A Linguistic Exploration of Hopkins s The Starlight Night. Ahmed Abdel Azim El Shiekh

Transcription

1 A Linguistic Exploration of Hopkins s The Starlight Night By Ahmed Abdel Azim El Shiekh Ph. D. Department of English Language & Literature, Faculty of Arts, University of Alexandria, Egypt (Currently: Associate Professor at Zarqa Private University. Jordan) 1

2 1. Introduction The present paper is a linguistic reading of Gerard Manley Hopkins' poem "The Starlight Night", and an investigation of the characteristic features of his poetry as manifested in this poem. In other words, this paper attempts to link linguistic analysis with literary studies in one case where the linkage seems quite handy, if not even obligatory. The researcher sets out to investigate some of the major characteristic features of the poetry of a Victorian, yet quite a modern poet in the full sense of the word, as reflected in a poem typically representative of these features. Inscape 1, instress 2 and sprung rhythm 3 are key terms here. The poem to take as our guide on this linguistic tour is quite appropriately "The Starlight Night", and our poet is the conservative but later rebellious, sceptical, though strongly religious man, Gerard Manley Hopkins. Eventually, we have different, and sometimes even contradictory, characteristics mingled together in one man, different elements of nature fused together in a unifying poetic vision, 2

3 and hopefully, an exploration of one of his poems making use of linguistics and literature together in a harmonious unity too. 2. Hopkins: A Snapshot Gerard Manley Hopkins ( ) was one of "the major, the finest, poets of Victorian England" (Joseph J. Feeney, S.J., 2006). Yet he "was almost unknown until 1918 when his book Poems was first published, as edited by his friend Robert Bridges" (Joseph J. Feeney, S.J., 2006). He is, then, a nineteenth century English poet, yet, in more than one way, he is a truly modern poet rather than a Victorian one. The sinking in 1875 of a German ship carrying five Franciscan nuns, exiles from Germany, inspired him to write one of his most impressive poems The Wreck of the Deutschland, which marks the beginning of his mature work. Thereafter he produced his best poetry, including God s Grandeur, The Windhover, The Leaden Echo The Golden Echo., and, indeed, "The Starlight Night" (ibid). 3

4 Hopkins wrote some poems in a very traditional style during the 1860s, but he destroyed them when he decided to devote himself to the church, believing that he must place aside actions of personal enjoyment in order to focus. He began writing again after seven years, when the elders of the Catholic Church encouraged him to continue. His work influenced many leading twentieth century poets. After a second edition of his collected poems was issued in 1930, Hopkins' work was recognized as among the most original, powerful, and influential literary accomplishments of his century; it had a marked influence on such leading twentieth century poets as T.S. Eliot, Dylan Thomas, W.H. Auden, Stephen Spender, and C. Day Lewis. (Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. CD Edition, 2000). With the emergence of Darwinism, the principle of evolution, and the concept of human beings as the culmination of evolutionary change on the one hand, and the growing awareness of the grave consequences of industrialization and the 4

5 equally growing influence of technology on the other, the Victorian world was no longer the same. As Mariaconcetta Costantini remarks, the impact of scientific discoveries on society is equated with that of great artistic innovations: " the new in science and art is the actualization of the unexpected", (Costantini, 1997, p. 85). The rise of new world that is hardly teleological was directly associated with the question of arbitrary significance. Several artists were bewildered by a growing sense of ambiguity and felt an urge to re-establish constant categories of thought and language. Among these is Gerard Manley Hopkins, who sought to work out a system that could cope with scientific rationalism, yet maintain the old theological order at one and the same time (Brown, 1997). Both his prose and his poetry display this attempt to mediate between two opposing directions and two conflicting ends: the need to adopt a new epistemological method and experiment through the potentiality of language; and the wish to resist the trends of doubt and scepticism that threatened the well established status of religious dogma and the very conception of 5

6 man (Costantini, 1997, p. 85). In fact, Hopkins was less concerned with Christian factionalism than with countering contemporary threats to faith itself (Brown, 1997). 3. A Bird's Eye View (Or maybe a Falcon's) of "The Starlight Night" Before embarking on this mission, the researcher has to review Hopkins concept of the duty of a poet, or rather of his own duty as a poet. Hopkins believes that everything has its own quality of being, and, at the same time, of having all its different characteristics unified in one. Not only does this apply to each thing or entity individually, but also to the whole world as one unit. As a man catches the inscape of a natural object, it is the reflection of that inscape in the man s feelings that is labelled by Hopkins as Instress. A poet s duty, hence, is to aspire to recreate the Inscape of the natural object and/or experience in his own poem so as to make it have, on his addressees, the very same Instress which the natural object and/or the 6

7 experience has had on him. A poem, thus, is a recreation of the experience that has caused it to come into existence, and is intended by the poet, to recreate the same effect upon its readers. When Hopkins catches the inscape of that starlit night, he tries to convey to the reader the very same instress it has had on him through his poem, entitled The Starlight Night. In accordance with Hopkins own terms, it may be better to catch the inscape of the Starlight Night rather than attempt a literal understanding of it. This article is an attempt to do so through the help of a linguistic insight into the poem. Starlight Night is the product of direct communication with nature. The theme may be summed up as follows: Man should always communicate with God through feeling the beauties of His creation. As Man enjoys the beauties of a God-made nature, he should pay for them through a true worship of God. The very composition of the poem is indeed, one way of doing so. The style is analytical; the starlight in the poem is not simply a 7

8 symbol of Christ, but is also identical with Him. Christ sheds light on our world, enables us to see the different beauties of nature, and, at the very same time, unifies them all in His own light and grandeur. Starlight here is not, thus, an abstract symbol of Christ, per se, but a spark of His own light and a representation of it, picked up from the real world of nature. To use Hopkins terms, the inscape of the poem in question lies in its being an immediate response to nature. The supposed symbols are not chosen out of speculation or adopted in accordance with a given literary conviction, even though they do exist in other poets works. The starlight in this poem is real and visual. As Hopkins is watching various objects of nature under the light of the stars, he catches the presence of God in them. It is this aspect of being visual, concrete and true to nature, that makes the poem quite original and distinguishes it from traditional religious poetry which may, at times at least, tend to be didactic and rather flat. 8

9 The structure of the poem is systematic and convincing; the starlight night in the poem is the outcome of a real visual experience, and, therefore, the first two lines start with excitement and depend on visual imagery. The conversational tone of the poem attempts to make the listener relive the experience with Hopkins, rather than Hopkins simply relating the experience to him: Look at the stars! Look, look at the skies! O look at all the fire-folk sitting in the air! Hopkins is not simply stating that he saw the stars, but is addressing his potential audience as if the scene were still present here and now, and as if they could share the very experience with him as well. The vocative O is not used as an affected piece of rhetoric, but as it would be in everyday conversation. The exclamation marks define the intonation as a rising one, as an expression of excitement. The images flow one after the other in a way that is meant to be almost parallel to what is usually labelled as "stream of consciousness", as with Joyce, for instance. What creates this stream of consciousness-like feeling is not only the content 9

10 and the semantic indications of the lexical items used in these two lines, but also the sound effects too. Each image prepares the addressee for the following one, both through the content and outward form of the words. Down in dim woods the diamond delves! The elves eyes! The lexical item "delves" prepares the ear for the lexical item "elves" that comes shortly after. The repeated voiced phoneme /d/ in this line creates a musical sound unity. But this is only one example. What has just been suggested with reference to this line is applicable to the rest of the poem as a whole. In the following line The bright boroughs, the circle-citadels there! it is not only the repetition of the same sound, but also the choice of lexemes of similar length that cooperate in creating the sense of oneness. The choice of short monosyllabic lexical items suggests the rapid evocation of emotions in the first seven lines of the poem. These short lexemes such as "look", "folk", "fire", "woods", "down", and "dim" are mainly of Anglo-Saxon origin. They have in 10

11 common the repetitive use of the voiceless morpheme /f/ and the voiced morpheme /d/, which creates a unique type of harmonious unity made of the combination of heterogeneous sounds, echoing, in general, the oneness of the universe, which is made up of various aspects, both contradictory and similar, as well as the oneness of the sight depicted in the poem in particular, which is made up of two otherwise contradictory entities, viz. the light of the stars on the one hand, and the darkness of the night on the other. Hopkins lexical choice is also suggestive of certain colours, basically bright ones. The item "gold" in l. 5, suggests the bright glitter of the colour yellow which is often used by Hopkins as a symbol or, more precisely, a representation of the glory of paradise. A case in point is to be found in his Spring and Fall- to a Young Child (Hopkins, 1966, p.28). The words "starlight", "bright", and "whitebeam" are also suggestive of white in particular, and light in general, both of which, in 11

12 turn, are associated with spiritual purity and Godly beauty. The eighth and ninth lines are different from the first seven. The poet s sensations calm down a little. He starts expressing himself in a more rational way, yet, still in the same conversational, almost dramatic tone. Hopkins' skill in writing dramatic monologues in the manner of Browning, which is manifested in his early "Soliloquy of One of the Spies in the Wilderness", has its traces in "The Starlight Night" as well (Landow, 2003). He asks, perhaps in proxy of the addressee, "What?", and, then immediately answers: Prayers, patience, alms, vows. The longish Latinate lexemes used here represent the glory of the subject matter of his speech; they are essentially equated with God. Even the monosyllabic lexemes used in these two lines, such as "vows" and "alms" are relatively longer as they either contain long vowels as /a:/ in "alms" or a diphthong as in "vows", in contrast with the short vowels used earlier in words such as "dim", "look", and "woods" in the first seven lines. 12

13 It may be worth mentioning in this respect, that this paper uses the term "listener" rather than "addressee", as well as say and talk rather than write, as the researcher believes Hopkins poetry to have been primarily meant to be read aloud or recited rather than simply read silently. Hopkins himself states, "Poetry is in fact speech employed to carry the inscape of speech for the inscape's sake"(glenn Everett, Hopkins on "Inscape" and "Instress" as found on The Victorian Web). After the poet refers to the price to be paid in return for the various gifts of God, he goes back to his excited rapid expression of emotions, calling the reader/addressee to look again at the living sight. Look, look: a May-mess like, an orchard boughs! Look! March-bloom, like on mealed-with-yellow sallows! Yet it mellows down to some extent here. The use of "like" in the above two cited lines (10 and 11) shows an attitude that is more rational than 13

14 the mingling of two different things into one, as in "quickgold", "circle-citadels", and "fire-folk". In fact, the use of such coined terms and hyphenated adjectives that are made of compound nouns in this poem is not merely ornamental or intended to show off; it conveys Hopkins essential feeling of the unity and oneness of the whole universe. The linking of words through hyphens, the coinage of new words out of separate old ones and the use of compound nouns as adjectives, are all cases of the unity between different elements of language resulting in a new harmonious one. The integration of form and sense on the poetic and linguistic levels echoes the integration of the physical/natural one on the one hand, and the spiritual/religious on the other, which ultimately reveals itself in the oneness and unity of the universe. In l. 12, Hopkins recognises all these gifts of God to be the barn. These gifts are NOT symbols of God and/or Christ. They are, literally, part and parcel of the glories of God. They are guarding Christ, his mother, all his hallows, as Hopkins 14

15 puts it in the last line of the poem. Christ and His glory give the whole world its inscape, and the poet is only attempting to re-produce the instress he feels on catching the inscape of such glories, in his own poetry. He does so, not only through the content, imagery, lexical choices and sound effects of certain morphemes and/or allomorphs, but also through the broken rhythm of his poem, which echoes his own excitement. The breaking of the rather the jerky rhythm of the poem, is created by the otherwise unusually frequent use of punctuation marks and parenthetical phrases. The Starlight Night is, indeed, representative of one of the most important characteristic features of Hopkins poetry in general, viz. his reconciliation of form and content in one harmonious unit, not passively suitable, but actively corresponding and adding to each other. Thus each of Hopkins poems forms a complete world in itself. The Starlight Night is certainly a good case in point. It is a well-written poem, or rather a well-formed world that has its own rules 15

16 and logic, its own inscape and instress, and, hence, has to be appreciated as such, instead of enforcing our own logic on it under any pretence, including that of literary criticism. This article is only an attempt at reproducing the instress the writer has got on catching the inscape of The Starlight Night by Hopkins, to whom we are indebted, not only for the joy derived from his poetry, but also for the new terminology his poetic speculations have given rise to. 4. Hopkins and Linguistic Experimentation In "Starlight Night", Hopkins' bold experimentation with language stems from his wish to explore the mysteries of life. The verbal play on words, the many coinages and the bold constructions of his poetry are inextricably linked to his view of the world as a complex network of signs, all of which can be interpreted and rendered in linguistic terms on the phonetic, phonological, lexical, morphological, syntactic and grammatical levels. Throughout his life, the poet showed a keen 16

17 interest in words. In Hopkins' view, language is both an instrument to reproduce nature with fidelity, and an emblem of metaphysical notions (the union of the material and the non-material is symbolized by the Incarnate Word "Christ"). Since words can establish a relationship between the world (the signifier) and God (the Sign-Sender), the poet, equated with the divinity in his role of signuser, has the task of exploiting their high potential. All the lexical and syntactic innovations of Hopkins' verse are no instances of random experimentation, but derive from a precise intention to build a system of analysis and act as a reproduction of reality. In fact, as Jakobson points out, Hopkins was an "outstanding searcher in the science of poetic language" (Jakobson, 1964 p. 27). It may even be maintained that he anticipates the procedures and the goals of contemporary linguistics, which draws from science its methods of investigation of language (Costantini, 1997) Lexical/Semantic Features Coinage of New Words 17

18 Hopkins is well-known for his tendency to coin new words. This technique is not simply an outcome of the poet's desire to express new meanings that may have no well-established lexical items to denote. The coinage of new words from familiar ones acts as a demonstration of the union of different aspects of nature in one new unified entity. In the world of external reality, there is "gold", "silver" as well as "quicksilver". But Hopkins tells us about "quickgold". The gold we know assumes the attributes of "quicksilver", yet it "lies" before our eyes, rather than slips away from our grasp Compound Nouns Another common lexical feature of Hopkins' poetry is his frequent use of compound nouns, especially the exocentric type where the compound is headless and the constituents of the compound "do not have a head-modifier semantic relationship" (Katamba, 1993 p.319). This implies that the meaning of the compound is not the totality of the meanings of its minor units; it is a new entity on its own, another demonstration of the new 18

19 entities in the real world which come into existence as a result of the harmonious unity of otherwise heterogeneous elements. The wind-beat is not simply a kind of beat, and neither is fire-folk really a kind of folk. May-mess is not a mess, and neither is quickgold a kind of gold that is quick! The compounds often come in strings, running from one compound to another, through a stream of nominal, adjectival or even genitive ones. "March-bloom", "circle-citadels" (noun + noun), "whitebeam" (adjective + noun) and "a farmyard scare" (genitive) are all cases in point. The very nature of compound nouns where a noun acts as an adjective, is another instance of the blending of different elements in language to produce a new linguistic entity, an incarnation of the harmonious unity of different aspects of nature in the world of external reality Ambiguity Intentional lexical ambiguity is also another semantic feature of Hopkins' poetry, whether polysemy or homonymy. In "Spring and Fall", for 19

20 example, the very title has two cases of ambiguity. First is the polysemy in "fall" as the name of a season, i.e., autumn, and "fall" as in the fall of Adam and Eve. Second is "spring" as the name of the geographical season, as well as, metaphorically, the origin and source of something, as in l. 11 of the poem "Sorrows springs are the same". Both are cases of intentional ambiguity arising from polysemy, whereas compound nouns such quickgold and fire folks in The "Starlight Night" are ambiguous in their own right, in the sense that they do not have a traditionally acknowledged referent Expressive versus Descriptive Meaning Hopkins' poetry is full of expressive rather than descriptive meaning. In "The Starlight Night", for example, the first seven lines are devoid of any direct statement that can be subjected to truthvalue conditions, i.e., can be labelled as descriptive (Lyons, 1995). In L. 7, then, Hopkins provides a typical truth value proposition: " It is all a purchase, all is a prize". The following two lines, however, are again devoid of truth-value 20

21 propositions and descriptive meaning. Only the last three contain two more propositions in "These are indeed the barn" and "This piece bright paling shuts the spouse". It is worth noting, though, that it is almost practically impossible to subject these four truth-value propositions in the whole poem to an investigation that tests their authenticity in the world of external reality. The rest of the poem presents nothing that can be judged as either true or false in any way, but only utterances giving vent to the poet's feelings, or performing an action such as persuading the addressee to do or note something or the other Morphological/Syntactic Features The use of a variety of long sentences and/or short clauses or even phrases with various structures ranging from the vocative, the interrogative and exclamatory to the straightforwardly declarative is also typical of Hopkins' poetry. In "The Starlight Night", we have forty one nouns, including those used in compounds, thirteen cases of verbs, including three 21

22 of a linking verb (verb to be: "is", "is", and "are"), nine occurrences of verbs in the imperative with seven of them the verb "Look" and the other two "buy" and "bid". There are only two cases of declarative sentences with verbs that belong to the category of content words: "Lies" in l. 6 and "shuts" in l. 13. Occurrences of other verbal forms are confined to past and present participles throughout the poem. There are no past sequences of tenses, nor perfect aspect structures; only five cases of the present simple tense with its general time reference to the past, present and the future in the cases of "is", "is", "are", "lies" and "shuts". The emphasis throughout is not on the informative but on the emotive and vocative. Even in the case of the present simple tense occurrences, the poem is not a dissection of facts, but an attempt at communicating with the truth as Hopkins feels, sees and, maybe, even lives it. The imperative is used by the addressor/poet, the interrogative implicitly introduced by reader/addressee though we only see 22

23 and hear it when it is repeated by the poet "What?" in l. 9, suggesting the addressee is asking about the price he/she has to pay for the "purchase" and the "prize" mentioned in the previous line. We can almost hear the addressee wondering "What shall I bid? How shall I buy?", and the answer is "Prayers, alms, vows", which comes in a nominal phrase with no verbal elements at all, only three successive nouns in the plural with no modifiers or qualifiers. All this, in turn, helps unify the reader/addressee with the poet/addressor, and eventually with the poem itself. This poem is not complete without the role played by the hypothetical reader/addressee. The different grammatical elements form one harmonious unity with its own "inscape" that generates an "instress' on the reader/addressee, analogous with the instress of the original experience of the poet Phonetic/Phonological Features Like the majority of Hopkins' poems, "The Starlight Night" is rich with alliteration and assonance. One phoneme leads to the other and one 23

24 sound to another, creating a harmonious unity on the level of sound, just like the ones on the lexical and grammatical levels. The same consonant occurs at the beginning of each stressed syllable in "fire-folk", "bright boroughs" and the /w/ and /b/ come together in "Wind-beat whitebeam". The poet also resorts to the repetition of similar vowels in the stressed syllables of successive words in the three repetitions of the /f/ in "floating forth at a farmyard" and the /d/ in "Down in dim woods the diamond delves", where the initial phoneme in the first two content, and, hence, stressed words, occurs immediately before the final position in the third word "woods", and then twice in the fourth "diamond" in initial as well as final positions. Apart from alliteration and assonance, there is also the same phoneme /l/ coming before the /v/ and /z/ in "delves" and "elves" successively and in "cold' and "gold", then in "quickgold" before the /d/ and then assuming the initial position in the following word "lies". With Hopkins' sprung rhythm and its stress pattern, the sound effect of stressed lexemes is highlighted, and an atmosphere of continuity and 24

25 progression runs through the entire poem. All the verbs are monosyllabic: "Look", "lies", "is", "are" and "shuts". With the exception of "are" and "lies", all other verbs in the poem are characterized by short vowels too, thus speeding. Unity and harmony are, thus, achieved on all levels of linguistic features, helping to feed in the poet's feelings and vision in a way where content and form are catholically married to each other. 5. A Final Note: End of the Tour Coming to the end of this exploration, the researcher hopes we are not simply back at the very beginning, even though time past and time future may be still contained within the present. To sum up, it may be fairly concluded that the blend of different registerial characteristics in the sonnet, the conversational informal tone as in "Ah well,", the religious image dominating the last line of the poem, as well as the dramatic development and the hypothetical series of question and answer as in L. 9, are further reinforced by the eye-anagram 25

26 "Look", and the question word "What". The idea of analytic procedure is equated with the rational search for laws and explanations, and the relation between cause and effect. To earn the prize one has to pay for it in "Prayer, patience, alms, vows". Confronted with the dilemma of the coexistence of opposites in nature, the speaker draws from both religion and science the means to examine and represent reality. A detailed observation of the outer world and its adequate representation in language are the first steps towards knowledge: hence the sequences of alliterations (such as, "circle-citadels"; "diamond delves"; "elves'-eyes"; " Wind-beat whitebeam"), the many compounds (like "fire-folk", "Flake-doves" or "quickgold"), and the lexemes meant to capture the essence of colours ("grey lawns", "yellow sallows"). For Hopkins, however, no principle of unity and significance is available without religious faith. The world, which consists of discrete objects and attributes, is held together only by God: He alone is the One who can encompass multiplicity and diversity; Who provides nature with its inscape and 26

27 hence, creates the instress in the poet who, in turn, produces his poetry as a new copy of that inscape, hoping to reproduce an equivalent instress in the addressee. It is now the role of the critic and/or researcher to attempt another critical inscape to help produce a similar instress in the reader, which the researcher hopes this paper may have partially managed to do. The poet, the reader and the critic, the experience, the poet's vision and the reader/addressor's communication with it, the form, the content and the inscape and instress, all merge together, all present what is truly true. It is all an epiphany. To end with Hopkins' very words, The best ideal is the true And other truth is none. All glory be ascribèd to The holy Three in One. Summa 27

28 Appendix The Starlight Night LOOK at the stars! look, look up at the skies! O look at all the fire-folk sitting in the air! The bright boroughs, the circle-citadels there! Down in dim woods the diamond delves! the elves'-eyes! The grey lawns cold where gold, where quickgold lies! Wind-beat whitebeam! airy abeles set on a flare! Flake-doves sent floating forth at a farmyard scare! -- Ah well! it is all a purchase, all is a prize. Buy then! bid then! -- What? -- Prayer, patience, alms, vows. Look, look: a May-mess, like on orchard boughs! Look! March-bloom, like on mealed-with-yellow sallows! These are indeed the barn; withindoors house The shocks. This piece-bright paling shuts the spouse Christ home, Christ and his mother and all his hallows. (Note: The html text of the poems is derived from the one at Columbia University's Bartleby Library. A few corrections have been made. R.J.C. Watt, University of Dundee) 28

29 29 Notes

30 1 According to Webster's Third New International Dictionary (2002), the term "Inscape" means an inward significant character or quality belonging uniquely to objects or events in nature and human experience, especially as perceived by the blended observation and introspection of the poet and, in turn, embodied in patterns of such specifically poetic elements as imagery, rhythm, rhyme, assonance, sound symbolism and allusion: INWARDNESS ("inscape." Webster's Third New International Dictionary, Unabridged. Merriam-Webster, 2002) (13 July, 2006). As Glenn Everett points out, by "inscape" Hopkins means the unified complex of characteristics that give each thing its uniqueness and that differentiate it from other things (Glenn Everett, Hopkins on "Inscape" and "Instress" as found on The Victorian Web). The concept of inscape shares much with Wordsworth's "spots of time," Emerson's "moments," and Joyce's "epiphanies," showing it to be a characteristically Romantic and post-romantic idea. But Hopkins' inscape is also fundamentally religious: a glimpse of the inscape of a thing shows us why God created it. "Each mortal thing does one thing and the same: myself it speaks and spells,/ Crying What I'd is me: for that I came." (Ibid) 2 Instress is the act, the intense power that brings one to recognising an object's inscape. Through instress, one would recognize the divine in everything, and Hopkins wrote his poems to reflect this realization and to bring inscape to the reader through his unique rhythm, which he called sprung rhythm (Glenn Everett, Hopkins on "Inscape" and "Instress" as found on The Victorian Web). 3 Sprung rhythm is an irregular system of prosody developed by Gerard Manley Hopkins. It is based on the number of stressed syllables in a line and permits an indeterminate number of unstressed syllables. In sprung rhythm, a foot may be composed of from one to four syllables. (In regular English metres, a foot consists of two or three syllables.) Because stressed syllables often occur sequentially in this patterning rather than in alternation with unstressed syllables, the rhythm is said to be "sprung." Hopkins claimed to be only the theoretician, not the inventor, of sprung rhythm. He saw it as the rhythm of common English speech and the basis of such early English poems as Langland's "Piers Plowman" and nursery rhymes. Sprung rhythm is a bridge between regular metre and free verse. An example of Hopkins' use of it is in "Spring and Fall- to a Young Child" (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2000). Works Cited A: Primary Sources Robert Bridges (ed.) (1918), Poems of Gerard Manley Hopkins, LONDON: HUMPHREY MILFORD (As found on TheConcordance- (12 April, 2005) B: Secondary Sources Aarts, Bas (1997), English Syntax and Argumentation, London, Macmillan Press LTD. Brown, Daniel (1997), Hopkins' Idealism: Philosophy,

31 Physics, Poetry. Oxford: Clarendon Press. The Concise Columbia Encyclopedia on Line, Costantini, Mariaconcetta (1997), "Hopkins and the Scientific Dilemma", (RdSV 2, no. 4 [July 1997]: ), creighton.edu/~dcallon/maria.htm, (11 February, 2006). Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. CD Edition, (2000) Glenn Everett (1995), "Hopkins on "Inscape" and "Instress"" as found on The Victorian Web- (12 June. 2006). Jakobson, Roman, (1964), "Closing Statement: Linguistics and Poetics", in "Style in Language", ed. by Th. A. Sebeok, Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press. Joseph J. Feeney, S.J. (2006), "Hopkins the Poet, Hopkins the Jesuit", The Hopkins Quarterly, (12 September, 2006) Katamba, Francis (1993), Morphology, London,, Macmillan LTD. Landow, George P. (2003), "Genre in Hopkins's Poetry" as found on The Victorian Web (3 April 2006).

32 Lyons, John (1995), Linguistic Semantics, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. Webster's Third New International Dictionary, Unabridged. Merriam-Webster, 2002), (13 July, 2006).