Author s Purpose. Example: David McCullough s purpose for writing The Johnstown Flood is to inform readers of a natural phenomenon that made history.

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1 Allegory An allegory is a work with two levels of meaning a literal one and a symbolic one. In such a work, most of the characters, objects, settings, and events represent abstract qualities. Example: The novel Animal Farm is an example of an allegory. On the literal level, this is just a story about animals on a farm growing tired of being abused, so they run the farmer off and take over the farm. On the symbolic level, this is a story about the Russian Revolution.

2 Author s Purpose A writer usually writes for one or more reasons: to express thoughts or feelings, to inform or explain, to persuade, or to entertain. So, if I say what was the writer s purpose, I mean what was the writer s reason for writing. Example: David McCullough s purpose for writing The Johnstown Flood is to inform readers of a natural phenomenon that made history. NOTE: synonyms for purpose include aim, goal, and intention

3 Characterization Characterization is the way a writer creates and develops a character s qualities. In The Most Dangerous Game, the author characterizes Zaroff as an evil man through physical descriptions (a Cossack with sharp pointed teeth and smacking red lips) and behaviors (hunting since the age of 5, killing his father s prized turkeys, leading a division of Cossack cavalrymen, and especially, hunting humans for sport).

4 Clarify Clarifying is a reading strategy that helps a reader to understand or make clear what he or she is reading. Readers usually clarify by rereading, reading aloud, or discussing.

5 Conflict A conflict is a problem in a story or a struggle between opposing forces. Conflicts can be internal (character vs. self) or external (character vs. nature, society, or another character). Example: Amy and Julie argued over where to eat lunch. (This is an external conflict between two characters.)

6 Connotation/Denotation The connotation of a word is the attitude or feeling associated with that word. Connotations can be positive or negative. The denotation of a word is its literal, or dictionary, meaning. Example: The word enthusiastic has a positive connotation (happy, excited), while rowdy has a negative connotation (loud, out of control).

7 Context Clues Context clues are the words/phrases surrounding the word that provide hints about the word s meaning. When you encounter an unfamiliar word, you can often use context clues as aids for understanding. Example: Nutritious foods, such as fruits and vegetables, help our bodies grow. Using context clues, you can determine that the word nutritious means healthy.

8 Controlling Idea A controlling idea, or main idea, is the central or most important idea about a topic that a writer or speaker conveys. It can be the main idea of an entire work or of just a paragraph. The controlling idea of a paragraph is often expressed in a topic sentence, but it may also be implied, or suggested by details.

9 Dynamic Character A dynamic character is a character who undergoes important changes as a plot unfolds. The change occurs because of his or her actions and experiences in the story. In The Most Dangerous Game, Rainsford is a dynamic character because he learns how it feels to be hunted and, as a result, becomes sympathetic toward the animals he has hunted over the years.

10 Expository An expository essay explains, clarifies, and informs using factual support. Examples: press releases, scientific reports, news stories, textbooks, reports

11 Figurative Language Figurative language is language that goes beyond the normal meaning of the words. Figurative language is also called figures of speech. Examples: simile, metaphor, personification, alliteration, onomatopoeia, hyperbole, idiom

12 Flashback Flashback is a technique in which a writer interrupts a story to go back and relive an earlier time or event. Example: I stopped at the gate, panting. Suddenly I was seven years old again, and my brother was there, calling me chicken from the edge of the stone well. Then I opened my eyes and heard only the crickets chirping. The years, the well, and my brother were gone. I turned back to the road, determined to get home before nightfall.

13 Foreshadowing Foreshadowing is giving hints about what will happen next in a story. Example: As Mary explained why she had to break their date, she noticed Luke looking past her. Turning, she saw Meg smiling at Luke.

14 Inference An inference is an educated guess based on evidence and your own prior knowledge or experience. To make an inference Notice key details in the text Consider your own prior knowledge or experiences Connect your experiences to what you re reading Make an inference Example: The science teacher, with an angry look on her face, confronts a student about her behavior in lab. The student knows she has no excuse, and she nervously looks down at the floor and clears her throat before she speaks. The reader can infer that the student feels guilty.

15 Irony Irony is a term for situations where there are differences between appearance and reality, between expectation and what actually happens, or between what is said and what is meant. Verbal irony when someone says one thing but means the opposite Situational irony when some outcome is the opposite of what we would expect Dramatic irony when we know something the character doesn t know Example: We all know there s nothing students love more than homework.

16 Mood Mood is the feeling a piece of literature creates in a reader. Example: The mood created in The Most Dangerous Game is threatening, fearful, and suspenseful. NOTE: Mood and tone are very similar. Keep in mind that mood is the feeling of the reader and tone is the feeling of the author.

17 Narrator The narrator is the person or character who tells the story, gives background information, and fills in details between dialogue. Examples: The narrator in The Most Dangerous Game is an outside narrator (not a character in the story). The narrator in Daughter of Invention is the daughter as an adult retelling the story.

18 Parallelism Parallelism is the repeating of similar grammatical structures (words, phrases, or sentences) to give writing rhythm. When revising or combining sentences on STAAR, you must keep them parallel. Examples: We cannot undo, we will not forget, and we should not ignore the pain of the past. Mary likes hiking, swimming, and bicycling.

19 Persuasive A persuasive essay tries to convince its audience that one idea or concept is more desirable or reasonable than another. Examples: editorials, opinion pieces, reviews for books, movies, plays, art, and commentaries

20 Plot Plot is the sequence of events in a story. The plot of the story shows the reader what is happening.

21 Point of View The point of view of a story is the perspective from which the story is told. The point of view can be: 1st person an actual character is telling the story (uses I, we, etc.) 3 rd person someone outside the story is telling it (uses he, she, they, etc.) 3 rd person limited tells the thoughts of only one character 3 rd person omniscient tells the thoughts and feelings of all the characters Example: The point of view of The Necklace is 3 rd person omniscient because the narrator is not a character in the story, and he gives the thoughts and feelings of both main characters.

22 Setting The setting of a story is the time and place in which the story occurs. Example: The setting of The Most Dangerous Game is on a secluded island in the Caribbean.

23 Static Character A static character is a character who remains the same throughout the story. He or she does not change despite their actions or experiences. In The Most Dangerous Game, Zaroff is a static character because he does not learn from his experiences hunting humans, and he never changes his attitude.

24 Supporting Details Supporting details are facts or examples that tell more about the main idea. Supporting details make your main idea stronger. Example: Main Idea Rollercoasters move in different ways. Supporting Details They loop upside down, twist and turn, and rise high and drop.

25 Symbol A symbol is a concrete object used to represent an idea. It s something that stands for something else. Example: In Daughter of Invention, the typewriter the father gives his daughter is a symbol of his love and acceptance of his daughter and her new way of thinking as an American girl.

26 Theme A theme is the underlying message about life or human nature that a writer wants the reader to understand. Example: In Harrison Bergeron, you may identify a theme about the damage that can be done when people go to extremes in the service of equality. Recurring themes are themes found in a variety of works. For example, writers from various backgrounds may convey similar themes about the importance of family values. Universal themes are themes that are found throughout literature of all time periods. War, betrayal, and life as a journey are all examples of universal themes. Universal themes can apply to anyone, anytime, anyplace.

27 Thesis Statement An effective thesis statement tells the reader specifically what you plan to write about. Your thesis statement generally comes at the end of your introduction and usually takes a stand or expresses a specific feeling about, or feature of, your topic. A specific topic (Egypt s magnificent Sphinx) + a particular stand, feeling, or feature (is being destroyed by pollution) = an effective thesis statement (Egypt s magnificent Sphinx is being destroyed by pollution.) Thesis Checklist : Be sure that your thesis statement Identifies a limited, specific topic Focuses on a particular feature or feeling about the topic Is stated in one or more clear sentences Can be supported with convincing facts and details Meets the requirements of the assignment

28 Tone Tone is the attitude a writer takes toward a subject. Tone reflects the feelings of a writer. A writer communicates tone through word choice and details. For example, if I ask you for the tone of a poem or passage, you may reply with a single word, such as serious, humorous, formal, sarcastic, playful, ironic, or bitter.

29 Transitions Transitions are words or phrases that connect or tie ideas together. They can be used to connect one sentence to another sentence within a paragraph, or to connect one paragraph to another within a longer essay or report. Use transition words to: Show location (above, beneath, between) Show time (after, next, soon) Compare things (likewise, similarly, also) Contrast (however, although, on the other hand) Emphasize a point (in fact, especially, for this reason) Conclude or summarize (therefore, as a result, because) Add information (in addition, for example, another) Clarify (in other words, that is, for instance)

30 Voice Voice is a writer s unique personal tone or feeling that comes across in a piece of writing. Your writing should express your own voice and fit your purpose for writing. It should genuinely express your personality or viewpoint to engage the reader. Voice gives your writing a face, which establishes a relationship between you and the audience. For example, the poet Sylvia Plath s voice might be called that of a victimized daughter, wife, and mother.