountbatten through Gordon Walker, Under Secretary of State, influenced the British Government. See Burke, op. cit., pp. 30-1; Choudhury, op. cit., p. 110; Zafrullah Khan, op. cit., p Choudhury, op. cit., pp

13 Notes Ibid For details of exact physical locations and the nature of topographical terrain see Dr Kazi S. Ahmad, A Geography of Pakistan (Karachi/Lahore: Oxford University Press, 1964), pp The terms 'borders' and 'boundary' are synonymously used here. See J.R.V. Prescott Political Geography (London: Methuen and Co. Ltd., 1972), p For details see Norman J.G. Pounds Political Geography (New York: McGraw Hill Book Company, Inc., 1963), pp Also see Prescott, op. cit., pp See Mujtaba Razvi, The Frontiers of Pakistan (Karachi: National Publishing House Ltd., 1971), pp Also see Prescott, op. cit., p. 63 and Pounds, op. cit.' pp Pounds, op. cit., p Ibid. Also see Razvi, op. cit., p. 5. Also see Lord Curzon of Kedlestan Frontiers (The Romanes Lecture, 1907), (London: Oarendon Press, 1907), p The terms 'delimitation' and 'demarcation' were introduced by Sir Henry McMahon who himself was directly involved in the delimitation of the boundary between India and Tibet. See 'International Boundaries' by Sir Henry McMahon in Journal of the Royal Society of Arts (London), Vol. 84, 1935, pp It needs to be mentioned that maps are not regarded as very reliable evidence of political boundaries by many international lawyers and geographers. A cartographer can make mistakes because of inadequate surveying or dictates of rulers could introduce involuntary distortions. See Razvi, op. cit., p Pounds, op. cit., p Prescott, op. cit., p Ahmad, op. cit., p The boundary line is named after Sir Mortimer Durand, the leader of the British Indian Boundary team that negotiated the agreement with the then Amir of Afghanistan, Amir Abdurrahman. For details see Sir Percy Sykes, Sir Mortimer Durand: A Biography (Lahore: Al-Biruni, 1977 (Reprint), pp Also see The Life of Abdur Rahman, Amir of Afghanistan (autobiography), edited by Sultan Mohammad Khan (London: John Murray, 1900), Vol. II, pp See The Life of Amir Abdur Rahman, op. cit., Vol. II, pp Ibid., p Ibid Ibid Ibid Ibid., pp Also see Burke, op. cit., p Ibid., Amir Abdur Rahman, p Also see Ludwig W. Adamac Afghanistan, (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1967), p Ibid Ibid., pp Burke, op. cit., p For details of agreement, see Adamac, op. cit., pp Also see Sykes, op. cit., p See Amir Abdur Rahman, op. cit., p Ibid., pp See Sykes, op. cit., p Also see Amir Abdur Rahman, op. cit., pp , For relevant extracts of various treaties see Caroe, op. cit., pp Sykes, op. cit., pp Also see Caroe, op. cit., pp

14 196 Notes 359. See D.P. Singhal India and Afghanistan : A Study in Diplomatic Relations (St Lucia, Queensland: University of Queensland Press, 1963), pp See 'Political Problems of a Borderland' by James W. Sapin in Pakistan's Western Borderlands, ed. by Ainslie T. Embree (Karachi: Royal Book, 1979), pp See Sir William Barton, India's North-West Frontier (London: John Murray, 1939), pp See Alastair Lamb: Asian Frontier: Studies in Continuing Problem (New York: Frederick A. Prager, 1968), pp Broadly speaking the British policy towards the North West Frontier can be classified into two categories: close border policy and forward policy. From the time of the British annexation of Punjab up to the outbreak of the second Afghan War is often termed as a period in which close border policy was practised. The supporters of close border schools were advocating that the British should avoid taking on the responsibility of direct administrative control and defence of the territory beyond Indus. Compared to the close border school, the exponents of forward policy were promoting an aggressive policy bringing all the frontier tribes under one authority and pushing the border up to the Hindukush range. The period between the second Afghan War to the creation of the North West Frontier Province is generally regarded as a forward policy period. Three reasons account for the success of the forward policy: 1) Russian advances in Central Asia; 2) in each decade the supporters of close border were few and much less influential than those advocating forward policy; 3) lack of strong central authority among the tribesmen. For details of various schools and especially the forward policy school see Richard Issaq Bruce, The Forward Policy and its Result (Quetta: Gosha-e- Adad, 1977), a reprint. The book was originally published by Longmans, Green and Co. in London in Also see Philip Woodruff, The Men Who Ruled India: The Guardians (London: Jonathan Cape, 1954), pp Also see A.B. Awan, Baluchistan: Historical and Political Processes (London: New Century Publishers, 1985), pp Also see 'Historical Setting' by Surjet Mansingh in Pakistan: A Country Study, edited by Richard F. Nyrop (Washington: US Government, 1984), p. 20; Caroe, op. cit., pp , ; Barton, op. cit., pp. 1-7, 56-82; Lamb, op. cit., pp ; Singhal, pp See Lamb, op. cit., p. 80. Also see Singhal, op. cit., pp , 365. See Caroe, op. cit., pp Ibid., pp While it is true that Amir Abdur Rahman expressed his satisfaction over the Durand Line Agreement of 1893, he did not like the fact that the tribes of Yagistan were placed on the eastern side of the line. During the succeeding years the hill tribesmen undertook innumerable raids on the British territory. It was a known fact that often these tribes were encouraged by the Kabul Government. See Barton, op. cit., pp Also see Singhal, op. cit., pp Barton, op. cit., pp Ibid No fewer than 50 such expeditions were mounted against these tribesmen between See Newsweek, 5 June Alan Campbell-Johnson called this situation a 'bastard situation'. What he

15 Notes 197 really meant was that the Congress Ministry was still in power in a Province where more than 90 per cent of the population was Muslim and the majority of the people, by 1947, had gone over to the Muslim League. See Alan Campbell-Johnson, Mission with Mountbatten (London: Robert Hale, 1951), pp. 54 and 74. Also see Burke, op. cit., p See TP , Document No. 395, June 29, 1947, Vol. 11, Telegram from Government of India to Secretary of State, p See Ali, op. cit., pp Azad, op. cit., pp Despite the fact that Nehru once admitted to Mountbatten quite candidly that NWFP could not possibly stand by itself, the Congress Committee in the NWFP and the Khudai Khidmatgars or Red Shirts passed a resolution that a 'Free Pathan State of all Pakhtoons be established'. Quoted in Ali, op. cit., pp Also see Mosley, op. cit., p Also see Pyaralal, Mahatma Gandhi: The Last Phase (Ahmadabad; Navajivian Publishing House, 1956), Vol. II, p M.K. Gandhi tried very hard to detach the NWFP from Pakistan but the facts of geography, the logic of the situation and the will of the people proved too strong for him. He even charged Nehru for 'being largely, responsible for the situation in regard to referendum'. See Ali, op. cit., pp TP , Documents No. 140, June 11, 1947, Vol. 11, Telegram from H.M. Minister to Secretary of State, pp TP , Document No. 212, June 16, 1947 Vol. 11, Telegram from Secretary of State to H.M. Minister at Kabul. TP , Document No. 272, June 20, 1947, Vol. 11, Telegram from Secretary of State to H.M. Minister at Kabul. PT , Document No. 309, June 23, 1947, Vol. 11, Telegram from H.M. Minister at Kabul to Government of India TP , Document No. 395, June 29, 1947, Vol. 11, op. cit., p Also see TP , Document No. 493 July 4, 1947, Vol. 11, Minutes of Indian Cabinets meeting held on 4 July 1947, p See Burke, op. cit., pp Ibid. Also see H.V. Hodson, The Great Divide (Karachi: Oxford University Press, 1969), pp TP , Document No. 108, June 9, 1947, Vol. 11, Minutes of Viceroy's Fortieth Staff Meeting, p TP , Document No. 126, June 19, 1947, Vol. 11, Minutes of Viceroy's Forty First Staff Meeting, p Burke, op. cit., p Valid votes for Pakistan Valid votes for Hinustan (India) Majority Percentage of valid votes of electorate entitled to vote was 50.99% Total electorate entitled to vote in referendum was Percentage of the votes favouring Pakistan out of the total eligible votes was 50.49%. See TP , Document No. 228, July 25, 1947, Vol. 12. Viceroy's Personal Report No. 14, p Burke, op. cit., p. 71. Also see TP , Document No. 349, August 5, 1947, Vol. 12. Government of India, External Affairs and Commonwealth Relations Department to H.M. Minister at Kabul, pp Ibid., Burke, p Spain, op. cit., pp

16 198 Notes 388. See the 'Frontier Policy of Pakistan' in Quaid-i-Azam Mohammad Ali Jinnah, Speeches As Governor General of Pakistan (Karachi: Government of Pakistan, 1963), pp Ibid. Also see Sapin, op. cit., pp. 4-5; The Times, 6 March See 'Strategic Frontiers of India and Pakistan' by William C. Johnstone in Foreign Policy Bulletin, 1 January 1955, pp Quoted in 'Pakistan's Imperial Legacy' by Ainslie T. Embree in Pakistan's Western Borderlands, op. cit., pp , Ibid TP , Document No. 348, August 5, 1947, Vol. 12, Mr Bevin to Sir G. Squire (Kabul)., p Ibid TP , Document No. 385, August8, 1947, Vol. 12, Viceroy's Personal Report No. 16, p Ibid Razvi, op. cit., p Kazi, op. cit., p Lamb, op. cit., p Ibid., pp See Hugh Tinker, The Union of Burma (London: Oxford University Press, 1959), p Razvi, op. cit., p Ibid Ibid., pp Ibid., p See 'Pakistan's Relations with the Major Powers and some Minor Agreement' by W.M. Dobell in Pacific Affairs, Winter , pp Also see The Statesman, 27 April Also quoted in Razvi, op. cit., pp Mohammad Ali Bogra, who was Pakistan's Ambassador to Burma at the time, said that 'even if the Burmese Government succeed in suppressing the communists, it is possible they may shift the centre of communist efforts to Pakistan.' Quoted in Razvi, ibid., p Ibid Ibid., p Also see Dawn, 7 July Ibid., p See 'Ramifications of the China-Pakistan Border Treaty' by W.M. Dobell in Pacific Affairs, Fall 1964, p Razvi, op. cit., p Dobell, op. cit., p See 'Pakistan and China: The Scope and Limits of Convergent Policies' by Khalid B. Sayeed in A.M. Halpern (ed.), Policies Towards China: Views from Six Continents (New York: McGraw Hill, 1965), p See G.W. Choudhury, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and the Major Powers (New York: The Free Press, 1975), p Sayeed, op. cit., p. 234; Razvi, op. cit., pp Dobell, op. cit., p Sayeed, op. cit., p See Choudhury, op. cit., p Also see Survey of China Mainland Press, No. 1440, 31 December 1956, p. 20. Also see Razvi, op. cit., p For details see H.C. Hinton, Communist China in World Politics (Washington: The George Washington Institute for the Defence Analysis, 1965), p Also see Razvi, op. cit., pp

17 Notes Dawn, 10 March See Ayub Khan op. cit., pp Also see Choudhury, op. cit., pp The Statesman, 5 May 1959; The Daily Telegraph, 24 October 1959; The Observer, 18 August See 'China as a factor in Indo-Pakistani Politics' by S.P. Seth in World Today, January 1969, pp Ibid Ibid., p. 41. Also see Sayeed, op. cit., p For details see Anwar Hussain Syed China and Pakistan: Diplomacy of an Entente Cordiale (Karachi: Oxford University Press, 1974), pp Also see Sayeed, op. cit., pp Razvi, op. cit., p See A.H. Dani's Article on 'Gilgit Scout Wins the Battle of Freedom' in The Muslim, 2 November Lamb, op. cit., p Also see The Muslim, November See 'The Asian Frontiers of Kashmir' by Lord Birdwood in Royal Central Asian Journal, July-October 1952, Vol. XXXIX, pp Also see Lord Birdwood Two Nations and Kashmir (London: Robert Hale, 1956), p The Muslim, op. cit Ibid Ibid Ibid Ibid Ibid Ibid Ibid A Tanzim-i-Sarfaroshan was secretly set up whose membership was deliberately kept on the low side. It was through this Tanzim that the people all over the region were kept fully informed about the developments. A plan was devised by the leaders of Gilgit Scouts, Tanzim leaders and Captain Hasan Khan of Kashmir Army to overthrow the Governor on 6 November News of the plot was leaked and the Governor took immediate action by ordering Colonel Majid Khan to send forces from Bunji on 31 October Sensing the danger Babar Khan consulted the Gilgit Scouts and took immediate action by pushing back the 'D' day from 6 November to the night of 31 October, and arrested the Governor at about 8.00 p.m. on 1 November. The very same day the Kashmir flag was lowered and Pakistan's flag was hoisted and a request was sent to Pakistan to take over- Ibid See 'The Sino-Pakistan Border: Historical Aspect' by Zabeida Mustafa in Pakistan Horizon, Vol. XXV, No. 2, second quarter 1972, pp Ibid., p Ibid., p. 43. Also see Dohel, op. cit., p Ayub Khan, op. cit., pp Also see Razvi, op. cit., p Mustafa, op. cit., pp Ibid., p See the Debates of the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan (Legislature), Vol. 1, No. 8, 19 March 1953, p Some writers even asserted that defects in British planning resulted in such failures. See Lamb, op. cit., p See Lars Blinkenberg, India-Pakistan: The History of Unsolved Conflicts (Copenhagen: Dansk Udenrigspolitisk Institute, 1972), p Justice Din Muhammad went to see Jinnah in order to secure his consent to

18 200 Notes resign from the Boundary Commission. He informed Jinnah that Radcliffe had already settled in his mind the line of demarcation of the boundary which was seriously prejudicial to Muslim interests. But Jinnah refused to give the desired permission. See Zafrullah Khan op. cit., p Jinnah referred to the award as unjust, incomprehensible and even perverse but asserted that as honourable people it had to be accepted because of the prior commitment to the Boundary Commission. See Mohammad Ali Jinnah Speeches As Governor General of Pakistan , op. cit., 1963, p. 12. See also Choudhury, op. cit., p Lamb, op. cit., pp One writer is of the opinion that Radcliffe took into consideration the complicated water canal system while deciding the division of Punjab. See Blinkenberg, op. cit., p Lamb, op. cit., p Razvi, op. cit., p For details see Razvi, op. cit., pp See Ian Stephens, Horned Moon (London: Chatto and Windus, 1953), p. 33. Also see Dawn, 18 March Burke, op. cit., pp Lamb, op. cit., p. 98. Also see Razvi op. cit., pp. 55-8, Razvi, op. cit., p Ibid., pp. 7~ Ibid., pp Ibid., p See Woodruff, op. cit., p Also see Awan, op. cit., pp Ibid., Woodruff, p. 143; Awan, p By skilful moves Sandeman was able to extend British influence over the entire Baluchistan. His system rested on the occupation of central points in Kalat and tribal territory in considerable force, linking them together by the fair-weather roads, and leaving the tribes to manage their own affairs according to their customs and working through their Chiefs and Maliks. In many ways the system was described as one of indirect rule. See Caroe, op. cit., p Also see Thomas Henry Thornton, Sir Robert Sandeman: His Life and Work (London: John Murray 1895), p. 94. Sandeman's achievements were greatly appreciated by his British colleagues like Sir Mortimer Durand. See Durand's letter to Lord Roberts, quoted in Sykes, op. cit., p Also see Thornton's work on Sandeman Bruce, op. cit., p Awan, op. cit., p TP , Document No. 276, June 20, 1947, Vol. 11, Mr V.P. Menon to Mr Abell, p Also see Awan, op. cit., pp ; Burke, op. cit., pp Ibid., Burke. Also see Awan, ibid., p Ibid. Also see Mir Ahmad Yar Khan Baluch, Inside Baluchistan (Karachi: Royal Book Company, 1975), pp Also see Selig S. Harrison, In Afghanistan's Shadow: Baluch Nationalism and Soviet Temptations (New York: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1981), pp Also see Awan, op. cit., p Lamb, op. cit., pp Ibid The western boundary from Gwatar Bay to Kahuk was settled by Colonel Goldsmid in A line from Kahuk to Koh-i-Malik Siah was defined by the

19 Notes 201 Anglo-Persian Boundary Commission of 1896 and the Southern portion of it was demarcated by pillars to the bank of the Talab River. North of this point, the demarcation never materialised. The Iran-Pakistan boundary is known as the 'Goldsmid Line' after the name of the Chairman of Perso-Baluch Commission of Quoted in footnotes in Razvi, op. cit., p Also see Lamb, op. cit., pp Killa Safaid was occupied by the Pakistani Chagai Militia to which the Iranian authorities protested and questioned Pakistan possession of Killa Safaid. See Razvi, op. cit., p Ibid., pp Also see New York Times, 25 July 1949, 14 August Dawn, 27 December 1955, 8 January Razvi, op. cit., p There were people in Pakistan who resented the Pakistan-Iranian boundary agreement and questioned the Pakistan Government's constitutional right to transfer territory to an alien power. Mir Baqi Baluch, a member of the West Pakistan Assembly, even filed a writ petition in the High Court challenging the Pakistani Government's action. Ibid., pp Also see Lamb, op. cit., pp Prescott, op. cit., p Pakhtoonistan connotes different meanings to different people. To some it means an independent state consisting of Pakhtoons living on the eastern side of the Durand Line. To others it means a semi-autonomous state within Pakistan. In terms of area, some say Pakhtoonistan includes only the province of NWFP and the frontier states, while others maintain that Pakhtoonistan includes areas from Chitral to the Arabian Sea. The Afghan Government since 1947 has consistently projected the Pakhtoonistan issue whereas the Pakistanis do not recognise the problem as Kabul would like them to do. For detailed discussion of Pakhtoonistan with both the Kabul and Islamabad viewpoints see Burke, op. cit., pp For an interesting discussion covering legal aspects of the dispute see 'The Durand Agreement in the Light of Certain Recent International Conventions' by Ijaz Hussain in Law and Politics in Africa, Asia and Latin America, 3rd Quarter, 1985 pp In addition, see 'Pakistan's North West Frontier' by James W. Spain, in Middle East Journal, Winter 1954, pp ; Dupree, op. cit., pp ; Caroe, op. cit., pp See Percy W. Bidwell's article on 'Ideals in American Foreign Policy' in International Affairs, Vol. 22, No. 4, October 1946, pp Originally the phrase was used by Sir Anthony Eden in House of Commons debates in 1944 when he actually referred to Anglo-Russian relations. Quoted in 'The Outlook in the USSR' by Alexander Werth in International Affairs, Vol. 22, No. 1, January 1946, pp See 'The International Outlook' by Arnold J. Toynbee in International Affairs, Vol. 23, No. 4, October 1947, pp The message delivered before a Joint Session of Congress on Greece and Turkey is known as the Truman Doctrine. For full text of the message see Department of State Bulletin, Vol. 16, 23 March 1947, pp Also see 'Soviet Foreign Policy', by Alvary Gascoigne in The Yearbook of World Affairs 1955 (London: Stevens and Sons Limited, 1955), pp See FRUS, 1947, Vol. IV, op. cit., Eastern Europe, The Soviet Union, pp See also the document submitted by the State Department to the Senate Foreign Relations Committee on 2 June 1948 regarding the Soviet Violations of Treaty Obligations in Decade of American Foreign Policy Basic