TEXT ANALYSIS COURSE 4 TEXT ANALYSIS COURSE 4: RHETORICAL DEVICES AND THEIR EFFECT

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1 TEXT ANALYSIS COURSE 4 TEXT ANALYSIS COURSE 4: RHETORICAL DEVICES AND THEIR EFFECT The effect of a text is the sum of its parts. Some of these parts are the words the writer chooses to use, as we have seen in the preceding Text Analysis Courses. In this course we will look into a few rhetorical devices and their effect. Rhetoric is language used to make a persuasive or impressive effect. A rhetorical device is a language technique a writer or speaker uses to convey meaning with the aim of persuading or possibly provoking the reader/audience. Rhetorical device: Repetition Repetition of words or phrases is often used in speeches and texts with the purpose of persuading the listener or reader. The effect of repetition is that it reinforces the message. Repetition of a word or phrase makes it easier to be moved by what the writer/speaker is saying as it adds emphasis, unity and dramatic effect to what otherwise might be a simple sentence. For example, in a debate about taxes, someone might argue: their feet, we ll lose good roads, good water, good health care, good care of the elderly, good police, good education, good society. The repetition of the verb let s expressess the writer s exasperation with the idea of not paying taxes, as it sounds like the relentless nagging of a child ( Let s play, let s ). This also underscores how silly and childish the writer feels this idea is. By repeating we ll lose several times, the writer dramatically underlines the enormity of the loss of pubic services that are paid for through taxes. The use of the personal pronoun we ll is inclusive, making the loss everyone s loss. The repetition of the adjective good emphasises the understanding that a drop in taxes will reduce the quality of the services. The listing of the services then provides concrete examples of why taxes are important and ends with the umbrella term good society. Two variants of repetition in texts Anaphora is the repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses. It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of Light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair. We often mutter about big government and taxes. Okay, let s drop taxes, let s keep all our money and let s go on a great orgy of private consumption. But what is the real price? We ll lose good schools, we ll lose social programmes that help put the needy back on The repetitive structure here sets up a series of contrasts that depict the chaotic nature of the world described in the novel A Tale of Two Cities by Charles Dickens. Tricolon refers to a series of three words, phrases or clauses anywhere in a text that are parallel in structure, length and rhythm, creating a powerful impression that enhances the message of the text. In his speech at the 360 TEXT ANALYSIS COURSE 4

2 analysis it is important to judge whether it creates the effect the writer intended. Understatement is a form of irony (see p. 258) where something is intentionally represented as less than it is. As with overstatement, understatement is a rhetorical device which can emphasise a point and make the reader identify with the text, especially if it succeeds in being witty or entertaining. Illustration from A Tale of Two Cities by Charles Dickens memorial service for Nelson Mandela, then American President Barack Obama said: Let us search for his largeness of spirit somewhere inside of ourselves. And when the night grows dark, when injustice weighs heavy on our hearts, when our best-laid plans seem beyond our reach, let us think of Madiba The tricolon when the night, when injustice, when our best gives a cumulative effect in the depiction of the injustice Mandela faced and conquered in his life. In other words, it paints a picture of just how hard Nelson Mandela s struggles were by adding one hardship after another, making a list of hardships, the effect of which is enhanced by the repetition of when. Rhetorical devices: Overstatement and understatement Overstatement, or hyperbole, means using exaggeration to create emphasis. For example, before the days of the laptop, students would often innocently look at their English teachers and say: I didn t bring my dictionary because it weighs a ton! Too much overstatement in a text can quickly turn it into a parody, so in an Sentence structure A text can use both simple and complex sentences to create effect. Here is an example: William sat up slowly in his bed, stretched, yawned and eventually put his feet to the floor, and still stretching, he got up and padded cross the carpet to the mirror, took a long look at the stubble on his face and slowly began to think about the day ahead. Then it hit him. The dentist. Darn. Lightning bolt. Damn. He d forgotten. No time for a shower now. The first long sentence reflects the lazy start to the day that William seems to be enjoying, with the adverb slowly and the verbs stretching and yawning adding to the lazy feel of the sentence. But then he remembers he has a dentist s appointment. The realisation is marked by a short sentence of four words and the tempo picks up to reflect how frantic he suddenly becomes. The sentence structure emphasises William s sudden haste. Complex sentence structure is in general a feature of objective, formal texts. Sentences in the passive voice (see p. 356) fit this pattern as well because, as we have seen, they create more distance between the text and the reader: All the plans for the important campaign are being made by the activist. TEXT ANALYSIS COURSE 4 361

3 The purpose of most informal texts communication of personal thoughts and feelings is more suited to simpler, shorter sentences, and to the active voice, which focuses on what the subject does: The activist is making all the plans for the important campaign. Rhetorical device: Contrast Contrast is used to mark the difference between two things or ideas. In creating contrast, the writer can highlight and emphasise his or her message and identify differences between two subjects, places, persons, things or ideas. A term often used in this connection is juxtaposition, where two things are placed side by side to develop comparisons and contrasts. Rhetorical questions Rhetorical questions express an opinion by posing a question. The answer to a rhetorical question is obvious; the purpose is to create emphasis. A common example is Can t we do anything right? In a speech on gun violence, an advocate of gun control might pose rhetorical questions that leave little room for disagreement: The statistics prove that many Americans are dying on our streets. Is this the kind of country we want? How many mothers must mourn the loss of their sons before we say enough? Rhetorical appeal forms: Ethos, logos and pathos The purpose of texts is often to influence the reader, for example to take a particular stand on a political issue or to buy the latest car model. To further the appeal of a text, writers often make use of one or more of the following techniques: Ethos means convincing the reader of the credibility or authority of the writer. For example, if a critic writes: In my thirty years of covering the cinema I have never seen a better film than., he has established his authority as an experienced film critic before continuing with his review. Other examples of building ethos in a text include establishing trustworthiness where the writer/speaker gives direct reasons why he or she can be trusted. Another way is to make it possible for the readers/audience to identify with the writer/speaker who could use shared experiences as support. Using quotations from trustworthy sources and examples that resonate with the readers/audience are other examples of effective use of ethos. Pathos is the writer s appeal to the reader s emotions, in other words the writer tries to create an emotional response in the reader. A writer may say, The time to act is now and if you don t you will regret it for the rest of your life. Two emotions are appealed to here: first, a sense of urgency to act and second, regret due to not acting. To achieve effective pathos in their texts, writers often use poetic language, stories of personal experiences or humour. A text high on pathos may be very expressive (see p. 370), using literary devices and adjectives. Logos is the appeal to logic; the writer tries to convince the reader through facts and reasoning. A statement such as The data on the melting and receding glaciers are clear and indisputable would be supported by the use of statistics and graphs to prove what otherwise might just be taken as an opinion. 362 TEXT ANALYSIS COURSE 4

4 TASKS 1 What effect is achieved by the use of rhetorical questions in the texts below? a In your letter you asked if you could go on a biking trip to Lofoten in December. You didn t possibly think I would say yes to that, did you? Is this supposed to be some kind of a joke? b Many senior citizens who have struggled all their lives to make a decent living and contribute to society often ask the same question: What s the matter with kids today? c d In some countries female singers are caged like flightless birds, not allowed to perform alone on stage. Can the modern world really accept such alienating attitudes? Is the world a better place when half the population is not allowed the same rights and opportunities as others? Poverty can be abolished. How long can we look the other way when people are suffering? 2 Analyse the effect created by language choices in each sentence below. a Michael wanted to drop out of society, which he felt was suffocating, but he could never escape the irritatingly intrusive interest of others. b The clock ticked incessantly and its eerie, echoing sound reverberated madly in his head, ticking and ticking and ticking; would he never sleep again? c When the crowd railed, raged and roared for his immediate execution, John found the jail cell a calming silent sanctuary, not the confining cage d e other prisoners would see, for he felt a soothing sense of protection when he was safely situated behind those bars. The tired priest dragged the cross from his pocket and numbly prepared to give Charles, the oldest and most unrepentant sinner in the long, sad and dismal history of his flock, his reluctant blessing. Detective Boyle had seen the type before, and he knew them all: scruffy, furtive, dirty, unkempt and dangerous, the Beasley brothers were not for public consumption. The Beasley brothers TEXT ANALYSIS COURSE 4 363

5 3 Analyse the sentences below. State what rhetorical device is being used and what effect it has in the sentence. a You are so far away that I want to run, to swim, to fly, to get to you. b He walked so slowly he was practically moving backwards. c We shall face the enemy in the day; we shall stalk him in the night; we shall fight to our last breath; we shall prevail. d Democracy is about liberty, opportunity and hope. e One day she says I ve done all right, the next day she says I m a mess. I don t know which way to turn; it s like day and night with her. f Every gun that is made. Every child that is lost. Every meaningless death. Every tragedy. g It s so cold, I m sure hell will freeze over. h I ask you to think of the results of poverty: the groaning stomach, the restless soul, the desperate mind. i Tell me and I forget. Teach me and I may remember. Involve me and I will learn Benjamin Franklin throwing off smoke that can make the air inside your home far more toxic than that breathed in an industrial city. You may lack access to vaccines and modern drugs because the nearest hospital doesn t have regular power to keep the medicine refrigerated. You might be desperately poor and the lack of electricity helps to ensure that you ll stay that way. What hope is there? What future do you have? 5+ Work in groups of four. Turn to the speech by Emma Watson entitled Gender Equality Is Your Issue Too (p. 186). Split the speech into four parts. Analyse your assigned section on your own, looking for language features and rhetorical devices. Present your section to the others in your group. Help each other to point out anything else that you think could have been mentioned. 4+ Analyse the text below. What is the writer trying to achieve? How does she use language features and rhetorical devices to create effect? About 1.3 billion people don t have electricity. What is life like if you don t have electricity, as is the case for about 1.3 billion people on this planet? It s excruciatingly boring, for one thing no television, no MP3 player, no video games. And it s desperately lonely and disconnected as well no computer, no internet, no phone. OMG! Who can survive in such an environment? But you have absolutely no choice. You can read books, of course but at night you won t have light, other than the faint flicker of firewood. And about that firewood you, or someone in your family, have to gather it during the day, taking you away from more productive work or schooling, and in some parts of the world exposing you to danger, even lethal danger. That same firewood is used to cook dinner, Emma Watson 364 TEXT ANALYSIS COURSE 4