Performance guide to three keyboard sonatas of Antonio Soler

Transcription

1 University of Iowa Iowa Research Online Theses and Dissertations Fall 2009 Performance guide to three keyboard sonatas of Antonio Soler Hayk Arsenyan University of Iowa Copyright 2009 Hayk Arsenyan This dissertation is available at Iowa Research Online: Recommended Citation Arsenyan, Hayk. "Performance guide to three keyboard sonatas of Antonio Soler." DMA (Doctor of Musical Arts) thesis, University of Iowa, Follow this and additional works at: Part of the Music Commons

2 PERFORMANCE GUIDE TO THREE KEYBOARD SONATAS OF ANTONIO SOLER by Hayk Arsenyan An essay submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Doctor of Musical Arts degree in the Graduate College of The University of Iowa December 2009 Essay Supervisor: Professor Rene J. Lecuona

3 Copyright by HAYK ARSENYAN 2009 All Rights Reserved

4 Graduate College The University of Iowa Iowa City, Iowa CERTIFICATE OF APPROVAL D.M.A. ESSAY This is to certify that the D.M.A essay of Hayk Arsenyan has been approved by the Examining Committee for the essay requirement for the Doctor of Musical Arts degree at the December 2009 graduation. Essay Committee: Rene J. Lecuona, Essay Supervisor David J. Nelson John R. Muriello Rachel A. Joselson Alan Sener

5 To my lovely mother ii

6 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my DMA essay adviser and dear friend, Dr. Rene J. Lecuona, for her tremendous help on this project and her inspiring musicianship. Her patience and kind spirit are an example to all. Also, I would like to convey my sincere thanks to my DMA committee for their support and flexibility, to Diego Arango, Ana Maria Orduz, Sarah Snydacker, and Andrew Hofstrand for their hospitality and incredible friendship, and to my amazing family in Armenia, especially my grandmother and my mother, for their undying love and encouragement. iii

7 TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES... vi LIST OF EXAMPLES... vii INTRODUCTION...1 CHAPTER ONE: SOLER S WORLD...4 Soler and El Escorial...5 The Socio-Political Scene In Eighteenth-Century Spain...5 Soler and Scarlatti...6 The Mid-Eighteenth Century Sonata...8 Soler and Don Gabriel...10 Soler and Publishing...12 Editions of Soler s Keyboard Sonatas...14 The Harpsichod and Pianoforte...15 Soler: Musician Extraordinaire...19 Soler s Fandango...21 CHAPTER TWO: MUSICAL ASPECTS OF SOLER S KEYBOARD SONATAS...22 Formal and Harmonic Structure...22 Choice of Keys...24 Themes and Phrase Structure...26 Rhythm...28 Texture...31 Tempi and Meter...35 Ornamentation...35 Spanish Characteristics...38 CHAPTER THREE: STYLISTIC ANALYSIS AND PERFORMANCE GUIDE TO THREE KEYBOARD SONATAS OF ANTONIO SOLER...43 Sonata M.1 in C Minor...43 The Formal, Harmonic and Melodic Structure...43 Phrase Structure...46 Stylistic Observations and Performance Suggestions...48 Jota Aragonesa...51 Sonata M.9 in D Major...52 The Formal Structure...52 The Thematic and Harmonic Structure...53 Spanish Characteristics and Performance Suggestions...57 Missing Indications and Editorial Remarks...61 Sonata M.21 in G Minor...62 The Form and Harmonic Structure...62 Tempo and Meter Indications...67 Spanish Characteristics and Performance Suggestions...69 iv

8 CONCLUSION...71 BIBLIOGRAPHY...73 v

9 LIST OF TABLES Table 1. Correlation between keys and scale degrees...25 Table 2. Correspondence between Natural Minor scale and Natural mode degrees...40 Table 3. Correspondence between Western key and Natural mode through their Phrygian Cadence...40 Table 4. Harmonic Scheme...44 Table 5. Phrase structure in both sections...47 Table 6. Formal structure...53 Table 7. Measure groupings between the sections...57 Table 8. Formal structure...62 Table 9. Scheme of modulation and augmentation of the sequence...65 Table 10. Sequential relationship...66 Table 11. Hypermetrical scheme...69 vi

10 LIST OF EXAMPLES Example 1. Sonata M.13 in B Major, m Example 2. Sonata M.2 in C Minor, m Example 3. Sonata M.4 in C Minor, m Example 4. Sonata M.4 in C Minor. Footnote to m Example 5. Sonata M.9 in D Major, m Example 6. Sonata M.9 in D Major, m Example 7. Sonata M.4 in C Minor, m Example 8. Sonata M.2 in C Minor, m Example 9. Sonata M.17 in E Minor, m Example 10. Sonata M.12 in C Minor, m Example 11. Sonata M.5 in C Major, m Example 12. Sonata M.5 in C Major, m Example 13. Sonata M.16 in B Major, m Example 14. Sonata M.1 in C Minor, m Example 15. Sonata M.1 in C Minor, m Example 16. Sonata M.9 in D Major, m Example 17. Sonata M.9 in D Major, m Example 18. Sonata M.9 in D Major, m Example 19. Sonata M.21 in G Minor, m Example 20. Sonata M.21 in G Minor, m Example 21. Sonata M.21 in G Minor, m vii

11 1 INTRODUCTION My love and interest in early music goes back to my childhood. When I was in high school orchestra, our director was a well-known early music specialist, and we often played works by renaissance, baroque and pre-classical composers. Nine years ago I encountered the sonatas of Antonio Soler for the first time. I was immediately impressed by the beauty of these works and began to include them in my concert repertoire. As I began to investigate the music of Padre Antonio Soler, it became apparent that most of the source material on Soler and his music is written in Catalan 1. However, there are several articles in music journals and periodicals written in English by wellknown scholars Frederick Marvin, Ralf Kirkpatrick, Joaquin Nin, Joseph Freedman, and Dean Elder that discuss eighteenth-century Iberian 2 music, including Soler s. There are only five dissertations in English that are related to Antonio Soler; the latest of which dates from Two of these dissertations are translations of Soler s theoretical treatise La Llave de la Modulacion y Antiguedades de La Musica. 3 Another serves as a general introduction to Soler s life and works, and the other two discuss Soler s keyboard sonatas. None of the aforementioned dissertations, however, offer stylistic observations and a performance guide to the music of Soler. Most of the manuscripts of Soler s sonatas are held in five institutions in Spain: the Monastery of Montserrat; the Monastery El Escorial; the Biblioteca Central in Barcelona; the Orfeo Catalan in Barcelona; and the Institute of France in Madrid. Among many different published editions of Soler s keyboard sonatas the editions of 1 Catalan is a language which is spoken in Catalonia, a region in northeastern part of Spain. 2 The Iberian Peninsula is the geographical location of the countries of Spain and Portugal. The Iberian Peninsula, though part of southern Europe, is separated from France by the Pyrenees Mountains. 3 Heretofore, I will refer to Soler s thesis as Key to Modulation.

12 2 Frederick Marvin and Samuel Rubio are the most commonly used. I am using the Marvin Edition for my performances. The discography of Soler s works is quite large. Artists such as Gilbert Rowland, Alicia De Larrocha, Jacques Ogg, Daniel Blumenthal, and Bob Van Asperen have recorded Soler s keyboard sonatas on labels such as Sony, Decca, Naxos, Philips, Orion, and Deutsche Grammophon. The sonatas on these recordings are performed on the harpsichord, the pianoforte, and the piano. In my essay I will discuss eighteenth-century Iberian keyboard traditions that influenced Soler s works, identify general stylistic characteristics of Soler s keyboard sonatas, and offer my own theoretical and stylistic analysis to provide a performance guide to three of his keyboard sonatas on the modern piano. I will divide my essay into three chapters. In the First Chapter I will provide a brief sketch of the political and musical scene in eighteenth-century Spain. In my discussion I will concentrate on Soler s environment at El Escorial Monastery where he lived and composed. Within this context I will discuss some of the stylistic peculiarities and compositional techniques that set Soler apart from his famous contemporary Domenico Scarlatti. I will discuss the history of music publishing and printing in Spain, and explore the relationships between composers and their royal patrons. In this regard I will touch upon Soler s teacher/student relationship with Carlos III s youngest son Don Gabriel, for whom Soler wrote most of his keyboard sonatas. Also, I will discuss the historical context and the formal structure of the mid-eighteenth-century pedagogical sonata scolastica. To assist in interpreting Soler s works on a modern piano I will include a short historical overview of eighteenth-century keyboard instruments that were used in Spain and Portugal, such as the Cristofori and Antunes fortepianos. In the conclusion of this chapter I will discuss some of Soler s other interests, such as his theoretical treatise Key to Modulation and his organ-building work, so that the reader will gain an appreciation of the breadth of his knowledge and accomplishments.

13 3 In the Second Chapter, I will discuss several general aspects of Soler s keyboard sonatas, including formal and harmonic structure, thematic use and melodic organization, rhythm and meter, phrase structure, texture, tempo markings, and his use of ornamentation. I will also discuss Soler s choice of keys and their correlation with keys that are often used in Flamenco guitar music. This is important since a truly well thought out and stylistically authentic performance of the keyboard sonatas on a modern piano must embrace the Spanish characteristics that influenced Soler s writing, such as cante jondo, regional dances, and the imitation of specific Flamenco guitar techniques. In the final chapter, I will analyze three specific keyboard sonatas of Antonio Soler. The sonatas I have chosen represent contrasting compositional styles that suggest different time periods of the composer s life. I will analyze these works based on their stylistic traits and forms, and also discuss performance-related issues such as the use of pedals, specific ornamentation, dynamics and articulation, and the application of various tone-colors. I will consider the authenticity of the editorial markings within the context of the improvisatory style and performance on the modern instrument. In order to offer a performance guide to these sonatas on the modern piano, I offer my own theoretical analysis, stylistic observations and performance suggestions for each of the sonatas. For this work, I consulted several treatises on eighteenth-century performance practice, including Soler s own Key to Modulation, I evaluated the different editions and available extant manuscripts of Soler s sonatas, and I listened to recordings of the sonatas performed on different instruments with a variety of stylistic interpretations.

14 4 CHAPTER ONE: SOLER S WORLD Soler was born in the town of Olon de Porrera, in the province of Gerona, in Catalonia. 4 His birth date is unknown but he was baptized on December 3, At a young age he entered the Escolonia of the Montserrat Monastery, one of the oldest music schools in the Western World, near Barcelona. At the Escolonia, Soler studied organ, solfeggio, harmony, composition and harpsichord. After graduating from the Escolonia in 1752, Soler took holy orders and entered the monastery of Montserrat at the age of twenty-three. When the bishop of Urgel asked him to recommend someone for the position of organist and choir-master at the El Escorial monastery, near Madrid, Soler offered himself as a candidate. 6 Agreeing to the request, Urgel appointed him as a choir master and organist at the monastery where Soler worked from 1752 to his death in Here, Soler composed an impressive number of religious vocal works for use at El Escorial, as well as secular music and music for plays written by the famous Spanish dramaturges, Calderon de la Borca and Lope De Vega. 8 However, Soler maintained contact with the Montserrat Monastery throughout his life, regularly sending the monks manuscripts of religious works composed at El Escorial. 9 4 Sadowsky, Reah. Antonio Soler: Creator of Spain s Fifth Century of Musical Genius. The American Music teacher, no. 1 (1978): 28: Marvin, Frederick. Discovered Treasure: The Music of Antonio Soler. Clavier 19 (July-August 1980):22. 6 Kirkpatrick, Ralph. Domenico Scarllati: A Famous Harpsichordist s Study of the Life, Times, and Works of One of the Greatest Composers for His Instrument. Apollo ed. Thomas Y. Crowell Company, New York: Princeton University Press, Carroll, Frank. An Introduction to Antonio Soler. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Rochester, 1975, 5. 8 Marvin, Frederick. Antonio Soler. The Consort, no. 39, (1983): Yamaoka, Miyuki. Antonio Soler Sonatas La Ma de Guido. Piano CD cover, article by Isabel Izard I Granados p. 10.c2.

15 5 Soler and El Escorial When Soler took his position at El Escorial, he entered a milieu which would soon prove optimal for his artistic and professional life. Beginning in 1757, Soler assumed important and prestigious professional responsibilities. At the monastery, he took over the position of maestro di capella upon the death of Gabriel de Moratilla. Soler also became the official teacher of the royal children upon the death of Domenico Scarlatti. 10 El Escorial, built by Philip II ( ), was intended to serve four functions: palace, monastery, and church, as well as a burial place for Spanish kings and queens. There were close ties between the Spanish royal court and El Escorial. The royal court lived at El Escorial for part of each autumn. The monastery at El Escorial had an annex in Madrid, where Soler stayed when he visited Madrid to study with Jose de Nebra and Scarlatti, as well as when he travelled to hear various musical performances. The Socio-Political Scene in Eighteenth-Century Spain It is helpful to explore the socio-political scene in which Soler lived in Spain, so that we may come to a closer understanding of Soler s professional situation. Following the dissolution of the Spanish Habsburgs and the War of Spanish Successions, a new French-born monarch, Felipe V, the grandson of Louis XIV of France, arrived as king of Spain in Along with him he brought his wife, Italian-born Isabel Farnese de Parma, who had a strong interest in both Italian opera and French court dances. 11 This 10 Stevenson, Robert. Antonio Soler. The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians. Edited by Stanly Sadie. Volume 17. Macmillan Publishers Ltd. London, Gross Ceballos, Sara. Keyboard Portraits: Performing Character in the Eighteenth Century. Ph.D. Dissertation. University of California in Los Angeles, 2008, 88.

16 6 new dynasty opened doors to foreign influences and had little interest in Spanish culture. 12 While many Spaniards initially welcomed the French fashions and tastes that Felipe V brought to Spain, some Spaniards, rebelling against the court rejection of Spanish national costume, music, and dance, wanted to return to art forms based on folk traditions as a means of self-definition against foreigners and petimetres. 13 Furthermore, many Spaniards blamed these new leaders for the arrival of political upheavals in their country. 14 By the time of Felipe V s death in 1746, Spain was up in arms over its national identity. Therefore, the public welcomed the succession of Felipe s son Ferdinand VI. Not only was the new king Spanish born, but his queen Maria Barbara de Braganza was from neighboring Portugal, a country with close geographical and cultural ties to Spain. Fernando and Maria Barbara fostered an appreciation for native Spanish culture, while at the same time continuing the more international cultural fertilization in the Spanish royal court by maintaining an impressive list of Italian musical figures such as Farinelli, Domenico Scarlatti, Luigi Boccherini, Domenico Alberti and many others. 12 Sadie, Julie Ann, ed. Companion to Baroque Music. Forwarded by Hogwood, Christopher, Schirmer book, New York, Oxford, Singapore, and Sydney: Maxwell McMillan International, 1991, Fr. petit- maître or little masters, a group of middle class and aristocratic Spaniards who preoccupied itself with emulation of the royals, and hence the French in costume, dance, music, and compartments. Gross Ceballos, Sara. Keyboard Portraits: Performing Character in the Eighteenth Century. Ph.D. Dissertation. University of California in Los Angeles, 2008, Spain was embroiled in multiple wars with England and other neighboring countries.

17 7 Soler and Scarlatti The name Soler is often mentioned along with that of Scarlatti ( ), the famous Italian composer who also spent the majority of his professional life on the Iberian Peninsula. For ten years Scarlatti served as a private keyboard instructor to the gifted harpsichordist and Portuguese princess Maria Barbara de Braganza in Lisbon. When she married into the Spanish royal family, Scarlatti followed her from Portugal to Andalusia. Later, when her husband Ferdinand VI became the king of Spain, Scarlatti followed Maria Barbara to Madrid. Scarlatti played an influential role in the musical life of Spain. He often traveled back to his native Italy, and is generally credited with bringing many of the important Italian compositional styles of the eighteenth century, including the galant style, to Spain. In the early eighteenth century, instructions such as muy faciles y de buen gusto (very easy and of good taste) began appearing in many Iberian works. 15 Scarlatti was also fascinated with Iberian popular culture. He used Spanish harmonies, rhythms and dance-types, such as the bolero and the jota. In his keyboard sonatas, some passages imitate the sound of castanets and the Spanish guitar. Scarlatti s compositional style synthesizes Spanish musical traditions with eighteenth-century Italian musical forms, such as the sonata and the arietta, and stylistic features such as cantabile. 16 The nature of the association between Soler and Scarlatti has long been the subject of debate. It has always been accepted that the two composers knew of each 15 Maxwell, Carolyn, ed. Scarlatti: Solo Piano Literature. Boulder, Colorado: Maxwell Music Evaluation Books, 1985, According to Newman, the first use of the title sonata in Spain was by the 16 th century Spanish composer Luis Cabezon. Newman, William S. The Sonata in the Baroque Era. Revised ed. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina press, 1966, 18.

18 8 other, since Soler mentions Scarlatti by name in his treatise Key to Modulation. 17 In this treatise, Soler does not include the name of Scarlatti in the list of his teachers. 18 Instead, he respectfully mentions Scarlatti as the famous Scarlatti [Don Scarlatti]. 19 However, since Kirkpatrick s seminal study of Soler, it is generally accepted that Soler did indeed study with Scarlatti. 20 Following the tradition of many eighteenth-century composers, Soler even copied and edited some of Scarlatti s keyboard works. 21 Furthermore, we know that for the first five years that Soler was at El Escorial, (1752 to1757), Scarlatti lived near Madrid. We also know that Scarlatti accompanied the Spanish royal court in their annual fall visits to El Escorial. Scholars such as Kirkpatrick believe that Soler had lessons with Scarlatti when the royal court visited El Escorial and possibly in Madrid at the annex of Soler s monastery Shipley, Linda Patricia. English Translation of Soler s Llave de la Modulacion. Ph.D. Dissertation, Florida State University, 1978, Marvin, Frederick. Discovered Treasure: The Music of Antonio Soler. Clavier 19 (1980): Shipley, Linda Patricia. Pedagogical Advantages in the Keyboard Sonatas of Antonio Soler. The American Music Teacher, no. 5, (1989): 38: Ralf Kirkpatrick catalogued Scarlatti s all keyboard sonatas and wrote a book entitled Domenico Scarlatti: A Famous Harpsichordist s Study of Life, Times, and Works of One of the Greatest Composers For His Instrument. 21 Stevenson, Robert. Antonio Soler. The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians. Edited by Stanly Sadie. Volume 17. Macmillan Publishers Ltd. London, Kirkpatrick, Ralph. Domenico Scarlatti: A Famous Harpsichordist s Study of the Life, Times, and Works of One of the Greatest Composers for His Instrument. Apollo ed. Thomas Y. Crowell Company, New York: Princeton University Press,

19 9 The Mid-Eighteenth Century Sonata In the eighteenth century, music underwent many changes, including a transition from the Baroque to the Classical style. Such stylistic transformations proved crucial for the development of Iberian keyboard music. 23 In Spain and Portugal, as well as in much of central Europe and Italy, musicians were called upon to provide courtly entertainment as well as compose for and tutor their royal patrons. Therefore, the musical amateur and dilettante sector of aristocratic society played a very important role in the development of pre-classical genres, especially the galant sonata scolastica of the eighteenth century. 24 In the pre-classical era the sonata gained a pedagogical purpose and became one of the most popular genres in Europe. The terms used to describe the sonata scolastica were different in various countries. For example, in England such sonatas were called lessons, in France pièces or études, in Austria divertimenti, in Italy essercizi, and in Spain toccatas. 25 These sonatas were generally in binary form, served an educational purpose, possessed fantasy elements and consisted of contrasting sections. The easier versions of such exercises were called sonatinas. Composers such as Sammartini, Galuppi, Soler, and Haydn wrote numerous sonatas for their royal patrons. Collections with dedications such as a amatori and a dilettanti or à l usage de Dame and pour le beau sexe appeared all over Europe. According to William Newman, such pieces were 23 It is somewhat inappropriate to use the term Baroque to refer to the Spanish music of the seventeenth century, since the music was mainly conservative in style, light and thin in texture, and was not overly ornamented. 24 Schonberg, Harold C, The Great Pianists Revised and updated edition. Simon and Schuster, New York, 1987, Newman, William S. The Sonata in the Classic Era. Second ed. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1963, 20.

20 10 supposed to be charming and easy in order to satisfy the needs of the amateur musicians, and especially the ladies. 26 The sonatas of the early galant style were not necessarily intended for public performances. Many of Scarlatti s keyboard sonatas were composed for Maria Barbara as practice pieces to develop her technique. In fact, Soler inherited the keyboard sonata from Scarlatti, a man forty-four years his senior. Like Scarlatti, Soler set technical demands for his pupils in these works. Difficulties such as scales (from simple, slow scales to faster and more complicated scales, with skips in thirds and octaves, in double notes, with repeated tones, and chromatic scales combined with leaps and broken chords) and other challenges had to be combined with graceful musical content, in order to entertain his pupils while developing their techniques. Soler and Don Gabriel Soler was the harpsichord instructor of all three sons of Carlos III, who became king of Spain in 1759 after the death of his half brother, Ferdinand VI. Before becoming king of Spain, Carlos lived in Naples, and, from there, ruled over Spain s holdings in the Mediterranean. Carlos s youngest son, Gabriel de Bourbon, born in Naples in 1752, spent his first years in Italy. Although he was raised speaking Italian, he was also fluent in Spanish, French and German, since his mother was the German princess Maria Amalia of Saxony. 27 Thus, Gabriel was introduced not only to numerous languages, but also was given a broad range of cultural and musical perspectives due to his parental support. 26 Newman, William S. The Sonata in the Classic Era. Second ed. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina press, 1963, Heimes, Klaus Ferdinand. Antonio Soler s Keyboard Sonatas. Thesis, University of South Africa, 1965,27.

21 11 Shortly after Carlos moved to Madrid as king of Spain Don Gabriel began studying harpsichord with Soler. It was a long and fruitful relationship; Don Gabriel studied with Soler until his death in He was dedicated to the arts, and especially to music, and was an inspiring figure in Soler s life. 29 Don Gabriel de Bourbon collected harpsichords, fortepianos, organs, violins, and guitars. He was also among the first in Spain to own a glass harmonica. His collection contained a handful of experimental keyboard instruments, including a curious item purchased in London and documented as a clave harmonico, a complicated keyboard instrument invented in Paris with an ability to imitate fifteen instrumental timbres from celeste to bassoon. 30 Another experimental instrument at El Escorial was the vis-à-vis organ. It had two keyboards at opposite sides of a cabinet, which contained the instrument s pipes and bellows, so that two players could perform at once on a single instrument. Most likely, the instrument was purchased so that Don Gabriel and Soler could sit on opposite sides while playing one of the six concerti for two organs, which Soler composed for Don Gabriel. 31 In 1779 Don Gabriel built a small palace Casita de Ariba which still sits on a small hill close to the El Escorial monastery. 32 A large room with an arched and 28 Don Gabriel died of smallpox in Gross Ceballos, Sara. Keyboard Portraits: Performing Character in the Eighteenth Century. Ph.D. Dissertation. University of California in Los Angeles, He was often described as the Maecenas of his day. Gross Ceballos, Sara. Keyboard Portraits: Performing Character in the Eighteenth Century. Ibid. 30 Ibid Stevenson, Robert. Antonio Soler. The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians. Edited by Stanly Sadie. Volume 17. Macmillan Publishers Ltd. London, Gross Ceballos, Sara. Keyboard Portraits: Performing Character in the Eighteenth Century. Ph.D. Dissertation. University of California in Los Angeles,

22 12 frescoed ceiling serves as the center of the small building. The room was Don Gabriel s primary performance space, housing his keyboard instruments as well as quarters for the listeners. The musicians who were performing sat in a chamber which looked down into the room below. Thus, the name of the palace, ariba or on high refers both to its physical location on the hill and the balconies from where music floated over the listeners. 33 The ensemble musicians, such as the string quartet in Soler s organ quintets, assembled in the upper rooms and were invisible to the listeners on the ground floor. Because the organ was centered in the same lower room as the audience, the performance space, therefore, emphasized the soloistic role Gabriel assumed in the chamber works written for him by Soler, which demonstrated the prince s talent at the keyboard. Similarly, Soler divides the musical material between the two instruments in his six concerti for two organs in such a way that Don Gabriel played the more impressive part. Ceballos suggests that often such works could function as a type of musical portrait. As a portrait of Don Gabriel these works project an ideal of Spanishism while at the same time speaking to the growing cosmopolitanism of his country. 34 Soler and Publishing Lord Fitzwilliam, who was a music aficionado from London, came to Spain out of interest in publishing Domenico Scarlatti s works, and there encountered Soler s sonatas. Impressed, he took two volumes of manuscripts of Scarlatti s works and twenty-seven of Soler s sonatas to London, the publishing capital of Europe at the time, and promptly 33 Gross Ceballos, Sara. Keyboard Portraits: Performing Character in the Eighteenth Century. Ph.D. Dissertation. University of California in Los Angeles, Ibid166.

23 13 published them in These were the only works Soler would live to see published, even though twelve more of his sonatas were published in Paris, soon after. Today, the estimated number of Soler s published keyboard sonatas ranges from 130 to 220. Yet, many of Soler s works are lost, including a set of keyboard sonatas in all twelve major and minor keys, entitled Quadro Libros. 36 The fact that so few of Soler s sonatas were published during his lifetime is best understood by reviewing what we know about the relationship of composers, patrons, and publishers at the time. In the early eighteenth century, royal patrons generally owned the works of the composers in their courts, and hence, often controlled the publication of these works. Since royal patrons often paid for the publication, composers remained at the mercy of their patrons. Royal patrons sometimes decided not to allow works to be published at all but preferred to maintain the works for their exclusive use. Additionally, patrons could require works to be at a specific level of difficulty and could even dictate musical aspects of the works. In addition to the ramifications of the composer-patron relationship on publishing, there are several other factors in the eighteenth century which often created confusion and inconsistencies with the chronology of many composers works. When assigning opus numbers, many publishers disregarded the actual chronology of a composer s works, or they disregarded the opus numbers already assigned by previous publishers. 37 Some composers chose not to publish their works at all, as plagiarism was very common at the time. 35 Kirkpatrick, Ralph. Domenico Scarllati: A Famous Harpsichordist s Study of the Life, Times, and Works of One of the Greatest Composers for His Instrument. Apollo ed. Thomas Y. Crowell Company, New York: Princeton University Press, Newman, William S. The Sonata in the Classic Era. Second ed. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina press, 1963, Ibid79.

24 14 Until the second half of the eighteenth century, music publishing was prohibitively expensive. The first publishing house in Spain exclusively devoted to music printing, La Imprenta Musica, was established by Joseph de Torres and Martinez Bravo in Madrid in the beginning of eighteenth century. 38 Between 1700 and 1720, Torres was the predominant music publisher in Spain; however, after his death in 1738, there was no successor to carry on the activities of his Imprenta, and the company had to close down. At the beginning of the eighteenth century in Spain, as well as in other parts of Western Europe, the process of engraving became cheaper and more practical than typography for music printing. Taking advantage of the new printing technology, Joaquin Ibarra of Madrid became the leading music publisher within the country of Spain. Still, it was not until the reign of Carlos III ( ) that the Spanish government took active steps to promote native printing and publishing. Under Carlos s rule, publishers were given tax exemptions as well as other privileges tied to the government s progressive revocation of certain censorship laws. In order to create an even stronger publishing system, the government organized its own printing firm in Madrid, known as the Imprenta Real in Unfortunately, none of Soler s keyboard sonatas were published in Spain during his lifetime, despite his close relationship to Don Gabriel and to Carlos III s other children. 38 Esses, Maurice. Dance and Instrumental Diferencias in Spain During the 17 th and Early 18 th Centuries. PhD Dissertation, University of Toronto, Ibid129.

25 15 Editions of Soler s Keyboard Sonatas In 1925, after a gap of nearly two centuries, Joaquin Nin, a Cuban musicologist and pianist, published fourteen of Soler s sonatas in Paris. According to Frederick Marvin, American pianist and respected Soler specialist, Nin s edition of Soler s sonatas was heavily edited and not always faithful to original sources. Fortunately, however, this edition inspired Marvin to research Soler s sonatas more deeply and to reedit them. Marvin spent fourteen years in Europe studying and performing Soler s keyboard sonatas. He also researched and performed some of Soler s other instrumental and vocal works. After copying, editing and correcting the manuscripts, the first volume of Soler s sonatas together with the fandango were published in Following the tradition of important editing endeavors, Marvin, in his edition of Soler s 180 keyboard sonatas, gives each sonata an M number (the initial of his last name.) Marvin s enthusiasm for Soler encouraged Spanish monk and scholar, Samuel Rubio, to initiate a Spanish edition of the sonatas. In 1974, Rubio published a seven volume collection of Soler sonatas, which contains 121 sonatas. 40 In his edition, Rubio marks the sonatas with the initial R for his cataloguing purposes. Pianist Alicia De Larocha, who used Rubio s edition, observes that it offers the greatest possible guarantee of authenticity and presents the text without any expression signs, with the exception of the rare ones, which Soler himself put in the manuscripts Numbering the sonatas is problematic because of the challenge of whether to count the sonatas individually, in groups, or in pairs. On some of the manuscripts, there are signs such as sigue which means to follow, or to be continued. When Luigi Boccherini came to Madrid in 1769 and introduced some of Haydn s sonatas, Newman believes these works impressed Soler and inspired him to expand his later sonatas from one-movement forms to three or four movements. This undoubtedly suggests that some of the sonatas should be paired. However, how many and which sonatas to pair or group together remains a point of debate for the modern scholars of these works. Some scholars pair the sonatas according to their keys, melodic content, harmonies, contrasting tempi and other characteristics. 41 Elder, Dean. A Music Lesson on a Soler Sonata: Alicia delarocha Recording. Clavier, no. 1 (1971): 10:23.

26 16 For my own study of Soler s sonatas, I generally use Marvin s edition, because some of the sonatas I perform are not in Rubio s edition. Marvin is respectful of the original sources; he puts his own musical suggestions in parenthesis, making it easy to differentiate between his editorial additions and Soler s original markings. The Harpsichord and Pianoforte Transition from Baroque to Classical styles in Spain, as well as in the rest of Western Europe, was manifested within a shift of emphasis from the harpsichord to the pianoforte as the predominant keyboard instrument for secular music. One intriguing difference between Spain and the rest of Europe was that until the end of the seventeenth century, continuo playing was realized on guitar or harp, and not on the harpsichord. The harpsichord as well as the clavichord was used primarily as a practice instrument for organists. It was not until the reign of Felipe V ( ) that the harpsichord became the predominant continuo instrument in Spain. Felipe V, the French-born king, and his Italian queen brought with them an appreciation for French and Italian music. The royal court s enthusiasm for Italian vocal music led to a more frequent use of the harpsichord as a continuo instrument. The solo keyboard sonata gained prominence only after the Italian Domenico Scarlatti arrived in Madrid in There were twelve keyboard instruments (nine harpsichords and three fortepianos) distributed among the three palaces of the Spanish royal court (Aranjuez, Buen Retiro and El Escorial.) The harpsichord at El Escorial had one manual and two sets of strings: one for loud and brilliant sounds, the other for delicate and soft sounds. 42 Esses, Maurice. Dance and Instrumental Diferencias in Spain During the 17 th and Early 18 th Centuries. PhD Dissertation, University of Toronto,

27 17 Because the registers were operated by hand rather than by pedal, registration was changeable within a piece only when one or both hands were free. Therefore, it would not have been easy to transform the sound by changing the registration during a performance, or to create the echo effect within short, repeated passages. Instead, such phrases were varied through the use of different articulation and ornamentation. 43 Bartolommeo Cristofori, an eighteenth-century Italian harpsichord maker, invented a keyboard instrument that allowed a player to change dynamics based on touch. He named the new instrument Gravicembalo col piano e forte, which means harpsichord with soft and loud sounds. Its strings were struck with hammers, the speed of which determined the volume of the sound. 44 The courts of Spain and Portugal purchased the new instrument enthusiastically in the 1730s. 45 This is most likely the time when Domenico Scarlatti wrote some of his sonatas for the pianoforte. The spread of popularity of the pianoforte in Iberia triggered Francisco Perez Mirabel, a harpsichord maker in Seville, to build pianofortes in Similarly inspired, Manuel Antunes, a piano maker in Lisbon, built pianofortes that were the exact copies of the Cristofori piano in As in Cristofori s piano, the hammers were covered with soft, thick leather that brought out a comparatively soft, mellow timbre unlike that of quill-plucked harpsichord strings. The Antunes piano had only one manual of fifty-one keys, and had no pedals, knee levers, or stops. However, the una corda effect was 43 Esses, Maurice. Dance and Instrumental Diferencias in Spain During the 17 th and Early 18 th Centuries. PhD Dissertation, University of Toronto, Schonberg, Harold C, The Great Pianists. Revised and Updated Edition, Simon and Schuster, New York, Sadie, Julie Ann, ed. Companion to Baroque Music. Forwarded by Hogwood, Christopher, Schirmer book, New York, Oxford, Singapore, and Sydney: Maxwell McMillan International,

28 18 available by manually pushing the entire keyboard to the left. Many of the Antunes fortepianos have survived in such good condition that they remain playable. 46 The first known work composed specifically for the piano in Spain was Sebastian Alberto s Obras para clavicebalo o piano forte, written around However, it was only in the 1760s when many works explicitly written for this instrument were published. Two composers working in Seville, Manuel Blasco de Nebra and Joaquin Montero each published a set of six sonatas for harpsichord and piano in the 1780s. 47 In the 1770s composers often wrote for harpsichord or fortepiano in the titles of their keyboard works, and beginning around 1785, the harpsichord began to disappear from the titles of pieces. 48 In 1790, Haydn said,....he was no longer in the habit of playing the harpsichord, and he advised a friend, to get a piano. 49 However, Ralf Kirkpatrick in his book Domenico Scarlatti convincingly points out that stylistically it is very difficult to draw a definitive line between mid-eighteenth century harpsichord music and the music composed for the early piano of the period. He states Even in the music of Haydn and Mozart, the transition from the harpsichord to the piano is almost imperceptible. 50 Since it is clear that Soler had access to both instruments, the harpsichord and pianoforte, the modern keyboard musician must look to the musical characteristics of 46 Kirkpatrick, Ralph. Domenico Scarllati: A Famous Harpsichordist s Study of the Life, Times, and Works of One of the Greatest Composers for His Instrument. Apollo ed. Thomas Y. Crowell Company, New York: Princeton University Press, 1968, Stevenson, Robert. Antonio Soler. The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians. Edited by Stanly Sadie. Volume 17. Macmillan Publishers Ltd. London, Newman, William S. The Sonata in the Classic Era. Second ed. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina press, 1963, Schonberg, Harold C, The Great Pianists. Revised and Updated Edition, Simon and Schuster, New York, 1987, Kirkpatrick, Ralph. Domenico Scarllati: A Famous Harpsichordist s Study of the Life, Times, and Works of One of the Greatest Composers for His Instrument. Apollo ed. Thomas Y. Crowell Company, New York: Princeton University Press, 1968, 185.

29 19 each sonata to help him or her infer which instrument, either the harpsichord or the pianoforte, is better suited for the piece. For example, sometimes fast passages of octaves going up or down are encountered in either hand. Example 1. Sonata M.13 in B Major, mm In my opinion, the use of this type of pianistic device indicates that the sonata was intended for the piano rather than the harpsichord. Because of the rather harsh and loud sound of the harpsichord, these types of passages are likely to sound noisy and blurry, while on the principally softer and clearer sound of the fortepiano such passages are bound to have a better acoustic effect.

30 20 Soler: Musician Extraordinaire Soler was very interested in music theory and wrote a famous treatise on theory, Key to Modulation and Musical Antiquities. It was published in Madrid in 1762 by Joaquim Ibarra. 51 In his treatise, Soler illustrates how to modulate from one key to any other key in the tonal system within several measures. The harmonic procedures that Soler discussed, though later considered fairly standard, at first were viewed as being too radical, and the publication of his treatise caused controversy and dispute among Iberian music theorists of the time. 52 In 1764, the maestro de capella of Mondonedo Cathedral, Antonio Roel del Rio, published his criticism in response to Soler s treatise in his Reparos Musicos Precisos a la Llave de la Modulacion, and Soler responded the following year with Satisfaccion a Los Reparos Hechos por Don Antonio Roel de Rio a la Llave de la Modulacion. 53 I will discuss some of Soler s views on modulation in Chapter Two. Soler s interest in theory and in the division of tones also led him to construct a small, square, stringed keyboard instrument, which he called the Afinador o Templante. On this instrument, Soler divided each pitch into nine micro-pitches, anticipating by two hundred years the experiments in micro-tonality conducted by Harry Partch and Conlon Noncarrow. 54 Soler made two instruments of this kind - one for Don 51 Kirkpatrick, Ralph. Domenico Scarllati: A Famous Harpsichordist s Study of the Life, Times, and Works of One of the Greatest Composers for His Instrument. Apollo ed. Thomas Y. Crowell Company, New York: Princeton University Press, Stevenson, Robert. Antonio Soler. The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians. Edited by Stanly Sadie. Volume 17. Macmillan Publishers Ltd. London, Yamaoka, Miyuki. Antonio Soler Sonatas La Ma de Guido. Piano CD cover, article by Isabel Izard I Granados c2 54 This connection is made by Rene Lecuona.

31 21 Gabriel and the other for the Duke of Alba. 55 In addition to creating new instruments, Soler was also a respected consultant for organ building. We know that he directed the construction of organs in both Malaga and Seville. 56 Soler s Fandango Besides his keyboard sonatas, the Fandango is Soler s only other substantial work for solo keyboard. 57 The fandango is a dance which originated in Latin America in the eighteenth century, and which became extremely popular in Spain. Usually the fandango is written for a pair of dancers who accompany themselves on castanets, and who also vocalize at specific points during the dance. Characteristic features of the genre are: the triple meter, the sudden stops in the middle of the composition when the couples click castanets and sing, along with the gradual increase in tempo. According to Giovanni Casanova s description of the dance,... Each couple, a man and a woman, never moves more than three steps as they click their castanets.... This dance is the expression of love from beginning to end, from the sigh of desire to the ecstasy of pure enjoyment. 58 The fandango was forbidden by the Catholic authorities for being too exciting and sensuous. Soler s Fandango is based on an ostinato pattern, which intensifies in its technical difficulty and tempo, climaxing at the end of the piece on the dominant chord of 55 Heimes, Klaus Ferdinand. Antonio Soler s Keyboard Sonatas. Thesis, University of South Africa, 1965,4. 56 Stevenson, Robert. Antonio Soler. The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians. Edited by Stanly Sadie. Volume 17. Macmillan Publishers Ltd. London, In his treatise The Key to Modulation Soler includes small musical examples for keyboard, called preludes. However, they are not concert pieces. 58 Sadowsky, Reah. Antonio Soler: Creator of Spain s Fifth Century of Musical Genius. The American Music teacher, no. 1 (1978): 28:12.

32 22 the home key of D Minor. It is unusual for a monk to have written a piece with such an erotic character, especially taking into consideration the somber atmosphere of the monastery El Escorial, where Soler lived and worked. Some scholars believe that Soler may have composed this piece while he lived away from El Escorial for a year during the early 1750s Ibid.

33 23 CHAPTER TWO: MUSICAL ASPECTS OF SOLER S KEYBOARD SONATAS Before examining individual works, I would like to discuss several general aspects of Soler s keyboard sonatas. These aspects include formal structure of the sonatas, Soler s view on modulation, his choice of keys, thematic use, phrase structure and melodic organization, rhythm and meter, texture, his consideration of tempi, and the use of ornamentation. Formal and Harmonic Structure Soler composed the majority of his sonatas in the Baroque bipartite form, dividing the works into two large and fairly symmetrical sections. Generally, the first section finishes in the dominant key if the sonata is written in a major key, and ends in the minor dominant or the relative major key if the sonata is in a minor key. The second section often begins in the key in which the first section of the sonata finished, and the tonic of the home key is established somewhere near the end of the second section. Isabel Izard I Granados positions Soler s formal structure as the bridge between the forms of the Baroque suite, and the formal structure that was to become the mature classical sonata. 60 Kirkpatrick also uses many of the terms commonly associated with classical sonata form to describe the musical events in Soler s sonatas. He refers to the first section of the sonatas as the exposition, and describes the material of the second 60 Yamaoka, Miyuki. Antonio Soler Sonatas La Ma de Guido. Piano CD cover, article by Isabel Izard I Granados c. 2.

34 24 section as being both development, which he terms excursion, and recapitulation. 61 The excursion, as mentioned above, usually starts in the closing key of the first section and passes through a sequence of more remote keys. It is in this section where most of Soler s extravagant modulations, described in his treatise on modulation, take place. I will discuss Soler s views on modulation in more detail below. The excursion often uses material stated previously and represents a section of harmonic, rather than melodic or thematic, development. As in mature classical sonatas, after moving through several keys in the excursion, Soler eventually arrives on the dominant chord of the original key. Exactly where in the second section Soler chooses to return to the original key varies. Unlike the fairly predictable positioning of the recapitulation in many classical sonata forms, Soler sometimes waits until the very end of the second section to return to the home key. Similarly to Scarlatti, Soler uses the musical material of the cadential section as a means of recapitulation in the second part of his sonatas; in the closing section of the first half, the cadential section usually appears in the dominant key. Yet, in the closing section of the second half, the cadential material is recapitulated in the home key. This compositional procedure helps resolve the tension created by the different thematic material presented in the exposition, as well as the harmonic adventures of the excursion. As mentioned above, Soler often wrote dramatic modulations in the excursions of his sonatas. In his treatise, Key to Modulation, Soler states,... if a composition has no modulation it will lack perfection altogether. Soler refers to this type of fast-paced modulation which he often uses in the excursions of his sonatas as quick modulation or 61 Kirkpatrick, Ralph. Domenico Scarllati: A Famous Harpsichordist s Study of the Life, Times, and Works of One of the Greatest Composers for His Instrument. Apollo ed. Thomas Y. Crowell Company, New York: Princeton University Press, 1968,

35 25 the means of modulating from one key to another in the fewest measures possible. 62 Soler explains that quick modulation works best in instrumental writing, as opposed to vocal music. He further explains that his own methods of quick modulation are derived from his experiences as a church organist. In fact, he states that his harmonic rules are essential for church organists. 63 While playing an offertory, which could be in a distant key, an organist might receive a signal from the priest to finish the offertory, and, without the slightest interruption, the player should be able to seamlessly return to the liturgical service in its original key. It is for such situations that Soler offers his four rules for quick modulation: Use of a common note or a chord between the two keys Arrival at the dominant of the new key Use of enharmonic spellings Stepwise and contrary motion between the outer voices Soler s use of these harmonic ideas, set forth in his treatise, will be observed in the individual sonatas in Chapter Three. 62 Soler, Antonio. Llave de la Modulacion. New York: Broude Brothers, Ibid. 84.

36 26 Choice of Keys Similarly to the composers of the early classic period, it has been observed that Soler prefers keys that have three or fewer accidentals in their signatures. 64 However, there is an additional consideration which I believe may have influenced Soler s predilection for certain kays; Soler s choice of keys often coincides with the primary keys often used in Flamenco guitar music, which are derived from the open strings of the guitar (E-A-D-G-B-E). Flamenco guitar specialist Paco Pena has identified the key of E major, E minor, A major, A minor, D major, and D minor as those most commonly used in Flamenco guitar music. 65 He explains this by pointing out that the three lowest keys of the Spanish guitar (E, A, and D) have a special quality in relation to each of the open strings (E, A D, G, B, E). The tonic, subdominant and dominant scale degrees of E major and minor, A major and minor, and D major and minor may be found on the open strings of the Spanish guitar. 64 In sonatas in minor keys which have flat(s) in the key signature, one flat is almost always omitted and the designation en modo dorico appears in the title of the piece. Almarie Dieckow in his dissertation states that no modal element is found in the works themselves, and the practice is merely a notational convention retained from the past. Dieckow, A. A Stylistic Analysis of the Solo Keyboard Sonatas of Antonio Soler. Ph.D. Dissertation, Washington University, Saint Louis, 1971, Pena, Paco. Flamenco Guitar in The Guitar: A Guide for Students And Teachers. Complied and edited by Michael Stempson. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press,

37 27 Table 1. Correlation between keys and scale degrees: KEYS SCALE DEGREE SCALE DEGREE SCALE DEGREE TONIC SUBDOMINANT DOMINANT E Major E B A E Minor A Major A E D A Minor D Major D A G D Minor While Soler uses many keys in his extant sonatas, he tends to favor E major and minor, A major and minor, and D major and minor. In examining this relationship of keys, we can assume that Soler, consciously or unconsciously, was influenced by the Spanish guitar music which surrounded him. Themes and Phrase Structure The melodies in Soler s sonatas tend to be diatonic rather than chromatic. Soler constructs his melodies using fragments of scalar motion, which are sometimes interrupted by neighboring notes, thirds or large leaps. He also implements the triadic motion in his melodic construction, whether in arpeggios or broken chords. Melodic fragments of Moorish origin are found in Soler s sonatas through the use of the augmented second interval.

38 28 Example 2. Sonata M.2 in C Minor, mm As mentioned above, the use of the Phrygian cadence (i.e. A-G-F-E, also the last four notes of natural minor) is frequently used by Soler as well. Soler does not establish only a single melodic or thematic idea, but instead, he introduces multiple themes within sections. The two most important thematic structures, however, are the head-motive, the theme at the beginning of the first section, and the second theme, which is the theme stated at the beginning of the second section. This analytical approach to identifying Soler s themes, while differing from the way in which similar terminology is used to describe the thematic material of mature classical sonataallegro movements, is often employed among Soler scholars. Typically, the head-motive is stated twice. The repetition often appears an octave lower or higher with harmonic alterations or ornaments. Fragments of the opening motive often appear sequentially. The second theme is generally shorter than the head motive. The thematic content of the excursion can be independent of earlier material; however, at least a common rhythmical motion unifies the two theme-groups between the sections. The second theme can also be restated twice, embellished or modified by quasidevelopmental procedures, such as a sequence. In some sonatas, he inserts a cadenza-like passage or a small section before the recapitulation.

39 29 Example 3. Sonata M. 4 in C Minor, mm In the footnote to this measure Marvin provides a continuation of the cadenza passage offered by Soler or a copyist in another manuscript of this sonata. Example 4. Sonata M.4 in C Minor, footnote to measure 73. These very short, improvisatory cadenza passages are usually based on one of the themes used before. This compositional procedure often appears in the sonatas of the later classical period. Soler s sonatas are predominantly organized in short phrases often consisting of irregular groups of measures. Unlike the mostly predictable phrase lengths of mature classical style based on multiples of two measures, or the symmetrical phrases of most Baroque works, Soler s fragmented melodic organization is typical of stile galant. Phrases of three, five, and seven measures are common in his sonatas.

40 30 Rhythm The most commonly used rhythmical patterns in Soler s sonatas consist of eighth and sixteenth notes. This is to be expected, as the sonatas were written for non-sustaining instruments, such as the harpsichord or the early fortepiano. 66 However, some longer notes are encountered in the sonatas as well, which may imply adding ornamentation for sustaining purposes. I will discuss Soler s ornamentation in more detail below. The performer of French Baroque music is accustomed to executing notated straight eighth notes as dotted eighth notes (notes inégales.) However, Italian and Spanish composers wrote out dotted eighths. 67 Therefore, the performer of Soler s sonatas should play exactly the values notated in the score. Soler frequently uses characteristics considered typical of Spanish dance types, such as combinations of duple and triple rhythmical patterns, dotted rhythmical figurations, and syncopated melodic motives with an emphasis on the weak beat. The combined use of triplet and duplet figures was common in Spanish songs dating from the fourteenth century The early fortepiano did not sustain the sound nearly as long as the modern piano. 67 As the French theorist Jean-Jacques Rousseau points out In Italian [and Spanish] music all the eights [are] equal, unless they are marked pointées [dotted]. But in French music one makes the eights exactly equal only in the four-beat meter; in all the others one always makes them a little unequal, unless they are marked cloches égales. Hefling, Stephen E. Rhythmic Alteration in Seventeenth- and Eighteenth- Century Music: Notes Inegales and Overdotting. New York, Toronto, and New York: Schirmer Books, 1993, Storm, Elizabeth Nancy. The Harpsichord Sonatas of Padre Antonio Soler. Thesis, University of Washington,

41 31 Example 5. SonataM.9in D Major, mm Soler often uses the technique of the rhythmical crescendo; he intensifies the emotional character of the section by gradually shortening the rhythmical values. Example 6. Sonata M.9 in D Major, mm

42 32 In some sonatas Soler also uses specific rhythmical patterns associated with particular Spanish dance types, such as the bolero or the Andalusian folksong Saeta. 69 Example 7. Sonata M.4 in C Minor, mm Complementing these Spanish rhythmic patterns, Soler frequently imitates the sound of castanets, banduria, and zapateado, which were popular accompanying instruments in the dances of Spain. 70 The subdivision of the strong beat into small melodic elements appearing not only at the end of the motifs but also at their beginnings can suggest vocal glissando of Moorish and Gypsy association. 69 Saeta is an Andalusian folk song for Lent or the Feast of the Nativity. Yoon Soo, Cho. The Spanish Guitar Influence on the Piano Music of Isaac Albeniz and Enrique Granados: A Detailed Study of Granada and Asturias of Suite Espanola by Albeniz and Andaluza and Danza Triste of Doce Danzas Espanolas by Granados. DMA Treatise, The University of Texas in Austin, 2006,7. 70 Chase, Gilbert. The Music of Spain Dover Publications, New York, 1959, 224.

43 33 Example 8. Sonata M.2 in C Minor, mm Texture Soler s sonatas typically contain a free-voiced texture based on two-part writing. The texture is predominantly homophonic, and sometimes, quasi-polyphonic. In nearly all of Soler s sonatas, the bass functions as harmonic support for the more important melodic upper voice(s). However, the bass is often given brief thematic imitations. Such imitative polyphony in Soler s sonatas lasts only a few bars and occurs mostly at the beginnings of sections. Pseudo-polyphony, typical of guitar music, appears as a third voice. This voice enters throughout the piece, if only for a few beats or measures, and acts independently from the other two voices. Example 9. Sonata M.17 in E Minor, mm

44 34 A third voice may also be added as two or three notes in different registers; however, it soon blends into the other voices and becomes harmonic filling in the texture. Example 10. Sonata M.12 in C Minor, mm In his treatise, Key to Modulation Soler states that in counterpoint the outer parts are supposed to be the most important ones, because these are the voices that the ear catches. Respectively, the inner parts are supplements or fillings. 71 This statement helps to explain Soler s practice of adding and dropping voices without preparation. Kirkpatrick, explaining this as an expression of free thought that was so usual in Spain, believes that this kind of free contrapuntal handling can be connected to both composers [Scarlatti and Soler] desire to imitate the sound of the Spanish guitar Soler, Antonio. Llave de la Modulacion. New York: Broude Brothers, 1967, Kirkpatrick, Ralph. Domenico Scarlatti: A Famous Harpsichordist s Study of the Life, Times, and Works of One of the Greatest Composers for His Instrument. Apollo ed. Thomas Y. Crowell Company, New York: Princeton University Press, 1968, 224.

45 35 Soler knew the guitar and approved its use in the role frequently assigned to keyboard instruments. 73 Other elements of texture include Soler s use of Alberti bass (accompaniment in broken chords) and Murky bass (accompaniment in broken octaves). Example 11. Sonata M.5 in C Major, mm Fisk, Eliot, A Fresh Look at Padre Soler. The Guitar Review, 56: 10.

46 36 Example 12. Sonata M.5 in C Major, mm In Soler s sonatas, octaves appear in the left hand much more often than in the right hand. Hand crossings so characteristic of Scarlatti s style, are present in some of Soler s sonatas, as well. Example 13. Sonata M.16 in B Major, mm

47 37 Tempi and Meter Tempo markings are present in almost all of the editions of Soler s sonatas, but we cannot know with certainty which tempo indications are those of Soler, and which were later added by copyists. As described in chapter one, Soler scholarship is made much more challenging because there are no extant original manuscripts of Soler s keyboard sonatas. Furthermore, there are discrepancies between many of the copies of Soler s manuscripts, making research complicated. About half of the sonatas are marked simply as Allegro or Andante. Others range from the very fast Prestissimo, through moderate tempi such as Allegro Moderato and Allegretto, to the slower markings of Andantino and Largo Andante. Sometimes, descriptive terms such as Espressivo, Gracioso, Spiritoso, Maestoso, and cantabile take the place of tempo markings. These terms indicate the musical characteristic of the passage and often imply a corresponding tempo. The majority of Soler s sonatas are in duple meter. Allabreve meters, which indicate a half-note beat, are more common than meters indicating a quarter-note beat (4/4 or 2/4.) When using triple meters, Soler chooses the 3/4 meter more frequently than the 3/8 meter. Ornamentation Regarding ornamentation and embellishment in Soler s sonatas, Kirkpatrick suggests that Soler s ornamentation closely resembles that of Scarlatti. 74 Both composers rarely use ornamentation signs; instead, the ornaments are explicitly written 74 It is not surprising that both Scarlatti and Soler gave their musical indications in Spanish as well as in Italian or Latin in addition to such notational correlations as Arbitri for ad libitum and deto solo for glissando.

48 38 out using smaller notes and become an integral part of the melodic lines. 75 Marvin, in the preface to his edition of Soler s complete set of sonatas, points out that the three most frequently used ornaments are the turn, the trill and the appoggiatura. According to Marvin, the speed of the trill varies according to the tempo of the particular composition. As with most scholars of eighteenth-century music, Marvin also believes that in the music of Soler, most ornaments should begin on the upper auxiliary note. In his dissertation, Esses, quoting the eighteenth-century theorist Nazzare, argues that Spanish sources of the period make no mention of the upper-note trills (trinos) in keyboard works. Esses even states that in keyboard works by non-spanish composers living in Spain, ornaments should be started on the main note, not the upper auxiliary note. 76 Although it might be difficult to determine a hard and fast rule for the starting note of ornaments in the music of Soler, I agree with Marvin and generally begin my ornaments on the upper auxiliary note. Esses and Kirkpatrick both agree that most keyboard ornaments begin on or after the beat, not before it. 77 In the preface to his edition, Marvin also mentions that Soler did not use a sign for a turn. If he desired a turn, he usually wrote it out with small notes. However, in the English edition of the sonatas, as discussed by Marvin, Soler indicates the trill and the turn with the same sign, tr. Thankfully, in parallel passages Soler often shows which of the ornaments he wished to be used by writing notes out. Soler usually writes out most of 75 Kirkpatrick, Ralph. Domenico Scarllati: A Famous Harpsichordist s Study of the Life, Times, and Works of One of the Greatest Composers for His Instrument. Apollo ed. Thomas Y. Crowell Company, New York: Princeton University Press, 1968, Esses, Maurice. Dance and Instrumental Diferencias in Spain During the 17 th and Early 18 th Centuries. PhD Dissertation, University of Toronto, In his dissertation, Dieckhow states that grace notes should be played before the beat. However, the vast majority of scholars now believe that ornaments in Baroque and Classical music should begin on the beat. Dieckow, A. A Stylistic Analysis of the Solo Keyboard Sonatas of Antonio Soler. Ph.D. Dissertation, Washington University, Saint Louis,

49 39 the appoggiaturas as well. Marvin suggests that appoggiaturas should be executed according to the basic eighteenth-century practice, e.g. starting on the beat. Soler mentions the mordente in Key to Modulation but does not give any examples of it. 78 Esses explains in his dissertation that performers in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries frequently added mordents, even though there were no indications for them in the scores. 79 Scholars such as Kirkpatrick and Rubio suggest that the performer of Soler s music should resist using additional ornaments or adding and dropping lines as they would when playing French and German compositions of the same period. Yet, Frederick Marvin convincingly argues that... embellishments were freely used and improvised at the time, and it is certain that one cannot play a work of Soler, or a work of any other composer of the era, without adding ornamentation. That s a must. 80 Alicia De Larrocha confesses that in her interpretation of Soler s sonatas she uses entirely her own version of ornaments. As she observes, many liberties were taken in the manner of executing ornaments in seventeenth and eighteenth century Spain, therefore.... It is not possible to play pieces of this era in any one way. 81 I respectfully agree with Marvin and DeLarrocha and would like to add that, with the help of specific ornamentation, a performer can heighten the Spanish elements in Soler s music. As opposed to the Baroque ornamentation traditions of C.P.E. Bach and 78 Carroll, Frank. An Introduction to Antonio Soler. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Rochester, 1975, Mordents, were called quibro senzillo in the seventeenth century and aleado in the eighteenth century. Esses, Maurice. Dance and Instrumental Diferencias in Spain During the 17 th and Early 18 th Centuries. PhD Dissertation, University of Toronto, Fisk, Eliot, A Fresh Look at Padre Soler. The Guitar Review 55 (1983): Elder, Dean. A Music Lesson on a Soler Sonata: Alicia DeLarocha Recording. Clavier, no. 1 (1971): 10:23.

50 40 Francois Couperin, there were no written rules or treatises concerning the traditions of ornamenting eighteenth-century Iberian instrumental music. 82 Nonetheless, it appears that Iberian composers were aware of the traditional eighteenth-century performance rules since they were not working in isolation from the rest of Western Europe as they had been in the seventeenth century. Moreover, eighteenth-century composers were first of all improvisers, and the use of ornamentation was part of their improvisatory skills. Spanish Characteristics Although Soler s music incorporates many of the sophisticated international characteristics of the late Baroque and early Classical periods, it also contains some elements which may be identified as specifically Spanish. As Gilbert Chase points out, the Iberian Peninsula is richer in folklore than any other region in the western world. He explains that... the reason for this is the strong musical individuality that was retained by the various provinces and the very strong imprint of Moorish and Gypsy influences left on the musical formulae of the people. 83 The collective musical traditions of its provinces, such as Andalucía, Castile, Galicia, and Catalonia, are all accepted today as belonging to the Spanish idiom. Furthermore, the Muslim domination of Spain lasted from , and the first Gypsies arrived in Spain in One of Soler s favorite musical traits, a direct influence of the Spanish idiom, is the use of the minor second interval. He uses the interval both melodically and 82 Speer, Klaus. Review of Soler s Nine Sonatas; Fandango recorded by Marin. Musical Quarterly, 44/3: Chase, Gilbert. The Music of Spain Dover Publications, New York, 1959, Ibid163.

51 41 harmonically. I believe that this distinctive Spanish sound is closely related to the use of what Spanish guitarists refer to as the Natural mode in Flamenco guitar music. 85 Flamenco guitar music is based on three modes: the Dorian, Lydian and Phrygian. The Phrygian mode is the most commonly used in Flamenco guitar music and is referred to as the Natural mode 86. The most important cadential chord progression in the Natural mode starts with a minor chord on the fourth mode degree followed by the descending major chords on the third, second, and first mode degrees of the Natural mode, e.g. iv III II I. 87 In Flamenco guitar music this type of cadence is called a Phrygian cadence. Interestingly, there is a close relationship between the natural minor scale of the major/minor tonal system and the Natural mode (Phrygian mode) of Flamenco guitar music. The following table demonstrates the correspondence between the scale and its mode degrees: 85 Pena, Paco. Flamenco Guitar in The Guitar: A Guide for Students And Teachers. Complied And Edited By Michael Stempson. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press, The use of the term Natural to refer to Phrygian mode by Flamenco guitarists can be confusing for the western-trained musician, who is used to using Natural as a term to describe one of the minor scales. In this discussion I will use Natural to mean Phrygian. 87 In Flamenco guitar music it is customary to substitute a major triad for a diatonic minor triad in this particular chord progression. Pena, Paco. Flamenco Guitar in The Guitar: A Guide for Students And Teachers. Compiled and edited by Michael Stempson. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press,

52 42 Table 2. Correspondence between Natural Minor scale and Natural mode degrees: Pitches A B C D E F G A Natural (Phrygian) Mode Natural Minor Scale Therefore, the A Natural mode corresponds to the D natural minor scale. The following table will illustrate the correspondence between the major/minor tonal system of E, A, and D harmonic minor scales, and the Natural (Phrygian) modes through their common Phrygian cadences. Table 3. Correspondence between Western key and Natural mode through their Phrygian Cadence: Western Key Natural/Phrygian Mode Phrygian cadence E Minor B Natural e-d-c-b 88 A Minor E Natural a-g-f-e D Minor A Natural d-c-b -A 88 The capital letters represent major chords, while the small letters are for minor chords.

53 43 A striking characteristic of Flamenco music is that even if the tonic is in major, the whole character of the piece is still minor sounding. 89 The Greek rhetoricians thought that the Dorian mode had a modest, grave and religious character. The Phrygian mode, in their opinion, had a suggestive and warlike quality. 90 The eighteenth-century French composer, Jean-Benjamin de Laborde, in his Essai sur la Musique Ancienne et Moderne, included a chart that compares the two scalar systems. 91 According to de Laborde, the Natural (Phrygian) mode is also defined as: ardent, proud, impetuous, vehement, and terrible. 92 It is remarkable to note that very similar adjectives were used to describe the Phrygian mode by many other French, German, and English composers and theorists of the eighteenth century. In my opinion, it is important to note these terms in relation to the description and the character of many of the Spanish dances, and particularly those in Flamenco style. The factor of pride, along with the other abovementioned qualities, is significant in many of these dances and songs and is reflected in the choreography, as well as costumes of the dancers. Therefore, the frequent appearance of the Phrygian cadence or other Phrygian gestures in Spanish music, and accordingly in the sonatas of Antonio Soler, is not a mere coincidence. According to Martin Kunnigham, Spain has over one thousand choreographically different dances, and over two hundred are known only in Catalonia! 93 Since Soler incorporated Spanish dance elements into many of his 89 Pena, Paco. Flamenco Guitar in The Guitar: A Guide for Students And Teachers. Complied And Edited By Michael Stempson. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press, Steblin, Rita. A History Of Key Characteristics In The Eighteenth And Early Nineteenth Centuries UMI Research Press, Ann Arbor, Steblin, Rita. A History Of Key Characteristics In The Eighteenth And Early Nineteenth Centuries UMI Research Press, Ann Arbor, Ibid 76.

54 44 sonatas, I would like to mention a few of them. Generally, Spanish dances are divided into two main groups: classic dances and Flamenco. The most popular classic dances are Bolero, Sevillanes, and the Jota. The best known Flamenco dances are the Tango, Farruca, and the Garrotin. 94 Farruca, is a virtuosic solo dance performed by one man. The music for the farrucas is usually in a very fast tempo with a complex staccato rhythmic structure and a wide dynamic range from very soft to very loud. The Tango is the opposite of Farruca. It is a solo dance for a woman and has a very gentle and soft character. The meter of these Flamenco dances is generally 2/4. The Bolero, which originates from the Spanish verb volar, to fly, is a dance that is composed of three parts. In the outer parts the dancers dance together, whereas in the middle section one of the dancers performs a solo dance. 95 According to Gilbert Chase,... the additional rhythmic complexity is created by the dancers themselves; the guitar, which provides basic rhythms, is accompanied by the zapateado (stamping and tapping of the feet), pito (finger snapping), palmada (clapping of the hands with a sharp, dry clack, also slapping of the thighs) of the dancer, and by the jaleo (the stimulating shouting and clapping of the spectators). 96 I will discuss dances such as the Jota Aragonesa, Passeo, and Sardana, as well as specific Spanish guitar techniques, and the Flamenco singing style cante jondo in more details in Chapter Three, since each of these Spanish art forms is reflected in the individual sonatas I have chosen to analyze. 93 Oxford Music Online. Spain: Traditional and Ethno musical Research. Martin Kunnigham. 94 Chase, Gilbert. The Music of Spain Dover Publications, New York, 1959, Chase, Gilbert. The Music of Spain Dover Publications, New York, 1959, Ibid252.

55 45 CHAPTER THREE: STYLISTIC ANALYSIS AND PERFORMANCE GUIDE TO THREE KEYBOARD SONATAS OF ANTONIO SOLER Sonata M.1 In C Minor Formal, Harmonic and Melodic Structure This sonata is in a simple binary form with clear A and B sections. Both sections have an introduction and two subsections. The introduction in the A section is from mm The first subsection is from m , and the second subsection is from mm The introduction is a harmonic descending gesture, which spans two octaves and is restated immediately. Soler s irregular phrasing is evident in the introduction. The opening five-bar phrase creates an expectation that the repetition of the phrase beginning in m. 6 will be another five-bar phrase. Soler heightens the dramatic entrance of new material in m. 10, when he truncates the second phrase of the introduction. The first subsection starts on the dominant. The motive is based on the repetition of minor seconds (e.g. G-A, B-C, D-E in mm ) over the harmonic alternations between the dominant and the subdominant (mm ), and the dominant and the tonic (mm ). This motive will reappear in different keys throughout the sonata. The prominent use of this interval and the repeated alternation between the dominant and the subdominant harmonies are characteristic features of Spanish music. More specifically, the triple meter, the specific rhythmic figuration ( ), the constant alternation between the tonic and the dominant that is seen throughout the sonata, and the irregular phrasing, are all characteristic of the Jota Aragonesa. The Jota, which originated in Aragon, spread to other regions of Spain, where the form developed regional differences. However, the dance is invariably in rapid triple time and has characteristic odd-numbered phrasing. I will discuss the Jota in more detail later in this

56 46 chapter. The following table demonstrates the large scale pattern of the alternation between the tonic and the dominant harmonies throughout the piece: Table 4. Harmonic Scheme: Tonic mm.1-9 m. 39 mm mm m. 103 mm Dominant mm mm mm mm mm mm The second motive of the first subsection (mm ) continues the dominant prolongation, which started at the beginning of the subsection in m.10. A new melody, which is an arch-formed ascending and descending line, appears with a new texture of sixteenth-notes as opposed to the eighth-notes of the first motive. The compound melody in the right hand in mm suggests the guitar technique in which two strings are plucked in alternation, creating a polyphonic effect. The middle voice acts as a drone on the dominant pitch of G. The first subsection finishes with a Phrygian cadence and ends on the dominant of the dominant (D Major, in measure 31.) The second subsection of the A section (mm ) starts on the dominant of G Minor and alternates between the dominant and the subdominant. Similarly to the previous subsection, the beginning of the first motive of this subsection (mm ) is based on the interval of the minor second. Measure 39 seems to be a very important point, because there is a perfect authentic cadence in the new key of G Minor. Soler could have ended the first part of the binary form here. However, he repeats the motive once more, and then adds another motive (mm ) that is stated in the new key and

57 47 consists of the cadencial material of the previous motive (mm and 50-51). As Kirkpatrick observes, this type of prolonged multiple endings of a section is a common compositional feature in Scarlatti s and Soler s writing. 97 Although slightly longer than the A section, the B section of this sonata also has an introduction and two subsections. The introduction of the B section is from mm The first subsection is from mm , and the second subsection is from mm The motive of the introduction is based on the motive of the A section. However, the difference between the descending gesture of this motive from that of the A section is in its harmonic path. The first phrase of the motive starts on the tonic of the new key G Minor, but when we arrive at the cadence in mm , we realize that we modulated to B Major, the relative major of G Minor. The second phrase starts in B major and modulates to D Minor (mm ). This switch is made possible by Soler s substitute of the natural minor scale in the third measure of the theme (m. 58) instead of the harmonic minor scale of the A section (m. 3.) The first subsection of the B section starts on the dominant of D Minor. The first motive of this subsection is based on the minor seconds (mm ) and serves as a dominant bridge. In the following subsection (mm ) the following motive is melodically based on that of the A section and is presented as a sequence (mm in G Minor, and mm in C Minor). These modulations are achieved through chromatic inflections and secondary dominants. In the modulatory passage (mm ) Soler keeps the Phrygian feel with the use of the lowered second degree of the scale. 97 Kirkpatrick, Ralph. Domenico Scarlatti: A Famous Harpsichordist s Study of the Life, Times, and Works of One of the Greatest Composers for His Instrument. Apollo ed. Thomas Y. Crowell Company, New York: Princeton University Press,

58 48 Example 14. Sonata M.1 in C Minor, mm Soler finishes the subsection with a Phrygian cadence in mm , which is very typical for his compositional writing and is identical to the comparable part in the A section. In my opinion, this characteristic Spanish element should be emphasized in a performance. The second subsection starts on the dominant of the home key, in m. 96, and entirely mirrors the melodic material of that of the second subsection in the A section, bringing the sonata back into the home key of C Minor. The second subsection is longer in the B section. This compositional device also foreshadows the development of the later classical sonata form. Phrase Structure The phrasing in this sonata is irregular, which is typical of Soler s compositional style and, as mentioned above, is one of the characteristic traits of the Jota. This type of asymmetric phrase structure is called aksak which is a Turkish word and literally means limping or struggling. 98 This type of phrasing is very popular in Spanish music, as well as in the Middle Eastern and Balkan folk music. It designates a rhythmic system in which the pieces or sequences in a fast tempo are based on an uninterrupted 98 Arcadio de Larrea Palacin. Oxford Music Online, Grove Dictionary online. Traditional and Popular Music in Spain.

59 49 combination of ternary and binary construction of phrases, such as or It is interesting to observe that despite the irregularity of the phrasing, on a bigger spectrum the phrase structure within the two sections of this sonata is closely related and is rather symmetrical. The following table demonstrates the phrasing within the two sections: Table 5. Phrase structure in both sections: Introduction First Subsection Second mm. 1-9 mm Subsection mm Motive First motive Second motive First motive Second motive A mm.1-9 mm mm20-31 mm mm Introduction First Subsection Second mm mm Subsection mm B Motive First motive Second motive First motive Second motive mm mm mm mm mm

60 50 Stylistic Observations and Performance Suggestions The irregularity of the phrases suggests metrical changes and an emphasis on this will make a performance more interesting. This may be achieved by a specific choice of articulation, ornamentation and dynamics. For example, to highlight the five-measure phrase of the introduction in the A section, a performer may add a trill on the first note of each of the two first phrases in the A section, and continue playing the entire phrase with a non-legato, marcato touch. Additionally, Soler indicates trills on the beginning of both phrases in the introduction of the B section (m. 56, and m. 61). Taking a little time between the introduction and the first subsection will help to articulate the irregular length of the phrases in both A and B sections. The same case may be made for the timing between the mm With a use of slight rubato between the end of the modulatory passage and the next subsection (m. 96) the performer will draw attention to the Phrygian cadence. As a performer I respectfully disagree with some of the dynamic markings suggested by Marvin in his edition of Soler sonatas. Marvin s piano indication in m. 13 seems to imply that he believed that a new section begins here. Because of the presentation of the minor seconds in the motive in m. 10, I believe the section starts in m. 10. There is a pattern of G, B, D, and F from m

61 51 Example 15. Sonata M.1 in C Minor, mm Perhaps, because the G pitch is explored in the left hand in m.13, Marvin misinterpreted the musical material. By starting the section softly in m.10, a performer will be able to build a musically logical phrase towards its top in m.19. Likewise, I would suggest beginning the section starting in m. 66 in piano. I do agree with Marvin s choice of subito mezzo piano in m.20, as well as his suggestion to change the articulation from marcato to molto legato. 99 These markings help to create strong entrance for the new material, which is first introduced in m. 20. A choice of a specific accentuation, such as accenting every subdominant eighth-note of mm. 22, will bring out the harmonic alternation between the dominant and the subdominant, already observed above, and emphasize on the Spanishism of his musical language. The ornamented first beats (eighth-notes in the right hand) of mm and 52-53, , and present an interesting choice to the performer. In Marvin s edition, the ornament indicated on the first beat of each of these measures is a grace note. 99 Marvin s dynamic marking in m. 85 of the parallel passage represents an inconsistency. The pianissimo belongs in m. 84.

62 52 However, as Marvin points out in a footnote in his edition, in another copy of this sonata, the first beat of each of these measures contains two sixteenth-notes instead of an ornamented eighth-note. According to traditional eighteenth-century performance practice, grace notes indicated over eighth-notes can be executed as running sixteenthnotes. However, taking into account that many Italian and Spanish composers of the time, including Soler, were not consistent with their indications for ornaments, and even expected performers to improvise them, the grace note could also be replaced by other ornaments, such as a trill or mordent. If we add a mordent or a short trill on the downbeats of these measures, the new tonic will be emphasized. Adding such ornaments will create a stop in the running sixteenth-note motion in the right hand. Adding a mordent or a short trill will also help initiate a dramatic, clear rhythm since, an eighth note followed by four sixteenth notes on a deeper level implies an eighth note followed by a quarter note. The stop of the sixteenth-note motion also separates the two measures (mm , 52-53, , ) in which the rhythm is changed from the following three measures (mm , , ) This highlights the ternary and binary construction of the aksak phrase structure discussed earlier. I personally believe that adding an ornament on the downbeats of these measures greatly enhances the Spanish feel of the piece, because it mimics the instrumentation of the jota. Usually the jota is sung and danced with accompaniment by castanets, guitars, bandurias, lutes and drums. A mordent or a sharp short trill on the eighth notes suggests the percussive sound of castanets and small drums, as well as the strumming of the guitars and bandurias. Taking into consideration that the harpsichord has a rather percussive tone-quality this type of ornament in such a quick tempo sounds very sharp and dramatic. The second option, appoggiatura sixteenth-notes, creates a smoother, more elegant effect. If we consider the important emergence of the galant style in Spain during the mid-eighteenth century, this more Classical rendering may also be considered a

63 53 reasonable stylistic choice. Taking into account that ornaments and rhythms were varied in repeats of the sections, a performer may choose to make use of both of the abovementioned interpretational choices. Jota Aragonesa Soler often changes the rhythmical patterns in this sonata, combining the common rhythmical structure of the jota, quarter note to eighth note, with the reverse order of the pattern; the eighth note to quarter note. Salient cases of this change of the patterns can be seen in mm. 38, 102, 103, and 115. The different rhythmical patterns in mm. 55 and 121 are possibly copyists mistakes. Most likely Soler intended to use the rhythmical pattern in m. 55 identical to that in m Such sudden changes in rhythmical patterns should not be missed by the performer, as they usually symbolize the different and sudden changes in the steps of the dance. There is a broad division between the jota of upper Aragon, which is lighter, livelier and faster in tempo (the dancers touch the ground only with their toes), and the jota of lower Aragon, which is slower and has fewer leaps. In my opinion, this sonata with its lively allegro tempo marking corresponds to the jota of the upper Aragon, which is danced by a couple or several couples. 100 Gilbert Chase describes the costumes of the dancers and the steps of the dance in a rather picturesque manner: The girl wears the full peasant skirt, and over the upper part of her body she wraps a large shawl; the figure is completely concealed. The man wears a waistcoat and black breeches laced at the knee, with a broad, bright-colored sash around his waist and a headdress of vivid hue. His stockings and shirt are white. For both, the footwear is the alpargata, cord-soled sandals tied on with black laces.... Speed, emphasized by abrupt pauses in which the dancers hold 100 Arcadio de Larrea Palacin. Oxford Music Online, Grove Dictionary online. Traditional and Popular Music in Spain.

64 54 themselves immobile for a couple of measures, is the very essence of the jota. Strongly executed pirouettes and turns are frequent. Facing each other, with castanets held out at arm s length, the dancers swing outward first one leg and then the other. In one figure the girl sits on the ground playing her castanets while the man pirouettes around her. In another they kneel down on one knee opposite each other, and alternately bump the ground with left and right knee, keeping rhythmic count The jota was once danced during burial ceremonies; however, this custom has changed over times. The content of the song is quite diverse, from patriotism and religion to sexual exploits. Jotilla (little Jota) in Andalusia is danced to celebrate the end of the olive harvest. Knowing and taking into consideration the historical context, instrumentation and other stylistic characteristics of the jota will make the performance of this wonderful sonata bright and colorful. Sonata M.9 In D Major The Formal Structure This sonata is written in a binary form. Both the A and the B sections contain two sections that are contrasting in their character, and could be interpreted as slow and fast sections. The slow sections in the A and the B sections are divided into three subsections, whereas the fast sections consist of two subsections. The form of this sonata reflects elements of two traditional Spanish dance types, the Paseo, and the Catalan dance Sardana. The slow parts of the A and B sections stylistically correspond to the paseo, which is a slow and an elegant promenade that serves as an introduction to the 101 Chase, Gilbert. The Music of Spain Dover Publications, New York,

65 55 dance. The faster sections suggest elements of the quicker and livelier circle dance Sardana. The following table demonstrates the formal structure of the piece: Table 6. Formal structure: A Section mm.1-63 Paseo B section mm Paseo mm.1-21 mm mm mm mm mm Sardana Sardana mm mm mm mm The Thematic and Harmonic Structure The first subsection of the Paseo of the A section, (mm. 1-21) starts on the tonic, with a head motive that is repeated immediately an octave higher. After the repetition of the head motive, the subsection continues through a chain of modulations in which Soler briefly tonicizes A major and then E major in the passage from m. 12 to the unison Bs in m. 21. Also, in this passage Soler demonstrates the use of a harmonic crescendo, a compositional tool discussed in Chapter Two. In order to create this effect, Soler gradually shortens the rhythmic values of the melody in the right hand, and the harmonic changes in the left-hand accompaniment become quicker towards the end of the passage.

66 56 Also of note in this passage is the long series of sigh figures which chart a long ascent from F-sharp in m. 12 to the high B in m. 20. Example 16. Sonata M.9 in D Major, mm The subsection ends with unison Bs (m. 21) which represents a half cadence in the key of E major or E minor. Soler established the key of E major in mm , but introduces a C natural in m. 20 (which most likely continues in m. 21 as the upper auxiliary note of the trill). With the C natural, Soler implies the parallel minor key, E minor, to which he shifts in the next phrase. Soler s exploration of parallel major and minor keys is an important facet of the compositional styles of later composers such as Mozart, Beethoven, and Schubert as well as that of his teacher, Scarlatti. The following subsection (mm ) contains two phrases, the second being an extended version of the first. The first phrase (mm ) starts on the dominant of E Minor and progresses towards its tonic 6/5 chord. The second phrase in m. 26 also starts on the dominant chord and echoing the melodic material of the first phrase goes through

67 57 the tonic 6/5 chord. However, it further develops that melodic material and finishes the subsection on the E dominant chord in m. 31. It is interesting to note that the main melodic notes in the initial phrase are: F#-B- A-(D#)-F-#-E. Since we are in the key of E minor at this point, we can say that Soler has neglected the third scale degree, G. In the extended version of the phrase, Soler creates an even longer descending scale in mm , and finally brings in a G# in the melody: E-D-C-B-A-(B-A)-G#-F#-E. The G#, introduced first in the accompaniment in m. 29, moves us away from E minor to A minor. There are many instances of Viennese classical composers and Romantic composers intensifying the appearance of a pitch by first avoiding it. It is exciting to note that this compositional device was used by Soler. The third subsection of the Paseo of the A section is from mm It starts on the tonic of the new key of A minor and stays in this key until its end. Similarly to the previous two subsections, this subsection consists of two phrases. The first phrase is from mm , and the second phrase from mm The harmonic structure of this subsection is fairly simple, consisting mainly of tonic and dominant harmonies. However, the ending of the subsection is highly unusual. The unresolved dominant harmony in m. 46 follows with a rest under a fermata in the next measure. Example 17. Sonata M.9 in D Major, mm

68 58 This type of sudden ending is associated with the Bien Parado step present in many of Spanish Dances. Bien Parado, which literally means well stopped, concludes a dance or a section of a dance. It provides one of the sudden transitions and striking attitudes that are so characteristic of Spanish dancing. Gilbert Chase describes the step: In the bien parado the dancer makes a sudden stop, assumes a motionless pose, placing one leg slightly forward, bent at the knee and turned outward, the body somewhat twisted and thrown back upon the support of the leg, while one arm is held arched over the head and the other is crossed in front of the chest. When this figure is skillfully executed, the spectators cry out Bien Parado! 102 After the fermata, the new section with a completely new character starts with the pick-up sixteenth-note in m. 47. The first subsection of the Sardana (mm ) starts on the tonic of A Major, the parallel major of the key of the previous section, A minor. Similarly to the following subsection (mm ) this subsection also consists of two identical phrases. The entire section of the Sardana has a very simple harmonic structure; a mere alternation between the tonic and dominant harmonies and a confirmation of the tonic at the end of the section (mm ) The first subsection of the Paseo in the B section (mm ) starts in the key in which the previous section ended, A Major. However, in m. 68 Soler introduces a diminished seventh chord, which signals the start of a modulation to B minor. From mm Soler introduces a sequence that modulates through secondary dominant harmonies, descending stepwise from B minor (mm ) to A Major (mm.74-76) and finally to G Major (mm ) After a rather jarring harmonic progression in m. 69 (a G major chord to B half-diminished seventh chord,) Soler finishes the subsection with a Phrygian cadence to an E major chord in mm Chase, Gilbert. The Music of Spain Dover Publications, New York,

69 59 The next subsection is from mm and starts on the dominant of A Minor. This subsection, as well as the following subsection (mm ) in its harmonic and melodic construction is nearly identical to those in the A section except that they are transposed up a perfect fourth. As many composers do in the recapitulations of mature Classical sonatas, Soler brings the repetition of the sub-phrase from mm down an octave. This affords the performer a good opportunity to explore the darker placement of the theme. Similarly, the Paseo section ends with the Bien Parado step in measure 106, giving way to the Sardana, which is again virtually identical in its material to the one in the A section, except that it appears now in the home key of D Major. Each subsection consists of two phrases, except the first subsection of the A section (mm. 1-21). That subsection has the extra phrase, which serves as a modulatory bridge (mm ). Furthermore, each thematic phrase in this sonata is echoed in its melodic material, except the second phrase of the first subsection in the B section (mm.71-80). After the statement of the head motive in mm , there is a modulatory bridge phrase from mm Because there is a repetition of the head motive in the A section and not in the B section, the opening section of the A is longer (21 measures) than the opening section of the B section of the sonata (16 measures.) The following chart demonstrates the measure groupings of the opening sections of the A and B sections. Table 7. Measure groupings between the sections: A Section B Section

70 60 Spanish Characteristics and Performance Suggestions Elements of Spanish music are found throughout this sonata. In the second and third subsections in both the A and B sections (mm 22-31, 32-47, 81-90, ), there are salient examples of Soler s stylistic use of two important facets of Flamenco, cante jondo (deep song), and pulgado, a guitar technique in which the strings are plucked with the thumb to produce a strong sound that separates the specific notes or voices in the overall texture. 103 Characteristic of cante jondo, the typical Flamenco style of Andalusian songs of lament, love, passion and sadness, the melodies of these subsections employ descending diatonic gestures (mm. 30, 38, 89, 97). Since cante hondo often also refers to a very expressive vocal timbre, the thirty-two notes of the melody should be played in a tenuto manner (not too fast) and very expressively. This will also help to create a bigger contrast between the first subsection in D Major and this subsection, which is in E Minor in the A section and A Minor in the B section. To create this expressive color, I do not start the first statement of the phrase in mp as suggested by Marvin in mm. 32 and 81. Instead, I play these phrases statements louder, with a legato touch and molto espressivo timbre the first time. While maintaining the same touch and timbre, I play the repetition of these phrases softer and more delicately. Since inflections in the form of accenting or descending appoggiaturas are typical to this style of singing and are used to accentuate certain notes in the melody, I add appoggiaturas on the first notes of mm. 33, 34, 40, 41, 92, 93, , and 101. In mm , 43-45, 94-96, and Soler imitates the Pulgado guitar technique, in which the guitarist pulls sharply on a string in order to create a strong emphasis on a note, often with the aim of creating an additional line in the texture. In 103 Pena, Paco. Flamenco Guitar in The Guitar: A Guide for Students And Teachers. Complied And Edited By Michael Stempson. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press,

71 61 these passages, Soler double stems the notes and creates a pedal point over each group of three measures. The pianist, by playing those eighth-notes in a portamento style, will emphasize the pseudo-polyphonic texture, and thus imitate the sound produced by this guitar technique. Example 18. Sonata M.9 in D Major, mm A further refinement for the execution of the above-mentioned eighth notes would be to imitate a guitar technique called apagado, 104 which is often used to produce a muffled sound, comparable to that of the piano when the damper pedal is used. I recommend this effect in the repetition of the passage to create an echo effect. In the previous subsection, the modulatory bridge in mm , represents a harmonic crescendo, as mentioned earlier. If we consider that this piece may have been performed on the harpsichord, then this type of compositional device was one of the means to make a seeming crescendo with the help of a written-out rhythmic accelerando. As a performer of these sonatas on the modern piano, I still perform a crescendo in this 104 Pena, Paco. Flamenco Guitar in The Guitar: A Guide for Students And Teachers. Compiled and edited by Michael Stempson. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press,

72 62 passage and strengthen this effect with a slight accelerando and the use of the sustaining pedal on each of the new harmonies. Breaking some of the chords in arpeggios in the left hand and adding trills that gradually become longer in the right hand intensifies this effect. The trills can be put on each eighth-note in mm in the right hand, and then following the motivic trend, the trills are executed on the first sixteenth-notes of the beats in mm To heighten the sense of arrival at in m. 21, I trill for a relatively long time and linger on the final note of the trill for a little while as well. I breathe at the end of the fermata, just before I start the next phrase in m. 22, in order to intensify the heartbreaking cante jondo style. Similarly, where I envision the bien parado step in mm. 47 and 106, I would suggest holding the fermata in a dramatic and purposeful way. The entrance of the Sardana dance in mm. 48 and 107 should act as a spirited relief of the built-up tension. The sardana is a traditional Catalan dance, which has been popular since the seventeenth century and still represents a symbol of their national identity. In the words of Enric Morera, a Catalan composer, The Sardana is a dance, a Hymn, a Song, it is Catalonia! 105 The sardana is a circle dance executed by a large group of men and women who hold hands and turn first to the right then to the left, at the same time executing fairly simple steps: two steps to the right, two steps to the left, and then four steps to the right, followed by four steps to the left. In the first section the dancers hold their hands down, and in the second section they hold their hands up. These steps can be varied by pointing the toes before each step is taken. The group of musicians who play for the sardana is called the cobla. It consists of eleven musicians, nine of whom play the wind instruments, one plays the bass, and the most important member of the cobla plays both the tamburi (a small drum attached to his elbow) and the fluviol (a three-holed 105 Chase, Gilbert. The Music of Spain Dover Publications, New York,

73 63 pipe). He not only announces the beginning of the dance but also keeps the time with the unvarying beats of his drum taps. 106 The musical structure of the dance section of this sonata (mm and ) corresponds to the harmonic and rhythmic structure of the sardana. This Catalonian dance is depicted in one of the sculptured walls of the Montserrat Monastery, dating from the fifteenth century. 107 Soler s native Catalonia, located in the northeast part of Spain, did not undergo the intensive Muslim and Byzantine influences that were experienced in southern Spain, and in particular in Andalusia. Harmonically, this section of the sonata also reflects the least oriental inflections. It sounds more traditionally European to the ear with its mostly tonic and dominant harmonic structure. While sardanas are generally in a 6/8 meter, and the meter of this sonata is 2/4, Soler introduces many triplet sixteenth notes throughout this passage, suggesting a compound metrical feel. It is interesting to note that there is not a single triplet in this sonata except in these passages. The performer can emphasize the sardana characteristic by establishing and keeping the tempo very firmly from the beginning of the section, thus creating a stylistic contrast with the fairly free, rubato style of the paseo section, and imitate the pipe-like sonorities that are reflected throughout the section. Although there is no indication of a new tempo, Marvin indicates the return to the B section (m. 65) with a tempo primo mark, thus implying that the previous section (mm ) should be performed in a different tempo. 106 Chase, Gilbert. The Music of Spain Dover Publications, New York, Ibid.

74 64 Missing Indications and Editorial Remarks For the reasons presented in the discussion above, I believe that there are missing tempo indications in mm. 48 and 106. I would like to mention several other possible problems present in the score of this sonata, possibly due to copyists mistakes. One of them is at the very beginning of the sonata. The left hand plays a D octave quarter note in the first measure, which is absent in the repetition of the phrase in m. 7. The left hand staff curiously has no indication of a rest either. In its parallel passage, in m. 65, the tonic bass chord is again absent, thus putting the relevance of the quarter note in the left hand in the first measure in doubt. Since that chord is absent in all the parallel passages, in my performances of this sonata, I prefer to omit the chord in the first measure as well. Starting only with the right-hand melody gives this passage a feeling of delicateness, which is emphasized by Marvin s dynamic suggestion of piano. I agree with most of the editorial suggestions made by Marvin. However, I will have to respectfully disagree with his suggestion of slowing down in mm. 46 and 105. The effect of what I believe to be a Bien Parado (sudden stop) step in Spanish dance in the following measures will be more dramatic without a preceding ritenuto. Sonata M21 In G Minor The Form and Harmonic Structure The form of the sonata M21 in G minor is a rondo. The sections of the sonata are clearly delineated in the score by both meter and tempo or character indications. The sections may be summarized as follows:

75 65 Table 8. Formal structure: Sections A B A B C A B A B A Measure numbers In the chart above, A refers to fast sections, marked either prestissimo or allegro in the score and B refers to the contrasting slower sections, marked cantabile in the score. The prestissimo section consists of four subsections. Each of these sections is used to create the four returns of the A section (A, A, A, and the coda A ). The first subsection is from mm. 1 to 7 and is based on alternating tonic and dominant harmonies. In the second subsection (mm.8-13) Soler introduces descending thirds in the inner line of the right hand and parallel octaves in the left hand. In this subsection, Soler also uses alternations of the harmonic and natural minor scales within one measure. Example 19. Sonata M.21 in G Minor, mm This coloristic use of two forms of the minor scale in conjunction with the guitarlike texture of the section, and the soprano pedal point, create a Spanish flavor. The third

76 66 subsection, a modulatory bridge, is from mm. 14 to 18. It starts on the dominant of G minor and modulates to C major. This modulation is achieved by following the fourth rule of Soler s Quick Modulations, stepwise motion between the moving lines. Soler relies on secondary dominants, particularly, on a pivot chord, (the second beat of m.15) to modulate from the key of G minor, through the key of F Major, and finally to the key of C major. Example 20. Sonata M.21 in G Minor, mm The fourth subsection (mm ) comprises of two transpositions of the first three measures of the second subsection (m. 8 to the downbeat of m. 11.) The material from m. 18 to the downbeat of m. 21, in the key of C major, is an exact transposition (down a perfect fifth) of the material from m. 8 to the downbeat of m. 11. The material from m. 21 to the downbeat of m. 24, in the key of F major, is also a transposition of the material from m. 8 to the downbeat of m. 11, but Soler changes the left hand part by incorporating the textural pattern of the left hand part of m. 11 to the downbeat of m. 13. The harmonic function of the two transpositions is the same as that of the original material in mm. 8-11: IV-I-ii-I. Soler uses the F pedals in the soprano and alto voices in mm to introduce the first cantabile B Section (mm ) which is a long F dominant prolongation in the key of B Major. This modulation is achieved by following the first and second rules of

77 67 Soler s Quick Modulations : the use of a common note or a chord between the two keys, and the arrival at the dominant of the new key. In the A section, (mm ) Soler uses the material of the fourth subsection (mm.18-23). In the A section, (mm ), Soler develops and extends the material of the third subsection (mm ) by augmentation of its descending sequence of secondary dominants. The following chart demonstrates the scheme of the modulation and the augmentation of the sequence in the third subsection of the A section and the A section of the sonata: Table 9. Scheme of modulation and augmentation of the sequence: Measure 14 Measure 14 Measure 14 Measure 15 Measure 15 Measure 15 Beat 1+ beat 2 beat 2+ beat 1 beat 1+ beat 2 Measure 47 Measure 48 Measure 49 Measure 50 Measure 51 Measure 52 G7 C F7 B E a0 (diminished) Soler closes the A section (mm ) with a nearly exact repetition of the second subsection of the A section (mm. 8-13). The following A section (mm.72-77) is also based on the second subsection. The coda (mm.84-91), section A, is in the main key of the sonata, G minor. Soler uses the same melodic pattern as the opening of the

78 68 sonata: two turn figures around the pitch G followed by three alternations of pitches G and F. However, in the coda Soler re-harmonizes the turn figures; the tonic and dominant harmonies of the opening of the piece are replaced by a progression which includes a subdominant-functioning chord: i-ii dim.-i 6/4-V. After four measures of alternating between tonic and dominant chords, the sonata finishes with a unison G without specifying the mode. The first two appearances of the cantabile sections (mm and 36-41) are identical in their musical material. These sections are in the key of B major, but the tonic chord appears only close to the end of the sections, on the second beats of mm. 27 and 39. The B sections end harmonically unresolved on a dominant F7 chord. At the end of the first B section (m. 29), the dominant F7 chord is reinterpreted as the tonic in the following Allegro sections. The first phrase of the Cadenza C section (mm42-43) begins in the key of B major. However, our visit to the key is short-lived because Soler tonicizes F major in m. 43. The second phrase of the cadenza starts in C major (m. 44), which in measure 45 moves to a D dominant seventh chord of G major. The first chord of the second phrase (m44) acts also as a pivot chord since not only is it the dominant of F major, but it is also the subdominant of G Major. Hence, through this pivot chord the modulation takes the key of the section from F major to G major (the parallel major of the main key) where the following Allegro section begins. This key is prepared by the modulation mentioned above and is also anticipated by the use of the note B (the second beat of m. 46.) The following chart expresses the sequential relationships in mm

79 69 Table 10.Sequential Relationship: Harmonies B Major-C Dominant-F Major C Major- D-Dominant- G Major Measure numbers The third and fourth B sections (mm and 78-83) are also identical in their musical material, and both are on the dominant of the main key of G Minor. In these sections Soler uses all three variants of the minor scale. He uses the ascending melodic minor scale in mm. 68 and 80 raised VI and VII scale degrees: B, C, E ). He uses the harmonic and natural minor scales within one measure, which adds to the Spanish feel. Example 21. Sonata M.21 in G Minor, m