Verbal Communication

Transcription

1 Chapter Verbal Communication 1 Learning Objectives After reading this chapter, you should be able to: understand the importance of language in ESL presentational speaking. know how to choose the right words in giving presentations. master several types of figures of speech. know how to use signpost language. The words you choose to say something are just as important as the decision to speak. Anonymous Introduction Communication in general is a process of sending and receiving messages that enables humans to share knowledge, attitudes, and skills. Although we usually identify communication with speech, communication is composed of two dimensions verbal and nonverbal. In this chapter, we will look at verbal communication in presentations, which

2 English Presentational Speaking: Skills & Practice 英语演示发言技能与技巧实训 here in this context refers to the English words and language. The word verbal means communicating with words and language (as opposed to images, actions or behaviour). Verbal communication is restricted to language. In Chapter 2, we will talk about the other dimension of communication nonverbal communication. English is a West Germanic language and the first language for most people in Australia, Canada, the Commonwealth Caribbean, Ireland, New Zealand, the United Kingdom and the United States of America. It is widely used as a second language and as an official language throughout the world, especially in Commonwealth countries such as India, Sri Lanka, Pakistan and South Africa, Singapore, and in many international organizations. With its popularity and wide spread of use, modern English is sometimes described as the global lingua franca. English is the dominant international language in communication, science, business, aviation, entertainment, radio and diplomacy. English is also specifically used for giving presentations. English language is essential in presentation giving if you are non-native presenters of English. But it can be one of the biggest barrier to communication in English presentations for non-native speakers. In order to deliver your message to your audience, you must make your language work for you. If you know how to make language work for you, you must know how to use it effectively. Language is powerful if you know how to use it effectively. When you are giving an English presentation, there are certain structures you can follow and certain key words and phrases you can use. This chapter will introduce to you specifically the hows, such as how to make the language work for you, how to introduce yourself, how to state the purpose of your presentation, how to sequence your ideas, and how to use signpost language, etc. Warming-Up 1. How do you usually start a presentation? 2. How can you make language work for you in a presentation? 3. What are some of the ways to state your purpose clearly at the beginning of your presentation? Name a few. 4. List about 6 types of figures of speech. 5. List some key words you can use to signpost different stages in your presentation. 26

3 Chapter 1 Verbal Communication Verbal Communication in Presentational Speaking Language is a system of communication that enables humans to cooperate. It is an instrument or a tool for you to use to communicate your ideas and thoughts. Only if you know how this tool works and how to use this tool well, can you make your audience understand your message. In a word, language is basically for communication, which enables humankind to express and bring to reality great ideas. That is to say, to communicate effectively while presenting, you have to respect the language you use and know how it works. Language is powerful if you use it effectively. If you use power and command words, you will get your audience s attention and give them the impression of confidence and competence. You sound more confident and competent if you use I am certain you will agree instead of I think you will agree. Using non-committal or vague language such as you should find or your sales should improve can subconsciously imply to the audience that you don t have much confidence on what you can deliver. Using positive, solid language such as you will sell more in a shorter space of time helps to instill confidence in your audience and they will find themselves really imagining what your offering could do for them. In the word of Lucas (2010) Words are vital to thinking itself, which means that thought and language are closely linked. You don t get an idea first and then figure out some words to convey it. You think with words. Language structures your thoughts. When you are looking for the right word, what you are really looking for is just the right idea. As a presenter, as long as you get the right idea, you must consider how to express it to your audience best. Thus, you need to know how language works and what language can do. While delivering a presentation, unless you use simple and clear language, you will not be understood by your audience. To remove the language barrier and make it work for you in presentations, you have to show enough respect to it and know well how to use it effectively. Choice of the Right Word Words are the component structures of language; they are combined to form sentences. As ESL presentational speakers, your focus on your language for the words you choose to use can have a big impact on your audience far more than the way you hold one s hands. In order to make the language work for you, you should consider the following points about words you choose to use in drafting your presentation. 27

4 English Presentational Speaking: Skills & Practice 英语演示发言技能与技巧实训 Power of Words Words to a presenter are like tools to any profession. Watch a carpenter hitting a nail into a piece of wood. It only takes him a few seconds, but you or I would spend several minutes or even an hour to have the job done. You cannot turn a screw with a hammer or drive a nail with a screwdriver. It is the same with oral presentations. You must choose the right words for the job you want to do. Words are powerful. They can either help or hurt your presentation and your audience. The words you select will dramatically influence and impact your audience s reaction to both your ideas and your image as an effective presenter. Denotation and Connotation of Words Words have both denotative meanings and connotative meanings. Good presenters should be conscious of the meanings of words. They should also know how to use them clearly, vividly and properly. Then what is denotation? Denotation refers to the literal meaning of a word, the dictionary definition. For example, if you look up the word snake in a dictionary, you will discover that one of its denotative meanings is any of numerous scaly, legless, sometimes venomous reptiles having a long, tapering, cylindrical body and found in most tropical and temperate regions. Connotation refers to the associations that are connected to a certain word or the emotional suggestions related to that word. The connotative meanings of a word exist together with the denotative meanings. The connotations for the word snake could include evil or danger. The denotation of the word politician is someone who holds a political office ; while its connotation is opportunist or wheeler-dealer. It is important for you as a presenter to know the difference between the denotation and the connotation of words you choose to use. Denotative meaning is obvious, literal, and objective; while connotative meaning is subtle, implied, figurative, and subjective. Almost everyone who speaks the language agrees on the denotative definition of a word because it is the most precise meaning available. The connotative and denotative meanings of words are both correct, but a word s connotation determines when it is used. By definition, synonyms have the same denotation or literal meaning, but usually have different connotations, or shades of meaning. For example, the synonyms of boat include ship, yacht, dinghy, and ferry. All these words refer to the same thing, but each elicits a different association in the audience s mind. Audience-centered Words The words you use should be audience-centered. It s easy to accidentally focus a presentation on the presenter, rather than the audience. Even if you ve cut the company description and focused on how you can deliver benefits to your audience which is by no means the standard many presenters unknowingly turn the presentation back to themselves, 28

5 Chapter 1 Verbal Communication simply by the language they use. Phrases such as we deliver and we can provide sound like the obvious choices in a sales presentation, but it actually focuses on the presenter. Using audience-centered language such as you need and you will experience draws the audience in, and presenters will automatically find themselves expressing benefits, as they focus on what everything means to the audience. If you are a salesperson, you are not teaching the audience about your company while presenting; you are demonstrating how they would benefit from working with you. You is a very powerful word; generally, the audience react much better to being addressed as you than in the third person as they. As a participant, you will benefit sounds more powerful than participants will benefit. Therefore, while giving a presentation, you d better address your audience in the second person you. Simplicity and Clarity of Language Vast amounts of skills, expertise and knowledge remain hidden while you are giving presentations because of the language barrier. Language is the biggest barrier to communication in English presentations for non-native presentational speakers. By language barrier we do not mean foreign languages or accents: we mean technical language or jargon. Presenters often assume that their audience have a similar level of knowledge and familiarity with the subject matter to themselves, thus making the fatal error of using terminology that the audience do not understand. This leads to incomprehension and confusion, which can have the added effect of making the audience lose interest. Therefore, if you want your audience to understand your message, your language must be simple and clear. Use short words and short sentences. Do not use jargon, unless you are certain that your audience understand it. In general, you should talk about concrete facts rather than abstract ideas. Use active verbs instead of passive ones. Active verbs are much easier to understand, and they are much more powerful. Using Figurative Language One meaning of figure is drawing, image, or picture. Figurative language creates figures in the mind of the listeners. These pictures help convey the meaning faster and more vividly than words alone, add color and interest to the subject and awaken the imagination. A figure is worth a thousand words. Figurative language is everywhere, from classical works like Shakespeare or the Bible, to everyday speech, pop music and television commercials. It inspires the listeners to use their imagination and understand much more than the plain words do. Figurative language is the opposite of literal language. Literal language means exactly 29

6 English Presentational Speaking: Skills & Practice 英语演示发言技能与技巧实训 what it says. Figurative language means something different from (and usually more than) what it says on the surface: It is important to recognize the difference between literal and figurative language. We use figure of speech in figurative language. He ran fast. (Literal) He ran like the wind. (Figurative) In the above example like the wind is a figure of speech (in this case, a simile). There are many different kinds of figures of speech, such as metaphor, simile, personification, hyperbole, understatement, paradox, and pun. It s important that you understand several kinds of figures of speech. Simile Simile is a figure of speech comparing two different things by using like or as. For example, if you say, My boyfriend is like a watermelon in the summer, you are creating a simile that compares your boyfriend with a watermelon. If on the other hand you are mad at your boyfriend and say, He s like a typhoon in the house, you re comparing your boyfriend with a typhoon. The word simile reminds one of similar, and it is the neuter of the Greek word similis meaning like. It is a specific comparison between two essentially unlike things. It is aimed at illustrating, enhancing the meaning of one thing by means of another. A simile is often marked by words like or as. If used ingeniously, it is capable of expressing surprise and poignancy. We can use similes to make a speech more emphatic or vivid. Given below are a few simile examples to help you understand it better. It s been a hard day s night, and I ve been working like a dog. (have a hard time) The Beatles Life is like a box of chocolates, and you never know what you re going to get. (Life is a mystery) Forrest Gump His explanation was as clear as mud. (not clear at all since mud is opaque) The film was about as interesting as watching a copy of Windows download. (long and boring) Watching the show was like watching paint dry. (very boring) Metaphor A metaphor compares two dissimilar objects without using a word like as or like. All the world s a stage, all the men and women merely players, they have their exits and their entrances. In just these few words, Shakespeare managed to capture the entire play of life and death by comparing the world to a stage. Rich in vivid imagery, no wonder, it is one of the finest examples of a metaphor. Metaphors are linguistic symbols that convey a particular 30

7 Chapter 1 Verbal Communication image. It is a figure of speech wherein an idea is given to provide clarity by comparing or associating it to another totally different idea. And it won t be fair to think of it the same as analogy or simile. Metaphors differ from analogy in the sense that no specific interpretations are provided for the former. And unlike similes, there are no direct comparisons. In metaphors, the concept is presented as something else, which in fact is not. This association between two different concepts, which are similar in some respects, presents a very strong image. So, when you say that He is an elephant, then the image that it creates is that the person is huge as well as strong. Given below are a few metaphor examples to help you understand it better. The rain came down in long knitting needles. (Enid Bagnold, National Velvet) Language is a road map of a culture. It tells you where its people come from and where they are going. (Rita Mae Brown) Fourscore and seven years ago our fathers brought forth, upon this continent, a new nation, conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal. (Abraham Lincoln, The Gettysburg Address, 1863) You can see from the examples given above, metaphors can make a simple sentence interesting by conveying strong imagery. Poets have used metaphors with great effects as they enabled them to say profound things without being verbose. Using metaphors can make any speech or writing stylish. Cultivate the habit of using metaphors and you will find that you can speak and write beautifully. Hyperbole Hyperbole is a figure of speech that uses an exaggerated or extravagant statement to create a strong emotional response. As a figure of speech it is not intended to be taken literally. Hyperbole is frequently used for humor. Examples of hyperbole are: I will die if she asks me to sing in front of everyone. My dog is so ugly; he only has cat friends! The town I grew up in is so isolated; rock, paper, scissors is considered a high tech game. My aunt is so fat that when she walks by the TV, I miss three shows. These are some of the best (hyperbolically speaking!) examples of hyperboles. Try imbibing them into your language to have an impact the very dramatic way! Oxymoron An oxymoron is a figure of speech that deliberately uses two contradictory ideas. This contradiction creates a paradoxical image in the listeners mind that generates a new concept or meaning for the whole. An oxymoron is formed when two words that don t normally go 31

8 English Presentational Speaking: Skills & Practice 英语演示发言技能与技巧实训 together are conjoined, creating a compressed paradox. A paradox is interesting because it is false and true at the same time. Paradoxical observations are often extraordinarily thought provoking, helping us see old realities in new ways. Somebody once said quite wisely that a paradox is a truth standing on its head to get our attention. The following sentences are some typical Oxymora: Sometimes you have to be cruel to be kind. The Sounds of Silence (song title) We sleep in separate rooms, we have dinner apart, we take separate vacations. We re doing everything we can to keep our marriage together. We picked a bad year to have a good year. Oxymora can make the following effects: 1. Humor. As you can see from these examples, oxymoronic humor is a sophisticated humor. It s directed at the most important organ in the human body the brain. As Grothe puts it that the self-contradictory aspects of oxymoronic humor appeal to a special part of our mental apparatus, a part that enjoys thinking about some of life s most intriguing contradictions and paradoxes. 2. Ironic Contrast. Oxymoron can be useful when things have been contrary to expectation, belief, desire, or assertion, or when your position is opposite to the one which you are discussing. The figure then produces an ironic contrast which shows, in your view, how something has been misunderstood or mislabeled: The cost-saving program became an expensive economy. 3. Paradoxes. Oxymora, as more or less true paradoxes, show the complexity of a situation where two apparently opposite things are true simultaneously, either literally ( desirable calamity ) or imaginatively ( love precipitates delay ). Examples some people have used are these: scandalously nice, sublimely bad, darkness visible, cheerful pessimist, sad joy, wise fool, tender cruelty, despairing hope, and freezing fire. An oxymoron should preferably be yours uniquely; do not use another s, unless it is a relatively obvious formulation (like expensive economy ) which anyone might think of. Personification Personification is a figure of speech in which an inanimate object or abstraction is endowed with human qualities or abilities. When used in the right way, a personification can make your style of conversing extremely artistic and intriguing. When you use personifications, you endow inanimate objects or abstractions with qualities, characters and abilities that are generally associated with humans. Assume that you want to describe wind. With personifications, you can juxtapose the wind to an angry young magician. This is something that you can do if you 32

9 Chapter 1 Verbal Communication are going to talk about a very strong wind. For example, O Wild West Wind, thou breath of autumn s being/ Thou from whose unseen presence the leaves dead/ Are driven like ghosts from an enchanter fleeing. (Shelley, P. B ) It might seem like an alien concept in the very beginning, but as you familiarize yourself with more and more examples, you might just become an expert in personifying objects and abstractions. Go ahead and discover for yourself a cluster of personification examples. Going through the examples on personification will help you exploit this figure of speech to the hilt too. Every morning my alarm clock springs to life; I hate it when that happens. When I woke up this morning and looked out of the window, it was the sun who was so willing to greet me. From the roof of my house, I observed that snow had wrapped a white blanket over my city. Careful when you talk; around here, even the walls have ears. Wisdom cries aloud in the streets; in the markets she raises her voice... Going through the examples should familiarize you to this important figure of speech and how it can be used when talking to a group of friends, delivering a presentation or even writing. If you have always wanted to use personifications when looking to express your thoughts, you now know how to go about it. It is really not as difficult as you may think. Remember, it is all about giving a human personality to your subject or theme. Signpost Language When you drive on the roads, you know where you are on those roads. Each road has a name or number. Each town has a name. Moreover, each house has a number. If you are at house #120, you can go back to #60 or forward to #160. You can look at the signposts for directions. In addition, you can look at your atlas for the structure of the roads in detail. In other words, it is easy to navigate the roads. You cannot get lost. However, when you give a presentation, how can your audience know where they are? How can they know the structure of your presentation? How can they know what is coming next? Signpost language is the words and phrases that people use to tell the listeners what has just happened, and what is going to happen next. A good way to make your presentations effective, interesting and easy to follow is to use signpost language. Different Signpost Language Signpost language guides the listeners through the presentation. A good presenter will usually use a lot of signpost languages, so it is a good idea to learn a few of the common signpost phrases, even if you spend more time listening to presentations than giving them. 33

10 English Presentational Speaking: Skills & Practice 英语演示发言技能与技巧实训 Signpost language is usually informal, so it is relatively easy to understand. Signposts make it easier for the audience to follow the structure of the presentation, understand the speaker more easily, and get an idea of the length and content of the presentation. The following is a list of phrases to help you make a professional presentation: 1. Welcoming. You may use the following structures to welcome your audience: Good morning and welcome to [name of company, name of conference hall, hotel, etc.]. Thank you all very much for coming today. I hope you all had a pleasant journey here today. 2. Introducing yourself and your presentation. These are ways to introduce yourself and your presentation: My name is Mark Watson and I am responsible for My name is Mark Watson from [name of company], where I am responsible for Let me introduce myself; my name is Mark Watson and I am responsible for The purpose of today s presentation is to The purpose of my presentation today is to In today s presentation I d like to show you / explain to you how In today s presentation I m hoping to give you an update on / give you an overview of In today s presentation I m planning to look at. / explain 3. Outlining your presentation. You can also outline your presentation to give the audience a clear overview of what they can expect: In today s presentation I m hoping to cover three points: Firstly,, after that we will look at, and finally I ll. In today s presentation I d like to cover three points: Firstly,, secondly, and finally 4. Starting the presentation. These are ways how you start a presentation: To begin with. To start with. Let s start by looking at I d like to start by looking at Let s start with / start by looking at 34

11 Chapter 1 Verbal Communication 5. Beginning a new section of the presentation. The expressions include: Now, let s move on to Now, let s take a look at Now I d like to move on to Next I d like to take a look at Moving on to the next part, I d like to Moving on to the next section, let s take a look at 6. Concluding and summarizing the presentation: Well, that brings us to the end of the final section. Now, I d like to summarize by That brings us to the end of the final section. Now, if I can just summarize the main points again. That concludes my presentation. Now, if I can just summarize the main points. That s an overview of Now, just to summarize, let s quickly look at the main points again. 7. Finishing and thanking: Thank you for your attention. That brings the presentation to an end. That brings us to the end of my presentation. Finally, I d like to finish by thanking you (all) for your attention. Finally, I d like to end by thanking you (all) for coming today. I d like to thank you (all) for your attention and interest. 8. Inviting questions: If anyone has any questions, I ll be pleased to answer them. If anyone has any questions, I ll do my best to answer them. If anyone has any questions, please feel free to ask them now. If anyone has any questions, please feel free to ask them and I ll do my best to answer. 9. Dealing with (difficult) questions: I ll come back to that question later if I may. I ll / We ll come back to that question later in my presentation. I ll / We ll look at that point in more detail later on. Perhaps we can look at that point at the end / a little later. 35

12 English Presentational Speaking: Skills & Practice 英语演示发言技能与技巧实训 Conclusion One important factor of presentational apprehension is that for many people English is not their mother tongue. As what Chesebro and McCrosky (1992) stated, people experience a high degree of communication apprehension with limited English proficiency because English is not their mother tongue. To break the language barrier, you have to know how language works and how to use it effectively. In other words, you should understand the power of language and try to use figurative language to make your message more vivid and understandable to your audience. Unlike writing, a presentation has no paragraphing to help an audience know when the presenter is changing subject or concluding his remarks. So the signpost language is crucial in the main part of the presentation and will help the audience understand and appreciate your presentation. While giving a presentation in your job interview, business career, no matter whether it is a formal presentation at a conference or a more informal talk to staff or a short presentation as part of a meeting, you can either make it a chance to improve your career prospects, or conversely to damage your possibilities of future promotion. It is vital to know the key language of presentations. Presentations have a fairly set structure and it helps to learn how to use a language effectively. Related Words and Expressions clarity [XklBrRtH] n. 清晰 ; 明晰 connotation [k nrgxtehsrn] n. 含蓄 ; 内涵意义, 隐含意义 denotation [Zdi#nRGXteHSRn] n. 表示 ;( 词等的 ) 指示意义 exaggerate [HgXzBdJRreHt] vt. 夸张 ; 夸大 ; 言过其实 vi. 夸大其词 extravagant [HkXstrBvRgRnt] adj. 过度的 ; 过分的 ;( 言行等 ) 放肆的 ; 越轨的 figurative [XfHgjurRtHv] adj. 比喻的 ; 借喻的 ; 象征的 ; 用修辞手段的, 有文采的 hyperbole [hahxp!#brlh] n. ( 修辞学中的 ) 夸张法 ; 夸张法的运用 jargon [XdJA#gRn] n. 行话, 行业话 ; 黑话 literal [XlHtRrRl] adj. 逐字的 ; 照字面的 ; 原义的 ; 如实的 ; 不 36

13 Chapter 1 Verbal Communication 夸张的 metaphor [XmetRfR] n. 隐喻 ; 比喻说法 personification [przs nhfhxkehsrn] n. 化身 ; 象征 ; 人格化 ; 拟人化 ;( 修辞的 ) 拟人法 simile [XsHmHlH] n. 明喻 ; 明喻说法 terminology [t!#mhxn lrdjh] n. ( 某学科的 ) 术语 ; 有特别含义的用语 ; 专业用语 verbose [v!#xbrgs] adj. 冗长的 ; 唆的 ; 唠叨的 figurative language 修辞语言 figure of speech 修辞格 ; 修辞手法 language barrier 语言障碍 lingua franca ( 不同民族之间交际用的 ) 混合语, 交际语, 通用语 signpost language 标示语 Further Questions/Discussion 1. Why are words powerful in presentations? 2. What are the two kinds of word meaning and what are the differences between them? 3. What are the differences between simile and metaphor? 4. What is personification? Please use examples to explain it. 5. What other figures of speech do you know? Please use examples to explain them respectively. 6. Do you agree that A figure is worth a thousand words? Why or why not? Speaking Activities 1. Without feeling that you re in competition with Shakespeare or Emily Dickinson, try your hand at creating a fresh example of personification. Simply take any inanimate object or abstraction and help us see or understand it in a new way by giving it human qualities or abilities. 2. Each of you can look at magazine pictures, and then prepare for five minutes to speak about the pictures in a presentation. Pay attention to your use of language. 37

14 English Presentational Speaking: Skills & Practice 英语演示发言技能与技巧实训 3. You can look up information about a given topic. For example, a famous person, a strange animal, man-made wonders of the world. Practice speaking formally within a group about your topic. 38

15 Chapter Nonverbal Communication 2 Learning Objectives After reading this chapter, you should be able to: better understand the importance of body language in presentational speaking. learn the importance of knowing how people communicate. master the strategies of nonverbal communication in preparing and conducting presentations. learn the different types of nonverbal communication. What you do speaks so loud that I can t hear what you say. Ralph Waldo Emerson Introduction In the introduction part of Chapter 1, we mentioned the two dimensions of communication: verbal and nonverbal. We have known that verbal communication is restricted to language. Nonverbal communication has been defined as communication without words. It includes apparent behaviors such as facial expressions, eye contact, touch,

16 English Presentational Speaking: Skills & Practice 英语演示发言技能与技巧实训 and tones of voice, as well as less obvious messages such as dress, posture and spatial distance between two or more people. Everything communicates including material objects, physical space, and time systems. Although verbal output can be turned off, nonverbal cannot. Even silence speaks. We use nonverbal communication for a number of reasons, including: 1. Words have limitations: There are numerous areas where nonverbal communication is more effective than verbal (describing the shape of something, or providing quick directions, for instance). 2. Nonverbal messages are likely to be more genuine: Because nonverbal behaviors cannot be controlled as easily as spoken words. 3. Nonverbal signals can express feelings inappropriate to state: Social etiquette limits what can be said, but nonverbal cues can communicate thoughts. 4. A separate communication channel is useful to help send complex messages: A speaker can add enormously to the complexity of the verbal message through simple nonverbal signals. Nonverbal communication serves many purposes in the presentation process and there are many channels for nonverbal communication. Nonverbal communication is usually used to support, reinforce, and even replace verbal communication, though it can also stand alone and convey messages on its own. As presenters, if you want to communicate effectively with your audience, you will need to pay attention to your nonverbal communication such as body language, eye contact, gestures, facial expressions, appearance, voice and pronunciation of English words. Awareness of the impact of these elements is an important step toward a successful presenter. Warming-Up 1. What are the main functions of nonverbal communication? 2. What are the key elements in nonverbal communication? 3. What is body language? And what does body language include? 4. Do you know how to use your voice effectively while giving presentations? 5. Is it important to pay attention to eye contact, facial expressions and appearance in a presentation? Why or why not? 40

17 Chapter 2 Nonverbal Communication Nonverbal Communication As you have noticed, nonverbal communication can be used to imply things that might be inappropriate to verbalize or to make explicit. Persons, who are speaking a non-native second language or sign language, often use universal visuals and nonverbal communication cues to expand on the limitations of their verbal knowledge to be more clearly understood. Body language is one of the key elements of nonverbal communication. Usually, body language occurs unconsciously. It is also interlinked with spoken language and the whole pattern of behavior from a person. In addition to that, various body language signs can complement each other to make a particular meaning crystal clear or strengthen the meaning. Body language is used especially to express feelings. If you are not aware of your body language, you may give your true feelings away. Another main aspect is paralanguage, the use of your voice. It can refer to volume (how soft or loud your voice is), pace/rate (how quickly or slowly we speak), intonation (inflection, accent), pitch (high or low) and filler of word, uh-huh, shhh, and mmm. The other key element of nonverbal communication is the proxemics (how we use and manage space). It refers to the distance between parties while conversing and the choice of place when entering a room. Of course, personal appearance also deserves attention. The first impression the audience have of the presenters is their appearance. If these elements are combined together, they convey messages that language cannot achieve. Awareness of the impact of these elements is an important step toward a successful presenter. Functions of Nonverbal Communication Nonverbal communication can fulfill different functions. The universal functions of nonverbal communication include identification, relationship, emotion and delivery. The identification function signals group membership, individuality, gender, age, ethnicity, and personality. It is communicated primarily through physical appearance. The relationship function signals the two dimensions of relationships: intimacy and control. It is usually conveyed via gaze, touch and proximity (contact codes). The third function is emotion function, which signals basic emotional states and expresses social intensions. It is communicated primarily through facial expressions and also vocal expressions. The last one is delivery function which conveys verbal messages primarily through voice and gestures. Nonverbal channels can support, modify and replace spoken message. 41

18 English Presentational Speaking: Skills & Practice 英语演示发言技能与技巧实训 Elements and Purposes of Nonverbal Communication There is a variety of elements that make up nonverbal communication. These key aspects can be organized as kinesics (body language), paralanguage (use of voice) and proxemics (how we use and manage space). When combined, these elements make up the unique messages sent by the presentational speakers, intentionally or not. Researchers established four basic purposes that body language serves: emblems, illustrators, affect displays and adaptors. Emblems are nonverbal signals that can generally be translated directly into words. People within a culture of group agree in their meaning. A good example is the A-OK symbol made with the thumb and forefinger. Because these gestures can be directly translated into words, they are quick to use and unambiguous in meaning. However, you have to be culturally aware that, outside of your home culture, this gesture can have quite a different interpretation than being OK! Illustrators are movements that complement verbal communication by describing, accenting or reinforcing what the speaker is saying. People use illustrators to indicate the size of an object or to draw a picture in the air or to emphasize a key word by pounding on the table. Use of illustrators can help indicate interest, efforts to be clear or enthusiasm for the topic being talked about. Affect displays are nonverbal displays of the body or face that carry an emotional meaning or display affective states. Our gait (shuffling, suggesting depression), and our facial movements (breaking into a big grin, suggesting pleasure) send a message about our feelings. Affect displays are often spontaneous and thus they may send signals that we would rather not convey based on social norms or our goals for communication. We will explore facial expressions more in a later section. Adaptors are forms of nonverbal communication that often occur at a low level of personal awareness. They can be thought of behaviors that are done to meet a personal need as one adapts to the specific communication situation. They include behaviors like twisting your hair, tapping your pen, scratching, tugging on your ear, holding yourself etc. Given the low level of awareness of these behaviors by the person doing them, the audience are sometimes more aware of the behaviors than the presenter is. Adaptors may thus serve unintentionally as clues to how a presenter is feeling. Adaptors are not intended for use in communication, but rather may represent behaviors learned early in life that are somehow cued by the current situation and may be increased when the level of anxiety goes up in the situation. After discussing the basic purposes nonverbal communication serves, let s move on to talk about different aspects of nonverbal communication respectively. 42

19 Chapter 2 Nonverbal Communication Kinesics Kinesics is a term used by social scientists. It is about how we move, and can be simply understood as body language. Kinesics is the interpretation of body language such as facial expressions, eye contact, gestures, and postures or, more formally, nonverbal behaviors related to movement, either of any part of the body or the body as a whole. The term was first used (in 1952) by Ray Birdwhistell, an anthropologist who wished to study how people communicate through posture, gesture, stance, and movement, and later popularized during the late 1960s by members of the counter-culture seeking to de-verbalize human communication. According to Knapp (1972:94-95), a kineme is similar to a phoneme because it consists of a group of movements which are not identical, but which may be used interchangeably without affecting social meaning. Birdwhistell estimated that no more than 30 to 35 percent of the social meaning of a conversation or an interaction is carried by the words. (Birdwhistell, 1985:158). Now, let s look at different types of kinesics. (en. wikipedia.org/wiki/knesics) Facial Expressions Facial expressions are a form of nonverbal communication that can contribute to the development of your message. They are a primary means of conveying social information among humans. When is the last time you thought about your facial expressions? You probably spend a lot of time on the big picture and the vital details of your presentations. What story am I trying to tell? What is my message? What is the best introduction? What is the best conclusion? Do I have enough slides or do I have too many? You might have spent a lot of time and energy on these aspects and worked on the tiniest details of your slide design, staying up all night slaving over every last caption and font. However, facial expressions are probably finer points that you usually don t consider when making a presentation. It s easy to forget that we have these highly effective expression-machines pasted on the front of our heads. Most of us aren t aware of what we are saying with our facial expressions most of the time. This isn t a serious problem for us in the real life, but what about when we are presenting? Most of us avoid making insanely weird faces during our time on stage, but what if we could make use of our facial expressions more effectively in our quest for PowerPoint presentation greatness? Here are five facial formulas for maximum expressions during your next presentation. 1. Smiling eyes. Every person you know has a different smile. In fact we all have more than one smile. Although smiling is an important expression when we are presenting, trying to maintain a constant tooth-show will make you look more like a leering sociopath than a happy, enthusiastic presenter. Practice smiling with your eyes. First grin slightly, and then 43

20 English Presentational Speaking: Skills & Practice 英语演示发言技能与技巧实训 narrow your eyes slightly into a stare. This will allow you to project those good vibes during your presentation without anyone trying to rip the Prozac out of your pockets. 2. Looking up. Remember, you don t have the luxury of having a long conversation with each member of your audience. You can t share your feelings so you have to project them. One way to project your thoughtful consideration of your audience s comments and questions is to turn your eyes to the skies as you contemplate your answers. 3. Guffawing. Although your presentation is no place to let it all hang out, you need to be open and allow your feelings to show through. Don t be afraid to laugh out loud especially at yourself. As we all know, They ll laugh with you. 4. Noddirg on. Expressing interest in your audience s feedback is important. No one likes a self-centered snob. One way to convey that you are indeed engaged with the comments and questions they offer is to nod as you listen. Opening your eyes a bit wider will also help to convey your attentiveness. 5. Looking disgusted. It may seem odd to practice looking disgusted in order to prepare for a presentation, but it can be a good idea. Looks of anger, disgust, and sadness can be exaggerated for humorous effect. A face can be a punch line. Just be careful of not making someone want to punch your face. Of course, none of this works if you aren t actually engaged, interested and enthusiastic about your presentation and your audience. However, all the energy and emotions in the world won t do you any good if you can t express it. Eye contact According to Cambridge Advanced Learner s Dictionary, eye contact is a meeting of the eyes between two individuals. For human beings, eye contact is a form of nonverbal communication and is thought to have a large influence on social behaviors. Many authors emphasize the importance of eye contact with the audience and while giving presentations, presenters should vary the person they look at as well (Bergin, F. 1995; Kupsh, J, Graves, P R, 1993; Kushner, M, 1996; Leech, T, 1993; Synder, E, 1990). Eye contact is the cement that binds together speakers and their audience. When you speak, your eyes involve your listeners in your presentation. There is no surer way to break a communication bond between you and the audience than by failing to look at your listeners. No matter how large your audience may be, each listener wants to feel that you are talking to him or her. The eyes are the mirror of the soul. This underlines the need for you to convince people with your eyes, as well as your words. Only by looking at your listeners as individuals can you convince them that you are sincere and interested in them, and that you care whether they receive your message. When you speak, your eyes also function as a control device you can use to assure your listeners attentiveness and concentration. 44