The Early History of Asynchronous Circuits and Systems
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1 The Early History of Asynchronous Circuits and Systems Charles L. Seitz, Ph.D. President & CEO of Myricom, Inc. Async 2009 UNC Chapel Hill 1
2 My many debts to Ivan E. Sutherland Ivan Sutherland invited me to give this talk, and suggested the topic I have had several wonderful mentors in my career, none more significant in their influence on me than Ivan Ivan has been a senior colleague and friend since we met in the summer 1966 at MIT Lincoln Laboratory. We have worked together off and on ever since Harvard, Evans & Sutherland Computer Corporation, Caltech, Ivan's answer to many requests for guidance through the years has been: "Something old, something new, something borrowed, something blue." and I ll try to follow some of that advice today. 2
3 The 1950s: The Dawn of Switching Theory Mathematical techniques started catching up with what practical logic designers had been doing. Time-discrete network models such as McColloch-Pitts Neurons (1943-). In 1956 Kleene showed the correspondence between these finite automata and regular sets (i.e., regular expressions) thus making a connection between switching and automata theory and the adjacent field of formal languages. Finite-state machines David A. Huffman: The Synthesis of Sequential Switching Circuits (1953, MIT) -- Asynchronous George H. Mealy: A Method for Synthesizing Sequential Circuits (1955, Bell Labs) -- Synchronous Edward F. Moore: Gedanken-experiments on Sequential Machines (1956) -- Synchronous 3
4 The View from 1960 (~50 years ago) Finite-state machines were the model Shown equivalent in capabilities to regular expressions Canonical. No theoretical issues about equivalence Extensive body of theory Design of Asynchronous Sequential Circuits Regarded as a solved problem (Huffman s synthesis techniques) Generalized assignments, etc. What more could there be to do? x y Combinational Logic Y z 4
5 Speed-Independent Circuits In addition to Huffman circuits, there were also the speedindependent circuits of David Muller ( ) Stephen H. Unger, in his 1969 book, Asynchronous Sequential Switching Circuits, writes in one section: "The concept of speed-independent circuits, in which completion signals obviate the need for worst case designs based on estimates of maximum internal delays, was first introduced by Muller and his associates [refs]. These sources deal principally with autonomous circuits, do not present general synthesis techniques, and are not easy to read." 5
6 An aside about David A. Huffman I knew him quite well both at MIT and later at UC Santa Cruz A key figure in a series of education meetings I organized for IFIPS Endless interests Computational origami kept rattlesnakes as pets David A. Huffman in the mid-1990s 6
7 Nevertheless There are serious limitations of Huffman synthesis of asynchronous sequential machines Single input changes only no concurrent input changes No explicit representation of domain constraints (the behavior of the environment in which the circuit operates) essential for designing circuits that generate completion signals Complex rules about races and hazards Useful only for design in the small finite-state models are often impractical for the design of digital systems of more than "textbook example" complexity. The number of items required to specify a finite-state machine grows as the product of the number of states (exponential with the number of state bits) and the number of input combinations (exponential with the number of input signals). This limitation applies also to synchronous state machines. 7
8 8 A simple example of Huffman Synthesis ab Primitive flow table: ns, c ab C a b c Merged flow table: ns, c M a b c
9 How I would represent a C element after I met Anatol W. Holt in 1967 a c a c b b or, depending on taste, you could equivalently represent the C element with a set of production rules The marked graph above happens to be conflict-free, no cases of: 9
10 How I would represent a C element after I met Anatol W. Holt in 1967 a c a c b b or, depending on taste, you could equivalently represent the C element with a set of production rules The marked graph above happens to be conflict-free, no cases of: 10
11 How I would represent a C element after I met Anatol W. Holt in 1967 a c a c b b or, depending on taste, you could equivalently represent the C element with a set of production rules The marked graph above happens to be conflict-free, no cases of: 11
12 How I would represent a C element after I met Anatol W. Holt in 1967 a c a c b b or, depending on taste, you could equivalently represent the C element with a set of production rules The marked graph above happens to be conflict-free, no cases of: 12
13 How I would represent a C element after I met Anatol W. Holt in 1967 a c a c b b or, depending on taste, you could equivalently represent the C element with a set of production rules The marked graph above happens to be conflict-free, no cases of: 13
14 How I would represent a C element after I met Anatol W. Holt in 1967 a c a c b b or, depending on taste, you could equivalently represent the C element with a set of production rules The marked graph above happens to be conflict-free, no cases of: 14
15 How I would represent a C element after I met Anatol W. Holt in 1967 a c a c b b or, depending on taste, you could equivalently represent the C element with a set of production rules The marked graph above happens to be conflict-free, no cases of: 15
16 Just for fun 16
17 The view from 1970 (~40 years ago) Blossoming of interest in concurrency Anatol Holt s events and conditions theory Asynchrony was assumed a part of concurrent systems Computational schemata Partial orderings of computations (such as WSJ networks) Request/acknowledge signaling; completion signals; The Macromodule project at Washington University Elegant! (Wesley Clark and Charlie Molnar) MSI level blocks, separate control and data cables Operators stacked over registers, 12 bits, 24 bits, 36 bits, Similar to graphical programming (WSJ networks) At MIT, Jack B. Dennis taught in his classes that future computers would be asynchronous and exploit concurrency. 17
18 Jack Dennis s Woods Hole meeting (1970) Available as a pdf download from portal.acm.org 18
19 Jack Dennis s Foreword 19
20 Woods Hole contents, part 1 20
21 Woods Hole contents, part 2 21
22 Woods Hole participants 22
23 Design in the Large Practical designers were by 1970 doing large-scale asynchronous designs in spite of the lack of theory and mathematical models. Computational schemata offered Quasi-formal designs and documentation Some ties to analysis Some ties to (distributed and concurrent) programming Modular design Macromodules at Washington University, St. Louis Jack Dennis s modular design project at MIT Modular (processors+memories+io) systems from companies 23
24 Synchronization Failure & Mutual-Exclusion Elements Also a view from 1970, +/- a few years Getting the word out 24
25 From my Jan-1971 PhD Thesis (1) 25
26 From my Jan-1971 PhD Thesis (2) 26
27 Similar picture from Cheney & Molnar
28 Cheney & Molnar 1973 As noted, this paper followed the April-1972 Workshop on Synchronizer Failures (Bromwoods, outside St. Louis) 28
29 More figures from Cheney & Molnar 1973 The switching behavior of ECL, used in Macromodules, is similar to that of CMOS. 29
30 Who discovered synchronization failure? 1965 published paper by Ivor Catt Incorrect in a few details, and widely disputed Of course, this paper was largely ignored However, many other people knew about synchronization failure and metastability e.g., in , I heard David Wheeler give an elegant exposition at a symposium at the University of Newcastle 30
31 Of course, synchronization failure is now solved 31
32 Mutual Exclusion Elements I started making and testing ME elements from SSI and discrete components at MIT in 1968, and then at the University of Utah. ME elements on chips follow the same principles. The following figure is from chapter 7 in Mead & Conway, Introduction to VLSI Systems,
33 Pausible (Start/Stop) Clocks The Evans & Sutherland Line Drawing System 1 (LDS-1), somewhat a derivative of the Harvard 3D display system. First shipped 1968 (?) Host (PDP-6) Display Processor Matrix Multiplier Clipping Divider Line Generator Display Monitor Each computing unit in this graphics pipeline had its own start/stop clock, and the communication between the computing units used selftimed, asynchronous, request/acknowledge signaling (bundled data). Not done this way to be clever, but to solve clocking problems we encountered with the Harvard 3D display. Synchronize the clocks to the signals, not the signals to the clocks. 33
34 Chip version of the start/stop clock (Asymmetric delay) Exactly like the start/stop clocks in the E&S LDS-1 34
35 Self-timed Systems Why I coined the name (mid-1970s): Each system part keeps time to itself To me, asynchronous meant Huffman asynchronous sequential machines Calling something asynchronous is giving it a name that says what it isn t Meant as a framework for design in the large, encompassing GALS circuits with completion signals delays to model circuits data-dependent completion signals This broad discipline of design got a good reception during the years when I worked for Burroughs ( ) 35
36 The view from 1980 (~30 years ago) (I joined the Caltech CS faculty in the spring 1977) The hope, partly realized, that VLSI would release the stranglehold of synchronous design. Not stuck with building systems from synchronous LSI parts The first (1979) Caltech Conference on VLSI included a whole session on self-timed design Not necessarily by popular request. I organized this conference. Chapter 7 in Mead & Conway (1980) got quite a few people interested in self-timed and asynchronous design and aware of synchronization failure, The VLSI Architecture movement Microelectronics and Computer Science in Scientific American, 1977 (Sutherland and Mead) 36
37 Recent History In my period at Caltech, , I did research on concurrent architectures (including programming) and VLSI Design Multicomputers Message-passing concurrent computers People today refer to this style of multicomputer or cluster as using asynchronous message-passing. Practical self-timed VLSI: My students and I designed routing and communication chips (the low-hanging fruit) We left the hard designs, such as asynchronous processors, to others During the past 15 years, , I ve been working at Myricom, an innovative computer-networking company Yes, a lot of our chips use asynchronous techniques 37
38 An example of a Myri-10G switch 38
39 Thank you More questions? 39
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